sensors

Article
Identification of Vibration Events in Rotating Blades
Using a Fiber Optical Tip Timing Sensor
Dechao Ye * , Fajie Duan, Jiajia Jiang, Guangyue Niu, Zhibo Liu and Fangyi Li
State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072,
China; fjduan@tju.edu.cn (F.D.); jiajiajiang@tju.edu.cn (J.J.); niuguangyue@tju.edu.cn (G.N.);
liu_zhibo1990@163.com (Z.L.); lifangyi0424@163.com (F.L.)
* Correspondence: ydc0424@tju.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-02227890261




Received: 16 February 2019; Accepted: 24 March 2019; Published: 27 March 2019


Abstract: The blade tip timing (BTT) technique has been widely used in rotation machinery for
non-contact blade vibration measurements. As BTT data is under-sampled, it requires complicated
algorithms to reconstruct vibration parameters. Before reconstructing the vibration parameters,
the right data segment should first be extracted from the massive volumes of BTT data that include
noise from blade vibration events. This step requires manual intervention, is highly dependent on the
skill of the operator, and has also made it difficult to automate BTT technique applications. This article
proposes an included angle distribution (IAD) correlation method between adjacent revolutions
to identify blade vibration events automatically in real time. All included angles of the rotor
between any two adjacent blades were accurately detected by only one fiber optical tip timing sensor.
Three formulas for calculating IAD correlation were then proposed to identify three types of blade
vibration events: the blades’ overall vibrations, vibration of the adjacent two blades, and vibration
of a specific blade. Further, the IAD correlation method was optimized in the calculating process
to reduce computation load when identifying every blade’s vibration events. The presented IAD
correlation method could be used for embedded, real-time, and automatic processing applications.
Experimental results showed that the proposed method could identify all vibration events in rotating
blades, even small events which may be wrongly identified by skillful operators.

Keywords: blade tip timing; blade vibration measurement; identification of vibration events; Pearson
correlation coefficient; fiber optical tip timing sensor

1. Introduction
It is important to measure the vibration amplitude of rotating blades in rotational machinery in
real-time, which reflects the stress induced in the blades. Dynamic stress is crucial to assess machinery
operation state and to predict blade failures. The blade tip timing (BTT) technique, using non-intrusive
probes mounted on the engine casing to sense the “arrival time” of passing blades, has become one of
the most widely used methods for non-contact blade vibration measurements [1–5]. The BTT technique
has advantages over conventional strain gauge stress measuring methods, such as its non-intrusive
nature and capability for being used for long-term monitoring. However, the main drawback of the
BTT technique is under-sampling, which leads to frequency aliasing [6]. Different BTT data analysis
methods for reconstructing vibration parameters have been provided over the past decades [7–15].
For synchronous blade vibrations, the least squares sine fitting method is described to predict resonance
amplitude and frequency. The fast Fourier transform is often applied to analyze asynchronous blade
vibrations. However, the identification of the occurrence of blade vibration events should be carried
out before reconstructing vibration parameters, especially for long-term, real-time, and automatic

Sensors 2019, 19, 1482; doi:10.3390/s19071482 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 2 of 12

processing applications. An effective method for the identification of blade vibration events without
manual intervention will help the BTT technique gain broader applications in industrial automation.
Current approaches to identify blade vibration events from BTT data are threshold value triggering
or visual observation by skilled personnel. However, these may produce false identifications due to
noise signals or DC drift of data. They also may overlook vibration events which are too small to
observe. Rolls-Royce plc suggested an identification method in 2009 to calculate the correlation of the
displacement of different probes between current and previous revolutions. Different tip timing probes
observe the same “stack pattern” when there is no vibration event, while the “stack pattern” begins to
spread as a vibration event commences [16]. For data applied in the calculation of the correlation from
different probes, generally four or more, the identification will be more accurate with more probes.
However, the inconsistency of different probes could possibly affect the effectiveness of identification.
Besides this, the number of probes is strictly limited in actual applications, especially considering the
possible failure of probes in long-term monitoring applications.
This article proposes an included angle distribution (IAD) correlation method to identify blade
vibration events in actual applications using data from only one fiber optical tip timing sensor. It could
be very useful in cases with only one probe or not enough probes for long-term service. Inconsistencies
of different probes could not be taken into consideration. The IAD correlation method was used
to calculate the included angle distribution’s correlation between adjacent revolutions to identify
blade vibration events automatically. Three improved formulas for calculating IAD correlation
were suggested to identify three types of blade vibration events: the blades’ overall vibrations,
vibration of the adjacent two blades, and vibration of a specific blade. This article also focuses
on the aspect of computation load of the method when identifying every blade’s vibration events.
The calculating process was optimized to make it suitable for embedded, real-time, and automatic
processing applications. Once the vibration events were identified automatically, the following analysis
of blade vibration amplitude and frequency through model fitting could be conducted in real time
without manual intervention.

