DE GRUYTER Physical Sciences Reviews.

2018; 20160115

Anita Šalić1 / Bruno Zelić1

Introduction to environmental engineering

1
Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Marulićev trg 19, Zagreb HR-10000, Croatia, E-mail:
bzelic@fkit.hr

Abstract:
Nowadays we can easily say that environmental engineering is truly an interdisciplinary science. Combining
biology, ecology, geology, geography, mathematics, chemistry, agronomy, medicine, economy, etc. environmen-
tal engineering strives to use environmental understanding and advancements in technology to serve mankind
by decreasing production of environmental hazards and the effects of those hazards already present in the
soil, water, and air. Major activities of environmental engineer involve water supply, waste water and solid
management, air and noise pollution control, environmental sustainability, environmental impact assessment,
climate changes, etc. And all this with only one main goal – to prevent or reduce undesirable impacts of human
activities on the environment. To ensure we all have tomorrow.
Keywords: environment, engineering, pollution, environmental issues, humans
DOI: 10.1515/psr-2016-0115

“We won’t have a society if we destroy the environment”

Margaret Mead

1 A new engineering field?

The last two to three decades have confirmed a growing understanding that no part of our world is immune
from environmental consequences of human activities. There is a pressing need for international cooperation
and solidarity to preserve our forests, safekeeping our water and oceans, and stabilize the Earth’s atmosphere.
The strong interest in protecting the environment has placed new responsibilities, especially for the engineers.
Therefore, environmental engineers got under a huge spotlight. But the question is, Is this really a new concept?
Did the humans of twentieth and twenty-first centuries become more aware of their environment, protection of
themselves, animals, plants, and plant populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors, including
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toxic chemicals and wastes, pathogenic bacteria and global effects such as warming, ozone layer depletion, and
weather-pattern change? Or this goes way back in to the history?
Although the first description of title “environmental engineer” appears somewhere around 1960s, the his-
tory of practice itself goes long in to the history. Since the early days of formation of the first communities (small
group of people living on permanent settlements) a concern about clean water, waste separation, and sewage
system had to be developed. With the growth of population, magnitude of those simple actions increased with
addition of concern about air and soil quality.
Scoping trough the written history of those early ages some examples of good environmental engineering
practice can be found. Like Roman aqueducts that provided constant and clean water to the large cities of Em-
pire or development of sewers system in some Indian cities 5,000 years ago. But true jump was made parallel
with rapid industrialization in eighteenth century. With the increase of population in the cities, great migra-
tions, increased exploitation of nature goods, increase demand for the large quantities of food and fresh water
in one place, disposal of waste, appearance of massive epidemic of water transmitted diseases like cholera etc.
all lead to significant concerned about public health.
The first environmental engineer is said to have been Joseph Bazalgette who designed the first large-scale
sewerage system in London in the mid-nineteenth century. This engineering venture is considered the begin-
ning era of modern environmental engineering. Since then, the main idea – to improve natural environment for
human habitation – remains the same but the amplitude of work severely intensified.

Bruno Zelić is the corresponding author.

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2 New era – todays environmental engineering

Since the modern environmental engineering is relatively a new science maybe the best way to start is by defin-
ing it. Simply by scoping the Internet several definitions of environmental engineering can be found:

The application of science and engineering knowledge and concepts to care for and/or restore our natural environ-
ment and/or solve environmental problems. (unknown)

The application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land
resources) to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation (house or home) and for other organisms,
and to remediate polluted sites. (unknown)

The branch of engineering concerned with the application of scientific and engineering principles for protection of
human populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors; protection of environments, both local and
global, from potentially deleterious effects of natural and human activities; and improvement of environmental
quality. (The American Academy of Environmental Engineers)

Is that branch of engineering that is concerned with protecting the environment from the potentially deleterious
effects of human activity, protecting human populations from the effects of adverse environmental actors and im-
proving environmental quality for human health and wellbeing. (Peavy, 1985 [1])

Environmental engineering deals with design and construction of the processes and equipment intended to lessen
the impact of man’s activities on the environment. (unknown)

Summarizes, the main goal of environmental engineering or better environmental engineers is to restore, to
protect, to improve, and to provide. In order to do that, like any engineer they have to follow some basic prin-
ciples like planning, design, construction and operation of equipment, systems, and structures for the benefit
of society (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Basic principles for general problem management (inspired by [2]).