2. Methodology

2.1. BTT System Using Fiber Optical Tip Timing Sensor

Typical BTT system for non-contact blade vibration measurement consists of five parts: tip timing
sensors including a once-per-revolution (OPR) sensor, pre-amplifier, signal conditioning and triggering
module, data acquisition unit, and data analysis software (Figure 1). In general, the tip timing sensor
can use fiber optical, capacitance, microwave, or other types of sensors. The sensor senses the arriving
signal of passing blades and the preamplifier amplifies and converts it into a voltage output signal.
The voltage signal is conditioned and turned into a pulse at the moment of the “arrival time” in the
conditioning and triggering module. The arrival time of passing blades can then be acquired by timing
the rising edge of the pulse, as shown in Figure 2.
However, the BTT data obtained from the data acquisition unit is under-sampled. The sample
rate is equal to the rotor rotational speed. It is necessary to reconstruct the vibrations’ parameters
using model fitting algorithms, which were carried out in the data analysis software. Many model
fitting algorithms to reconstruct blade vibration information have been well established, though
this paper will not discuss those algorithms. However, those algorithms require appropriate and
correct input data—that is, they need to complete the identification of vibration events before model
fitting. This paper proposes the use of one tip timing sensor, in particular a fiber optical tip timing
sensor, to identify blade vibration events in a BTT system. The fiber optical sensor has advantages
of higher resolution, lower noise level, and faster response capability. It can sense smaller blade tip
vibration displacements than other types of sensors. The identification of blade events could be carried
out in a computer-based software or data acquisition unit for embedded, real-time, and automatic
processing applications.
 Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 13

Sensors
Sensors2019,
2019,19,
19,x1482
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3ofof13
12

Figure 1. The block diagram of a blade tip timing (BTT) system.

Figure 1. The block diagram of a blade tip timing (BTT) system.
Figure 1. The block diagram of a blade tip timing (BTT) system.

Figure2.2.Signal
Figure Signalprocessing
processingof
ofaaBTT
BTTsystem.
system.

The Figure 2. Signal processing of a BTT system.

Theoptical
opticalfiber
fibertip
tiptiming
timingsensor
sensorused
usedin inthis
thispaper
paperconsists
consistsof ofaatransmitting
transmittingfiber fiberin inthe
thecenter
center
of the
of theprobe
probe head
head and
andsix receiving
six receiving fibers around,
fibers around, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure2. The
2. probe
The head
probe is
head mounted
is mounted on
The optical fiber tip timing sensor used in this paper consists of a transmitting fiber in the center
the engine casing and transmits a beam of light from the laser source, sensing the reflected light when
ofon
thethe engine
probe casing
head andreceiving
and six transmitsfibers
a beam of light
around, as from
shown the
inlaser
Figuresource,
2. Thesensing the reflected
probe head is mounted light
the blade passes through. The fiber optical tip timing sensor’s sensing area on a blade is related to the
onwhen the blade
the engine casingpasses through. The
and transmits a beamfiberof optical
light fromtip the
timing
lasersensor’s
source, sensing
sensing theareareflected
on a blade lightis
core diameter
related and numerical aperture (NA) of the transmitting optical fiber. When the core diameter is
when thetoblade
the core diameter
passes and numerical
through. aperturetip
The fiber optical (NA) of the
timing transmitting
sensor’s sensing optical
area on fiber.a When
blade theis
62.5 µm and
core diameter NA = 0.12,
is 62.5 the
μm and diameter of the sensing area is smaller than 1.20 mm, meaning that the
related to the core diameter andNA = 0.12, aperture
numerical the diameter(NA)ofofthe thesensing area isoptical
transmitting smaller than
fiber. 1.20 mm,
When the
sensing
meaning resolution
that the is much better
sensing thaniseddy
resolution much current,
better capacitive,
than eddy or other types
current, of probes
capacitive, or [17–19].
other types
core diameter is 62.5 μm and NA = 0.12, the diameter of the sensing area is smaller than 1.20 mm,of
probes [17–19].
meaning that the sensing
2.2. IAD Correlation Methodresolution
to IdentifyisBlade
much better than
Vibration Eventseddy current, capacitive, or other types of
probes [17–19].
As shown in Section 2.1, tip timing sensors can sense the arrival time of all blades. The small
changes of included angles between any two adjacent blades can be also sensed using one fiber optical
 As shown in Section 2.1, tip timing sensors can sense the arrival time of all blades. The small
changes of included angles between any two adjacent blades can be also sensed using one fiber
tk
optical tip timing sensor. The sensor obtains the arrival time ( ) of all blades and the OPR sensor
θ
obtains the rotation period (T) (Figure 3). The included angle ( k ) between blade k# and k+1# of the
Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 4 of 12
rotor can then be obtained from Equation (1). In a BTT system, the included angle between two
adjacent blades can be measured at the same time. So, the IAD correlation method was proposed to
tip timing
identify sensor.
blade The sensor
vibration events: obtains the arrival time (tk ) of all blades and the OPR sensor obtains
the rotation period (T) (Figure 3). The included angle (θk ) between blade k# and k+1# of the rotor can
then be obtained from Equation (1). In a BTT system, 2π [t k +the
1 − included
tk ] angle between two adjacent blades
θk = (1)
can be measured at the same time. So, the IAD correlation T method
. was proposed to identify blade
vibration events:
It is assumed that the rotor’s included tk+1 −distribution
2π [angle tk ] of the previous revolution is
θk = . (1)
φ p = (θ 0 p , θ1 p , ⋅⋅⋅, θ kp , ⋅⋅⋅, θ np ) θ kp T
, where refers to the included angle between blade k# and k+1#
It is assumed that the rotor’s included angle distribution of the previous revolution is
of the previous revolution and n is the last number of blades. Besides this,
φ p = (θ0p , θ1p , · · · , θkp , · · · , θnp ), where θkp refers to the included angle between blade k# and k+1# of
φc previous
the = (θ 0 c , θ1revolution
c , ⋅⋅⋅, θ kc , ⋅⋅⋅
and, θnncis) the last to
refers number of blades.
the included Besides
angle this, φc =of(θthe
distribution 0c , θ1c , · · · , θkc
current , · · · , θnc )
revolution.
refers to the included angle distribution
When any
φc of the current revolution. When φp any blade is vibrating, φc will
change andblade
be different from φ p . will change and be different from
is vibrating, .

Figure 3. Measurement of the included angle distribution.

Figure 3. Measurement of the included angle distribution.
The IAD correlation method calculates the Pearson correlation coefficient between included angle
The IAD correlation method calculates the Pearson correlation coefficient between included
distributions of previous and current revolutions (r pc ) to identify blade vibration events, as seen in
r
Equation (2). In Equation
angle distributions (2), θ p and
of previous c are therevolutions
and θcurrent ( pc )oftoφidentify
average values p and φc ,blade
respectively.
vibration events, as
θp θ c are
n φp φ
seen in Equation (2). In Equation (2), and ∑ the
[θip average
− θ p ][θicvalues
− θc ] of and c , respectively.
i =0
r pc = corr (φ p , φc ) = s n (2)
∑
s
[θip[θ− θ−p ]θ θn ic[θ−icθ−
][∑ c ]θ c ]
n 2 2
ip p
rpc = corr (φ p , φc ) = i =0 i = 0 i =0
(2)
n n
This could be improved to amplify the changes
i = 0
[θipof−the 
θ p ]r pc value,
i = 0
[θic where 
− θ c ] a1 is a scaling factor, as
2 2

seen in Equation (3). In a normal non-vibrating state, r pc is equal to 1. The value of r pc will decrease
while some blades are vibrating. r a
This could be improved to amplify the changes of the pc value, where 1 is a scaling factor,
r pc = 1 − (1 − corr (φ p , φc ))r × a1 r (3)
as seen in Equation (3). In a normal non-vibrating state, pc is equal to 1. The value of pc will
decrease while
Changes insome bladesworking
the rotor’s are vibrating.
environment, such as changes of airflow or rotational speed, may
also lead to a variation of r pc . These variations are much slower than those caused by blade vibrations.
If φ p is obtained on the adjacent revolution or adjacent several revolutions before the current revolution,
the variation of r pc is small due to the changes in the rotor’s working environment. As the change
of the included angle between the adjacent revolution or adjacent several revolutions is very small,
the tip timing sensor requires high resolution capability. A fiber optical tip timing sensor meets this
requirement. Equation (3) shows that the rotor is suffering blade vibrations when r pc < Th1 . Th1 is the
threshold value. As the vibrations of any blade or several blades would lead to the decrement of the
r pc value, Equation (3) can be used to identify the rotor’s overall vibration event.
Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 5 of 12

However, Equation (3) cannot be used to identify which blades are vibrating. As the vibration
of blade k# and k+1# will both affect the value of θkc , an improved calculating formula of IAD
correlation method to identify vibration events of the adjacent two blades is proposed in Equation (4).
Assuming φck = (θ0p , θ1p , · · · , θkc , · · · , θnp ), r kpc will be equal to 1 in a normal non-vibrating state. a2 is
a scaling factor.
r kpc = 1 − (1 − corr (φ p , φck )) × a2 (4)