The basic step or better, one of the mayor responsibilities of environmental engineering is to monitor and
potentially predict or even prevent harmful events in the environment. Using the previous knowledge environ-
mental monitoring should ensures the management of natural resources contributing to sustainable develop-
ment through processes and activities which characterize and monitor the quality of the environment. One of
good examples is a strong pressure on upcoming industries to not only satisfy economic and technical sustain-
ability principles but also social and ecological. Also there is a request for existing processes to adapt this new
paradigm (Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Suitability diagram.

According to Tonelli et al. [3] the need to reduce or contain the ecological footprint of the industry will af-
fect the whole industrial system. In stepping to a low-carbon, resource-efficient approach, industry has to be
considered not only as part of the problem but as part of the solution.
Leading companies are preparing for this transformation on three fronts:

– rapidly reducing the resource- and energy-intensity in producing existing goods

– investigating the options for a thorough redesign of the industrial system
– radically rethinking business models.

Finally, a redesigned industrial system should

– add the same value with a reduction of 25% on input materials and energy
– make use of the 90% of discarded extracted materials

– use benign materials that can be reused according to “cradle-to-cradle” concept

– refurbish and reuse sophisticated long-lasting components
– mimic and nurture the environmental niches.

Let’s go back to the basic principles. Usually predictions and prevention are not possible and if a problem
appears, then the cycle of the events is launched (Figure 1) in order to detect the presence of pollutants and
tracking them back to their source. Usually, finding the source can present a significant challenge. For instance,
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the source of contamination in a lake could be anywhere within several thousands of acres of land surrounding
the lake and its tributaries. Contamination of oceans can present even greater challenges in identifying the
source. In order to, identify the problem, evaluate the situation, develop a plan and then potently resolve the
situation requires extensive knowledge (Figure 3) of the chemistry and biology of the potential contaminants
as well as the industrial or agricultural processes that might lead to their release (Chapters 2–6). And then,
depending on area of pollution many other sciences get involved in finding a solution.

Figure 3: Diagram of environment engineering fundamentals.

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This all means that a role of environmental engineer is also to coordinate other engineers to find best solu-
tions for existing problems and to make rapid advancement in cleaning up the environment with eco-friendly
techniques.
Usually many environmental problems cannot be stopped completely but rather reduced and during the
process there are many ethical question involved. One of the most unpopular decisions that have to be made
is to or not to shut down business that is a source of environmental pollutions because of the potential for
severe economic consequences. That’s why; nowadays environmental engineers often work with businesses to
determine ways to avoid or reduce the production of pollutants or to separate them so they can be disposed of
in a safe manner (Chapter 11).
At the end, one of the most valuable outcomes of the cycle (besides the protection and problem resolving)
is obtained knowledge that can be utilized for future goals (Chapter 10).
As examples for proposed system, air resource, solid waste and waste water management diagrams are
presented in Figure 4–6.

Figure 4: Management systems for (a) air resource (b) water pollution and (c) solid waste pollution.
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3 Environmental issues
The next important question is What are exactly environmental issues that today’s environmental engineer has to face?
Usually they are divided in to three major groups:

– air quality
– soil quality
– water quality

and each of them present important part of the everyday life, not only for humans but for all other organisms
on Planet – plants, microorganisms, animals, etc.
Although it my seam that nowadays nature is rebelling more and more simply by watching number of
catastrophes (tsunami in Indonesia, earthquakes in Italy, soil movement in South Amerika, etc.) it is still little
percentage in total pollution amount in comparison to human impact. We can easily say that today there is
serious environmental crisis due to global industrialization. Large quantities of water are polluted as well as
air, forests are destroyed due to increased need for wood, land for food production or building new factories
or simply urbanization, amount of solid waste is increasing rapidly with special accent on chemical and toxic
material and chemicals, global warming, destruction of ozone layer are just some of the problems.
Generally, factors impacting environment can be divided in two groups [4–6]:
1. Natural changes

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a. Natural processes
b. Natural disasters