Assuming Th2 and Th3 are threshold values, if r kpc < Th2 , then blades k# and k+1# may be
vibrating. Equation (5) is a further improved formula for calculating IAD correlation to identify the
vibration events of the specific blade k#. Equation (5) could eliminate the effect of blade k+1# because
the vibration of blade k+1# would not affect the r kpc−1 value. The vibration of blade k# can lead to
decrements of r kpc and r kpc−1 at same time. This indicates that blade k# is vibrating when ik >Th3 . a3 is a
scaling factor. (
(1 − r kpc ) × (1 − r kpc−1 ) × a3 , i f (r kpc < Th2 )
ik = (5)
0, i f (r kpc ≥ Th2 )

A practical method to determine the values of Th1 , Th2 , and Th3 is proposed in the following steps:

1. Calculate the values of r pc , r kpc , and ik during a period of time when there is no vibration event in
the rotating blades, and find their values when the blade deflection’s noise achieves its maximum.
Record the values of φ p and φc simultaneously.
2. According to the signal to noise ratio of BTT data and the radius of the blade tip, set the minimum
vibration amplitude to be detected, and then calculate the changes of the included angle between
the adjacent two blades caused by that vibration. Refresh the values of φc . It is noteworthy that if
the minimum vibration amplitude is set too small, a blade event may be incorrectly identified.
3. Recalculate the values of r pc , r kpc , and ik with the updated values of φc , which can be used as the
values of Th1 , Th2 , and Th3 respectively.

It is noteworthy that in Equation (5), if blade k−1# and k+1# are both vibrating but at the same time
blade k# does not have any vibration, the ik value will increase. In this case, a incorrect identification
of a blade event may occur, though the probability of this occurrence is relatively low in practical
applications. Other factors could be taken into consideration to assist in identifying vibration events of
blade k#, such as amplitude threshold triggering.

2.3. Optimized Calculation Process

In order to be used in the health monitoring of industrial machinery the IAD correlation method
should have the capability of fast and real-time processing. The calculating process of the IAD
correlation method could be expanded into an iterative procedure with less computation. From the
definition of the Pearson correlation coefficient formula, five components (∑ xi , ∑ xi 2 , ∑ xi yi , ∑ yi , and
∑ yi 2 ) are involved in the calculation, shown as Equation (6). Assuming that H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 , and
H5 refer to ∑ xi , ∑ xi 2 , ∑ xi yi , ∑ yi , and ∑ yi 2 of blade 0#, respectively, only three components need
additional calculation when identifying vibration events of blade k#. Thus, the calculation of blade k#
using Equation (4) or Equation (5) could be derived from blade 0#, shown as Table 1.

N ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
corr ( x, y) = q q (6)
N ∑ x i 2 − ( ∑ x i )2 N ∑ y i 2 − ( ∑ y i )2

The optimized calculation process means that the IAD correlation method proposed in this
paper is suitable for identifying vibration events of every blade with less computation, meeting the
requirements of real-time, embedded, and automatic processing applications.
Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 6 of 12

Table 1. Optimized calculation of r kpc .

r kpc ∑ xi ∑ xi 2 ∑ xi yi ∑ yi ∑ yi 2
r0pc H1 H2 H3 H4 H5
H3 +θ0p (θ0p −θ0c ) H5 +(θ0p −θ0c )(θ0p +θ0c )
r1pc H1 H2 H4 + (θ0p −θ0c )−(θ1p −θ1c )
−θ1p (θ1p −θ1c ) −(θ1p −θ1c )(θ1p +θ1c )
... ... ... ... ... ...
H3 +θ 0p (θ0p −θ0c ) H5 +(θ0p −θ0c )(θ0p +θ0c )
r kpc H1 H2 H4 + (θ0p −θ0c )−(θkp −θkc )
−θkp (θkp −θkc ) −(θkp −θkc )(θkp +θkc )
Sensors 2019,. .19,
. x FOR
. . . PEER
. . .REVIEW ... ... ... 7 of 13

3. Experimental Results and Discussion

3.1. High-Speed Bench

3.1. High-Speed Bench Test
Test
In
In order
order to
to verify
verify the
the effectiveness
effectiveness of of the
the IAD
IAD correlation
correlation method,
method, fivefive fiber
fiber optical
optical sensors
sensors
numbered
numbered as P0 to P4 were mounted on a high-speed test rig for a blade vibration measuring
as P0 to P4 were mounted on a high-speed test rig for a blade vibration measuring
experiment.
experiment. TheTheinstallation
installationofof
thethe sensors
sensors is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 4. rotor
4. The The has
rotor has aoftotal
a total eightofblades,
eight
blades, and the radius of each blade tip is 60 mm. The thickness of the blades is 2
and the radius of each blade tip is 60 mm. The thickness of the blades is 2 mm. Blades were excited mm. Blades were
excited by nitrogen with high pressure during the experiment. Synchronous vibration
by nitrogen with high pressure during the experiment. Synchronous vibration will occur when will occur when
blade
blade natural frequency is
natural frequency is an
an integral multiple of
integral multiple of rotational
rotational frequency.
frequency. This
This integral
integral number
number is is often
often
called the engine order (EO). Besides this, the blade will also be bended slightly due
called the engine order (EO). Besides this, the blade will also be bended slightly due to air force. to air force.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Test
Test rig
rig and
and installation of fiber
installation of fiber optical
optical tip
tip timing
timing sensors.
sensors.