2. Anthropogenic changes

c. Industrialization – although the industrialization is the base of human society development, in parallel it
presents global environmental problem. Depletion of resources and creation of enormous waste is just
some of the problems.
d. Change in ecological balance – topic that opens two important areas. First, wrong management of the bio-
sphere leads to visible disturbance in ecosystem (mostly referring to extinction of wildlife and habitual
destruction (i.e. destruction of rain forests or coral reefs)). Many species have extinct and many are almost
there. Second problem is rapid genetic engineering development where genetically modified organisms
can be harmful and even toxic to wildlife.
e. Global warming – leads to rising temperatures of the ocean and earth surface. Year 2012 was characterized
as the warmest year ever, after that year 2013 got the same title, as well as 2014, 2015, etc. As a conse-
quence, polar ice caps are melting, sea level is rising flooding the area around sea where a great number
of humane population lives which will lead to massive migration in the future etc.
f. Overpopulation – is considered one of the most critical environmental problems. By year 2050, the global
human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people, thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people.
This will lead to major problem in water, food and energy supply.
g. Natural resources depletion – is considered second crucial environmental problem. Since the starting of
industrial era, the natural resources are constantly utilized for the production of one or more products
for human consumption. One of the major natural resource that is being exploited rapidly are fossil fuels
so in near future humans will have to think more about using renewable sources of energy.
h. Deforestation – refers to clearing of green cover and making that land available for residential, industrial
or commercial purpose. The process results in decreasing rainfall, increasing global temperature, loss of
top soil, modification of climatic conditions, etc.
i. Air pollution – release of different air pollutants in the atmosphere and environment causes many of other
environmental issues like greenhouse effect, ozone layer destruction, smog formation, etc.
j. Water pollution – it is believed that in near future water will be a rare commodity and that many economic
and political problems will emerge from that since wars are expected for this natural resource.
k. Waste disposal – as mentioned, rapid industrialization created large amounts of waste. Plastic, packaging,
electronic waste, nuclear waste, etc. are becoming serious environmental problem.
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l. Some other issues: noise pollution, radiation pollution, soil erosion, climate change, ocean acidification, ozone
layer depletion, acid rains, public health issues, etc.

Unfortunately, all of these problems are global since they affect every individual, organization, community
and country, and by becoming environmental stewards, it keeps the economy moving, which is necessary for
growth and long-term viability and to solve them cooperation of all sectors is necessary.
Since air, soil and water are defined as main areas of environmental engineering interest, few additional
questions are addressed.

3.1 Air quality – Why it is such a problem?

Air pollution may be defined as the presence in the atmosphere of any substance (or combination of substances)
that is harmful to human health and welfare; offensive or objectionable to man, either externally or internally; or
which by its presence will directly or indirectly adversely affect the welfare of man. It can be visible or invisible
and perhaps the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution is smog hanging over cities.
Air pollutants fall into two main categories:

1. those that are present in many areas because they are the products of daily-life activities such as transporta-
tion, power generation, space and water heating, and waste incineration, and
2. those generated by activities such as chemical, manufacturing, and agricultural processing whose pollutant
byproducts tend to be localized in nearby areas or are spread long distances by tall stacks and prevailing
winds.

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They are also categorized by their emission characteristics:

1. point sources, such as power plants, incinerators, and large processing plants;
2. area sources, such as space and water heating in buildings; and
3. mobile sources, mainly cars and trucks, but also lawn mowers and blowers and airplanes [7].

Besides these anthropogenic causes of air pollution, there are also natural sources like dust, methane, smoke
and carbon monoxide from wildfires, volcano activity, etc.
Air pollution presents a problem after exposer and depends on how pollutant is hazard. The most com-
mon sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. It can affect
an individual, a certain groups or entire populations. It is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-
related diseases. Some of them are new cases of asthma, exacerbate (worsen) a previously existing respiratory
illness, and provoke development or progression of chronic illnesses including lung cancer, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and emphysema. Air pollutants also negatively and significantly harm lung development,
creating an additional risk factor for developing lung diseases later in life [8, 9]. Individual reactions to air pol-
lutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual’s
health status and genetics [10]. Also the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated in 2014 that air pollution
every year causes the premature death of some 7 million people worldwide [11]. India has the highest death
rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the WHO.
In December 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. There is a positive
correlation between pneumonia-related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions.
Besides humans, air pollution effects agriculture. Yield reductions on a national scale were estimated to be
about 5% in USA, with the economic benefit of reducing ozone concentrations by 40% estimated to be about 3
billion dollars annually. The ozone exposure corresponding to a 10% yield loss is exceeded over most of Europe,
indicating the large potential for substantial effects on crop production. Detailed continent wide estimates of
actual production losses have not yet been made, although individual filtration studies at Mediterranean sites,
where ozone exposures are among the highest in Europe, have shown yield losses above 20% on sensitive crops.
Situation is even more critical in developing countries like valley of Mexico – 40% yield lost in sensitive cultivar,
Nile delta – 30%, Pakistan – 40%, etc. [12]
Also, by each year economy costs are increasing. According to the calculations, global air pollution-related
healthcare costs are projected to increase from USD 21 billion (using constant 2010 USD and PPP exchange
rates) in 2015 to USD 176 billion 2005 in 2060. By 2060, the annual number of lost working days, which affect
labour productivity, are projected to reach 3.7 billion (currently around 1.2 billion) at the global level. And the
annual global welfare costs associated with the premature deaths from outdoor air pollution are projected to
rise from USD 3 trillion in 2015 to USD 18–25 trillion in 2060 [13].
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Besides those impacts air pollution is directly connected with smog, acid rains, eutrophication, depletion of
ozone layer and global warming.
So, if air pollution is present are there solutions for it? Some of them are
1. use public mode of transportation, walk, drive bike or carpool
2. conserve energy
3. understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
4. emphasis on clean energy resources
5. use energy efficient devices
6. use hybrid cars
7. utilize alternative fuels.
For more details about air pollution environmental engineering see Chapter 7.