thispaper,
In this paper,
thethe
datadata
of theofP0the P0 is
sensor sensor
used toisidentify
used to identify
blade blade
vibration vibration
events. events. The
The displacements
displacements
of of blade
blade 6#, blade 7#, and 6#, the
blade 7#, and speed
rotational the rotational
rangingspeed ranging
from 5000 rpmfrom 5000rpm
to 8500 rpmare
to shown
8500 rpm
in
are shown in Figure 5. Both blades experienced several first-order synchronous vibrations
Figure 5. Both blades experienced several first-order synchronous vibrations under the excitation of under
the excitation
nitrogen. of blades
The two nitrogen. haveThe two blades
different vibrationhave differentand
amplitudes vibration amplitudeswith
natural frequencies andnoises
natural
in
frequencies
the waveforms.with noises
Thus, in thecertain
it is likely waveforms.
vibrationThus,
eventsitwill
is likely certain using
be misjudged vibration events
methods will be
of threshold
misjudged
value usingor
triggering methods of thresholdby
visual observation value triggering
skilled or visual observation by skilled personnel.
personnel.
 In this paper, the data of the P0 sensor is used to identify blade vibration events. The
displacements of blade 6#, blade 7#, and the rotational speed ranging from 5000 rpm to 8500 rpm
are shown in Figure 5. Both blades experienced several first-order synchronous vibrations under
the excitation of nitrogen. The two blades have different vibration amplitudes and natural
frequencies
Sensors 2019, 19,with
1482 noises in the waveforms. Thus, it is likely certain vibration events will
7 ofbe
12
misjudged using methods of threshold value triggering or visual observation by skilled personnel.

Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13

3.2. Identification of Blades’ Overall Vibration Events

As shown in Equation (3), the overall vibration events of blades during the test can be
identified, and the results are shown in Figure 6. All eight blades experienced first-order bending
vibrations due to the excitation of nitrogen, when blade natural frequency is an integral multiple of
rotational frequency. The displacements of all eight blades are also shown in Figure 6, separated 0.1
mm apart from each other.
Figure
Figure
The
5.5.Blade
displacements
Bladevibration
varied
vibrationdeflection
deflection andwhen
and
thespeed
rotation
rotation
blades
speed were experiencing vibration
waveforms.
waveforms.
3.2. Identification of Blades’ Overall Vibration
Th1
events, and the vibration amplitudes wereEvents
different from each other. Setting = 0.98 indicates
As shown in r pc Th
the occurrence of Equation (3), the overall
a blade vibration vibration
event if < events of identification
1 . The blades during results
the testwere
can be identified,
then set at a
and the results are shown in Figure 6. All eight blades experienced first-order
high level, including the previous 50 revolutions and subsequent 50 revolutions, providing bending vibrations
due to thedata
adequate excitation of nitrogen,
for model fitting. Inwhenthis blade
paper,natural frequency isresults
the identification an integral multiple
were all set as of rotational
dashed lines
frequency. The displacements of all eight blades are
to highlight the vibration events in the displacement waveforms. also shown in Figure 6, separated 0.1 mm apart
from Aseach other. in
shown The displacements
Figure variedvibration
6, the overall when theevents
bladesof were experiencing
blades vibration
were correctly events, and
identified. The
the vibration amplitudes were different from each other. Setting Th1 = 0.98 indicates
rpc the occurrence of
avibrations of anyevent
blade vibration bladeif or
r pc several blades
< Th1 . The led to a decrement
identification results were of then
the set atvalue.
a highThe variation
level, including of
displacements at around 1750 revolutions may not truly be a blade vibration event,
the previous 50 revolutions and subsequent 50 revolutions, providing adequate data for model fitting. which can be
eliminated
In using
this paper, Equation (4) or
the identification Equation
results were(5). In addition,
all set as dashedsome
linestiny blade vibration
to highlight eventsevents
the vibration rangingin
from
the 2000 to 2500waveforms.
displacement revolutions were not identified.

Figure 6. Identification results of blades’

blades’ overall
overall vibration
vibration events
events using
using Equation
Equation (3).
(3).

As shown in of
3.3. Identification Figure 6, the
Adjacent overall
Two vibration
Blades’ events of
and a Specific blades
Blade’s were correctly identified. The vibrations
Events
of any blade or several blades led to a decrement of the r pc value. The variation of displacements
According to Equation (4), the identification results of adjacent two blades’ events are shown
at around 1750 revolutions may not truly be a blade vibration event, which can be eliminated using
Equation (4)where Th2
or Equationwas(5).set
Inequal
addition, some r 6
pc
in Figure 7, to 0.98. Thetiny blade
valuevibration
decreasedevents rangingwhen
significantly fromblade
2000 to
6#
2500 revolutions
or blade were not identified.
7# was vibrating. The tiny blade vibration events between 2000 and 2500 revolutions were
successfully identified.
Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 8 of 12

3.3. Identification of Adjacent Two Blades’ and a Specific Blade’s Events

According to Equation (4), the identification results of adjacent two blades’ events are shown
in Figure 7, where Th2 was set equal to 0.98. The r6pc value decreased significantly when blade 6#
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13
or blade 7# was vibrating. The tiny blade vibration events between 2000 and 2500 revolutions were
successfully
Sensors 2019, 19,identified.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 13

Figure 7. Identification results of blade 6# and 7# using Equation (4).

Figure 7. Identification results of blade 6# and 7# using Equation (4).
Figure 7. Identification results of blade 6# and 7# using Equation (4).
Equation (5) was used to identify a specific blade’s vibration events. The identification results
Equation (5) was used to identify a specific Th3blade’s vibration events. The identification results of
Equation (5)shown
was used to identify a specific blade’s vibration events. The thatidentification results
blade 6# are shown in Figure 8, where Th3 = 0.04. Figure 8Figure
of blade 6# are in Figure 8, where = 0.04. 8 indicates
indicates that the IAD the IAD correlation
correlation method
method
using using Equation
Equation (5) can accurately Thidentify all of events
the vibration events the
andinterference
eliminate the
of blade 6# are(5) can accurately
shown in Figure identify
8, whereall of 3the
= vibration
0.04. Figure and eliminate
8 indicates that the IAD correlationof
interference
adjacent of adjacent
blades. Even blades.
skilled Even skilled
personnel may personnel
make maywhen
mistakes maketrying
mistakes
to when trying
identify signals tobetween
identify
method using Equation (5) can accurately identify all of the vibration events and eliminate the
signals
1500 and between 1500 andThe
2500ofrevolutions. 2500
large revolutions. The1700large signal around 1700 revolutions was not
interference adjacent blades. Evensignal around
skilled personnel revolutions
may was not
make mistakes actually a realtovibration
when trying identify
actually
event. a real vibration event. It might have been caused by the rotating shaft or the OPR sensor,
signals between 1500 and 2500 revolutions. The large signal around 1700 revolutions was the
It might have been caused by the rotating shaft or the OPR sensor, which cannot affect not
which cannot affect
included the included angle
Thedistribution of rotor.inThe method proposed in this eliminate
paper can
actually aangle distribution
real vibration of rotor.
event. It might method
have been proposed
caused by this paper can
the rotating successfully
shaft or the OPR sensor,
successfully
such eliminate such interferences.
interferences.
which cannot affect the included angle distribution of rotor. The method proposed in this paper can
successfully eliminate such interferences.

Figure 8. Identification results of blade 6# using Equation (5).

Figure 8. Identification results of blade 6# using Equation (5).
Figure 9 shows the identification
Figure results
8. Identification of blade
results 7# 6#
of blade using Equation
using Equation (5).
(5). The vibration events
Figure 9 shows the identification results of blade 7# using Equation
of just blade 7# itself were identified as well as the coupled vibration events (5). Theatvibration events
2600, 3300, andof
just blade 7# itself
4000 revolutions. were
These identified as well as the coupled vibration events at 2600, 3300, and 4000
Figure 9 shows thecoupled vibration
identification events
results of were
bladeintroduced by the large
7# using Equation (5).vibration of theevents
The vibration adjacent
of
revolutions.
blade 6#. SuchThese coupled
tiny coupled vibration
vibration events were introduced by the large vibration of the adjacent
just blade 7# itself were identified assignals
well ascould also be identified
the coupled vibration using
eventsEquation
at 2600, (5).
3300, and 4000
blade 6#. Such tiny coupled vibration signals could also be identified using Equation (5).
revolutions. These coupled vibration events were introduced by the large vibration of the adjacent
blade 6#. Such tiny coupled vibration signals could also be identified using Equation (5).
Sensors 2019,
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19, 1482
x FOR PEER REVIEW 109 of 13
of 12
Sensors 2019, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 13