3.2 Soil quality – What problems emerge from soil pollution?

Soil contamination is mainly located close to waste landfills, industrial/commercial activities diffusing heavy
metals, oil industry, military camps, and nuclear power plants. As European society has grown wealthier, it
has created more and more rubbish. Each year in the EU, 3 billion tonnes of solid wastes are thrown away
(some 90 million tonnes of them are hazardous). This amounts to about 6 tonnes of solid waste for every man,
woman and child [14, 15]. In the US, the army alone has estimated that over 1.2 million tonnes of soils have
been contaminated with explosives, and the impact of explosives contamination in other countries in the world
is of similar magnitude [16].
Based just on mentioned numbers it is obvious that soil pollution probably represents the most faced prob-
lem in environmental pollution. Generally, it is because

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1. Soil is a point of concentration and recovery of toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive materials or
disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health.
2. Soil pollutants can contaminate water: water infiltration is the movement of water from the soil surface into
the soil profile and soil is a valuable resource that support cultures and plant life.
3. Soil pollutants have an adverse effect on the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and
reduce its productivity.

Main causes of soil pollution are as follows

1. industrial activity, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased;
2. agricultural activities, pesticides and fertilizers which are full of chemicals that are not fully degradable in
nature and are widely utilized around the world;
3. waste disposal, where there is also a large amount of industrial and municipal waste that is dumped directly
into landfills without any treatment and
4. accidental oil spills, where oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals [17].

As a historical example, serious problem was caused by widespread application of the pesticide DDT to control
agricultural pests in the years following World War II. It was used in urban aerial sprays to control urban
mosquito, gypsy moth, Japanese beetle and other insects in the 1940s. While the agricultural benefits were
outstanding and crop yields increased dramatically thus reducing world hunger substantially, and malaria
was controlled better than it ever had been, numerous species were brought to the verge of extinction due to
the impact of the DDT on their reproductive cycles. By 1972, DDT was banned from the United States due to
widespread development of resistance to DDT and evidence that DDT use was increasing preterm births and
also harming the environment [18]. DDT was found to cause behavioural anomalies and eggshell thinning in
populations of bald eagles and peregrine falcons.
So back to the question from title, What problems emerge from soil pollution? Main effects of soil pollution are

1. effect on health of humans

2. effect on growth of plants
3. decreased soil fertility
4. toxic dust.
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Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil or via inhalation
of soil contaminants which have vaporized. The implication of soils to human health is direct such as ingestion,
inhalation, skin contact and dermal absorption. Some epidemiological examples include geohelminth infec-
tion and potentially harmful elements via soil ingestion, cancers caused by the inhalation of fibrous minerals,
hookworm disease and podoconiosis caused by skin contact with soils [19]. Elliott et al. [20] have found small
excess risks of congenital anomalies and low and very low birth weights in populations living near landfill sites.
Different contaminants have different effects on human health and the environment depending on their prop-
erties. The contaminant effect depends on its potential for dispersion, solubility in water or fat, bioavailability,
carcinogenicity and so forth [15].
Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can also have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems [21].
An example is already mentioned DDT pesticide. Soil contaminates can alter metabolism of some microorgan-
isms resulting in eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences
for predator or consumer species. Negative effect is also present in plant metabolism. Result is often reduced
crop yields. This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the
Earth’s soil from erosion.
As for air pollution, there are some clean-up options to reduce already made mess. Most of them are based
on remediation strategies:
1. excavate soil and take it to a disposal site
2. aeration of soils at the contaminated site (enhances the risk of creating air pollution)
3. thermal remediation
4. bioremediation
5. extraction of groundwater or soil vapour with an active electromechanical system
6. containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place)
7. phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

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8. mycoremediation, or using fungus to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy metals and
9. remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles [22].
For more details about soil treatment environmental engineering see Chapter 9.

3.3 Water quality – Are water wars our future?

Water occupies two-third of Earth’s surface and that makes it not only a valuable resource for humans but entire
ecosystem. By the growth of human population it will be utilized in more and more activates associated with
humans. That will undoubtedly lead to reduction of overall water quality and poorer water quality usually
means water pollution. Besides that, water pollution can be defined in many ways. Usually, it means one or
more substances have built up in water to such an extent that they cause problems for animals or people.
Factors that contribute to water pollution can be categorized into two different groups:

1. Point sources that are the easiest to identify and control. Some of sources are factories, sewage system, power
plants, underground coalmines, oil wells, etc.
2. Non-point sources are ambiguously defined and harder to control. Some of the sources are:
– when rain or snow moves through the ground and picks up pollutants as it moves towards a major body
of water,
– the runoff of fertilizers from farm animals and crop land,
– air pollutants getting washed or deposited to earth and
– storm water drainage from lawns, parking lots, and streets [23, 24].

Regardless the source, in the last decades it became more then obvious that water is becoming a serious environ-
mental problem. Due to environmental impact, drought and flooding are present in many parts of the world.
Both of these events strongly impact food supplies and economy. On the other hand, being a universal solvent,
water is a major source of infection. According to WHO 80% diseases are water borne. Infectious diseases, like
cholera, typhoid fever and other diseases gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, skin and kidney problem are just
some of them [25].
Drinking water in various countries does not meet WHO standards. Water pollution causes approximately
14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing coun-
tries [26].
Not only humans but, as mentioned, entire biosystem is affected by water pollution. Biomass and diversity
of communities are to be effected when large amount of toxic materials are released into the streams, lakes and
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coastal waters in the ocean. This waste can increase secondary productivity while altering the character of the
aquatic community. Most fishes especially the species desired as food by man are among the sensitive species
that disappear with the least intense pollution.
Direct damage to plants and animals nutrition also affects human health. Plants nutrients including nitro-
gen, phosphorus and other substances that support the growth of aquatic plant life could be in excess causing
algal bloom and excessive weed growth. This makes water to have odour, taste and sometimes colour. Ulti-
mately, the ecological balance of water is altered [26].
Additionally, approximately 97.5% of all water is either salt water or water that has become polluted. Of the
remaining 2.5%, nearly 70% is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps. Less than 0.01% of all water worldwide is
available for human use in lakes, rivers, reservoirs and easily accessible aquifers. Combining all of this with all
that is mentioned previously and the fact that conflicts over water, both within countries and between countries,
are sharply increasing human future is becoming slightly shaken. Fortunately, up to now few of these conflicts
have led to violence [27]. But who knows what will happen tomorrow.
For more details about water and waste water treatment engineering see Chapter 8.

4 What is the future of environmental engineering?

It is said that environmental engineering has a proud history and a bright future. It is a career that may be challenging,
enjoyable, personally satisfying and monetarily rewarding [28]. Predictions are that employment of environ-
mental engineers will grow by 15% from 2012 to 2022, which is faster than the average for all occupations. If we
think beyond 2022 and further in to the future, it is expected that technology development will continue grow-
ing bringing new challenges for the environment. Population will also grow which will enhance the need for

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resources, food and water supplies, cities will get overpopulated, etc. Also, “going green” move became more
and more popular so new approaches to develop new “green” methods will be needed. Accent on prevention
rather than controlling will be the main stream of the future. A new even more dangerous contaminates will
probably emerge. A climate change will become more and more obvious.
All of this and more in the end will need proper coordination and management to avoid pollution or eco-
damage. And this is where environmental engineering will build bright and prospers future.

5 Conclusion
At the end of this first chapter we can just hope that we managed to awaken interest for this broad field. Field,
which will rapidly change with development of human society. One can just hope that it will keep the step,
walk shoulder to shoulder one next to another, otherwise, if it stutters a little it will have deep consequences
on environment and society.
Also, following chapters of this book will give wider picture of problems environmental engineering is
facing and hopefully give enough tools to fight all challenges that the future is bringing.

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[28] Weiner R, Matthews RA. Environmental engineering. 4th ed. USA: Elsevier Science; 2003.
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