Equation (5).
Figure 9. Identification results of blade 7# using Equation (5).
Figure 9. Identification results of blade 7# using Equation (5).
Once the blade vibration events were correctly identified in real time, time, BTT
BTT data
data analysis
analysis could
could
Once the blade vibration events were correctly identified in real time, BTT data analysis could
be conducted to reconstruct the vibration amplitude and frequency. frequency. In this paper, a least squares
squares
be conducted to reconstruct the vibration amplitude and frequency. In this paper, a least squares
fitting method
methodwas wasused
usedtoto
model
modelthethe
fit of
fitthe
of BTT data. data.
the BTT The model fitting fitting
The model result of bladeof6#blade
result around6#
fitting method was used to model the fit of the BTT data. The model fitting result of blade 6#
4000
around revolutions is shown in
4000 revolutions Figure 10.
is shown The amplitude
in Figure 10. The reached
amplitudea maximum
reached aofmaximum
0.07 mm atof 8201
0.07rpm,
mmtheat
around 4000 revolutions is shown in Figure 10. The amplitude reached a maximum of 0.07 mm at
engine order (EO) was 13, and the first-order vibration frequency was 1777.02 Hz. All
8201 rpm, the engine order (EO) was 13, and the first-order vibration frequency was 1777.02 Hz. All other vibration
8201 rpm, the engine order (EO) was 13, and the first-order vibration frequency was 1777.02 Hz. All
events of Figure 8events
other vibration were extracted
of Figureto8 carry
wereout BTT data
extracted to analysis using
carry out BTTthe leastanalysis
data squaresusing
fittingthemethod.
least
other vibration events of Figure 8 were extracted to carry out BTT data analysis using the least
The results are shown in Table 2.
squares fitting method. The results are shown in Table 2.
squares fitting method. The results are shown in Table 2.

Figure 10. Model

Figure 10. Model fitting
fitting result
result of
of blade
blade 6#
6# at
at 8200
8200 rpm,
rpm, engine
engine order
order (EO)
(EO) == 13.
13.
Figure 10. Model fitting result of blade 6# at 8200 rpm, engine order (EO) = 13.
Table 2. Model fitting results of blade 6#.
Table 2. Model fitting results of blade 6#.
Table 2. Model fitting results of blade 6#.
Engine Order Amplitude (mm) Frequency (Hz) Center Speed (rpm)
Engine Order Amplitude (mm) Frequency (Hz) Center Speed (rpm)
Engine Order
13 Amplitude (mm)
0.07 Frequency (Hz)
1777.02 Center 8201.61
Speed (rpm)
13 0.07 1777.02 8201.61
13 14 0.070.07 1777.02
1776.07 8201.61
7611.72
14 0.07 1776.07 7611.72
14 15 0.070.04 1775.02
1776.07 7100.07
7611.72
15 16 0.040.02 1775.02
1774.22 7100.07
6653.32
15 0.04 1775.02 7100.07
16 17 0.020.04 1773.28
1774.22 6258.62
6653.32
16 18 0.020.05 1774.22
1773.38 6653.32
5911.26
17 0.04 1773.28 6258.62
17 19 0.040.04 1773.28
1772.00 6258.62
5595.79
18 0.05 1773.38 5911.26
18 20 0.050.03 1772.59
1773.38 5317.77
5911.26
19 0.04 1772.00 5595.79
19 21 0.040.03 1770.06
1772.00 5057.30
5595.79
20 0.03 1772.59 5317.77
20 0.03 1772.59 5317.77
21 0.03 1770.06 5057.30
21 0.03 1770.06 5057.30
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SensorsThe
2019,model
19, 1482fitting results arelisted in the Campbell diagram (Figure 11). Figure 11 could also
10 of 12
proveThethat the vibration events of blade 6# were correct. Synchronous vibration occurred
model fitting results are listed in the Campbell diagram (Figure 11). Figure 11 could also when,
theoretically,
prove that the thevibration
blade natural
eventsfrequency
of blade is
6#an integral
were multiple
correct. of rotational
Synchronous frequency.
vibration The results
occurred when,
in The model fitting
Figure 11 accurately results are listed in the Campbell diagram (Figure 11). Figure 11 could also prove
theoretically, the bladefell on allfrequency
natural of the intersect points between
is an integral theoffirst-order
multiple rotationalvibration wave
frequency. Theline and
results
that
EO the vibration events of blade 6# were correct. Synchronous vibration occurred when, theoretically,
lines.
in Figure 11 accurately fell on all of the intersect points between the first-order vibration wave line and
the blade natural frequency is an integral multiple of rotational frequency. The results in Figure 11
EO lines.
accurately fell on all of the intersect points between the first-order vibration wave line and EO lines.

Figure 11. Campbell diagram of blade 6#.

Figure 11. Campbell
Figure11. Campbelldiagram
diagramof
ofblade
blade6#.
6#.
3.4. Comparison of the IAD Correlation Method with the Probe Displacement Distribution (PDD)
3.4. Comparison
Correlation Methodof the IAD Correlation Method with the Probe Displacement Distribution (PDD)
3.4. Comparison
Correlation Method of the IAD Correlation Method with the Probe Displacement Distribution (PDD)
Correlation Method[16], it was suggested that the displacement value of a single blade at each probe
In Reference
In Reference [16], it was suggested that the displacement value of a single blade at each probe
is correlated to the values
In Reference for the next rotation. This reference then proposed
of a singleaa blade
method to identify
is correlated to the[16], it was
values for suggested that theThis
the next rotation. displacement
reference value
then proposed method at each probe
to identify
blade
is vibration
correlated to the events
values by
for calculating
the next Pearson
rotation. This correlation
reference thencoefficient
proposed between
a method the
to probe
identify
blade vibration events by calculating Pearson correlation coefficient between the probe displacement
displacement
blade vibration distributions
eventsand of previous
by and current
calculating Pearson revolutions (also called PDD correlationthemethod
distributions of previous current revolutions (also correlation coefficient
called PDD correlation between
method in this probe
paper).
in this paper).
displacement The identification
distributions of results
previous and of blade
current 6# based
revolutions on the
(also PDD
called correlation
PDD method
correlation methodare
The identification results of blade 6# based on the PDD correlation method are shown in Figure 12.
shown
in this in Figure 12. The displacements
paper). Theofidentification of blade 6# from five probes are also shown in Figure 12, which
The displacements blade 6# fromresults of blade
five probes 6# based
are also shownon in the PDD
Figure 12,correlation
which weremethod separated are
were
shown separated 0.1 mm apart from each other. Compared to the IAD correlation method, it is
0.1 mmin Figure
apart from12. each
The displacements
other. Compared of bladeto 6#
thefrom
IADfive probes aremethod,
correlation also shown
it isindifficult
Figure 12,to which
set a
difficult to
were separated set a threshold
0.1indicate
mm apart value to indicate
from each other. the occurrences
Compared of vibration
toaccording
the IAD to events
correlationaccording to the
threshold value to the occurrences of vibration events the resultsmethod,
of the PDD it is
results of the PDD
difficult to method. correlation
set a threshold method. As the data applied in that calculation of correlation were
correlation As the value to indicate
data applied in thatthecalculation
occurrences of of vibration were
correlation events according
from to the
five different
from
results five
of different
the PDD probes, the
correlation inconsistency
method. As the of applied
data different
in probes,
that including
calculation of the noiseswere
correlation in
probes, the inconsistency of different probes, including the noises in displacement signals, affected the
displacement
from five value. signals, affected the correlation value.
different probes, the inconsistency of different probes, including the noises in
correlation
displacement signals, affected the correlation value.

Figure 12. Identification results of blade 6# using the probe displacement distribution (PDD)
Figure 12. method.
correlation Identification results of blade 6# using the probe displacement distribution (PDD)
correlation method.
Figure 12. Identification results of blade 6# using the probe displacement distribution (PDD)
4. Conclusions
correlation method.
In this paper, an IAD correlation method to identify vibration events automatically for rotational
blades of machinery was proposed. All included rotor angles between any two adjacent blades were
Sensors 2019, 19, 1482 11 of 12

accurately detected by only one fiber optical tip timing sensor, and then three formulas for calculating
the IAD correlation were proposed to identify three types of blades vibration events: the blades’
overall vibrations, vibration of the adjacent two blades, and vibration of a specific blade. Further,
the IAD correlation method was optimized in the calculating process to reduce computation load
while identifying every blade’s vibration events. The method can meet the requirements of real-time,
embedded, and automatic processing applications.
The experimental results showed that the proposed method could effectively identify all vibration
events. Compared with the visual observation method or the simple threshold value triggering method,
the present method eliminated fake vibration signals, which may be wrongly recognized as vibration
events by human judgment. The coupled vibration signals of adjacent blades were also accurately
identified. The three calculating formulas described in this paper provide objective criterions for the
identification of the blades’ overall vibration, vibration of adjacent two blades, and vibration events of
a specific blade, and are suitable for different applications.
Although synchronous vibration events in the experiments were only air-excited, other types of
blade vibration events will also lead to changes in the included angle distribution of rotor blades, such
as foreign object damage (FOD) events and blade asynchronous vibration events. Therefore, the IAD
correlation method has general applicability to be used for the identification of such types of events.
The response of the blade to FOD events is complex. There is no effective method to identify FOD
events of blades at present. This can be further studied in combination with the technology described
in this paper.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.Y. and F.D.; methodology, D.Y. and F.D.; software, D.Y.; validation,
D.Y. and Z.L.; formal analysis, D.Y.; investigation, G.N.; resources, Z.L.; data curation, D.Y.; writing—original
draft preparation, D.Y.; writing—review and editing, J.J. and F.L.; visualization, F.L.; supervision, J.J.; project
administration, F.D.; funding acquisition, F.D.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundations of China (51775377), National
Key Research and Development Plan (2017YFF0204800), the TianJin Natural Science Foundations of China
(17JCQNJC01100) and Young Elite Scientists Sponsorship Program by Cast of China (2016QNRC001).
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank the administrative support of State Key Laboratory of
Precision Measuring Technology and Instruments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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