Apollo State of Art

APOLLO
IST-2001-34372
Intelligent Tyre for Accident-free Traffic
Intelligent Tyre Systems – State of the Art and

Potential Technologies
Deliverable D7
Report Version: 1
Report Preparation Date: 22.05.2003
Classification: Public
Contract Start Date: 01.03.2002 Duration: 36 months
Project Co-ordinator: Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) FI

Partners: DaimlerChrysler AG (DC AG) D
Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) FI
Rheinisch Westfälische Technische
Hochschule Aachen (RWTH Aachen) D
IXFIN Magneti Marelli Sistemi
Elettronici S.p.A (MM) I
Nokian Tyres plc (NR) FI
Pirelli Pneumatici SPA (PIRELLI) I
Project funded by the European Community

under the “Information Society Technology”
Programme (1998-2002)
APOLLO Intelligent Tyre for Accident-free Traffic
Deliverable D7 Intelligent Tyre Systems – State of the Art and Potential Technologies
_____________________________________________________________________________
DELIVERABLES SUMMARY SHEET
Project Number: IST-2001-34372

Project Acronym: APOLLO
Title: Intelligent Tyre for Accident-free Traffic
Deliverable N°: D7
Due date: 31.12.2002
Delivery Date: 22.05.2003
Short Description: Intelligent Tyre Systems – State of the Art and Potential Technologies
This document provides an overview on the state of the art of intelligent tyre systems and
potential technologies that can be utilised for sensors, wireless data transmission, and
batteryless power supply. An accident analysis with an investigation of tyre-related risk
factors shows the great benefit of the envisaged system to improve traffic safety. This fits to
visions and strategies of vehicle manufacturers, automotive suppliers and tyre manufactures
in respect to intelligent tyre/wheel systems that are summarised. The first products that have
been introduced in the field of intelligent tyres are Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems
(TPMS). Different system solutions for TPMS and activities of suppliers are described. More
sophisticated sensor systems, that are still in the process of research or pre-development,
show the high interest in this field. Basic sensor technologies which enhance the realisation
potential for innovative monitoring of tyre and tyre-road contact are presented. Radio
communication is a technology with a high potential for high performance wireless data
transmission. Applications for different systems, future trends, aspects of vehicle integration
and standards are discussed. First investigations on inductive transmission and power
generation prove the potential of these technologies for the development of a batteryless
power supply. Promising results of a pre-study, showing measurements of electromagnetic
properties of the tyre/wheel system, are presented. An overview is given on selected patent
applications for systems and key components of intelligent tyre/wheel systems.
Following the approach of the APOLLO project is a promising perspective to achieve a
successful product for an intelligent tyre/wheel system which allows to expect over 4 000
saved lives in all EU countries every year.
Partners owning: The APOLLO consortium

Partners contributed: VTT, DC AG, HUT, RWTH Aachen, MM, NR, PIRELLI
Made available to: European Commission, Information Society Directorate-General
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................5
2. Accident Analysis..........................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................8
2.2 Finland ......................................................................................................................9
2.3 Germany .................................................................................................................11
2.4 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................13
3. Trends and Strategies ................................................................................................15
3.1 Vehicle manufacturers.............................................................................................15
3.2 Automotive electronics suppliers .............................................................................17
3.3 Tyre manufacturers and co-operations....................................................................19
4. Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS)................................................................21
4.1 Indirect measurement..............................................................................................21
4.2 Direct measurement - active sensors ......................................................................22
4.2.1 Battery-operated sensor technology in general.................................................22
4.2.2 Clamp-on-rim sensors.......................................................................................23
4.2.3 Valve-attached sensors.....................................................................................25
4.2.4 Valve-cap-integrated sensors ...........................................................................31
4.3 Direct measurement - passive sensors ...................................................................34
4.3.1 Introduction on batteryless sensor technology ..................................................34
4.3.2 Batteryless TPMS at 2.4 GHz ...........................................................................35
4.3.3 Other systems...................................................................................................36
4.4 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................38
5. Advanced Tyre Sensor Systems.................................................................................39
5.1 Side Wall Torsion sensor ........................................................................................39
5.2 Darmstadt tyre sensor .............................................................................................41
5.3 Surface Acoustic Wave sensor ...............................................................................43
5.4 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................45
6. Basic Sensor Technologies ........................................................................................46
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................46
6.2 Acoustic sensor.......................................................................................................46
6.3 Optical sensor .........................................................................................................46
6.4 Vibrating string sensor.............................................................................................49
6.5 Ultra Wide Band technology....................................................................................50
6.6 Capacitive sensor....................................................................................................52
6.6.1 Micromechanical sensor ...................................................................................52
6.6.2 Capacitive displacement sensor .......................................................................53
6.6.3 Measurement of capacitance ............................................................................55
6.7 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................56
7. Basic Technologies for Wireless Data Transmission ..................................................57
7.1 Technology overview...............................................................................................57
7.1.1 Classification of wireless data transmission ......................................................57
7.1.2 Data transmission of passive wireless sensors.................................................58
7.2 Existing wireless vehicle applications......................................................................60
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7.3 Standards and regulations ......................................................................................62

7.4 Trends .....................................................................................................................63
7.4.1 Wireless sensors using active radio communication .........................................63
7.4.2 Vehicle applications using active radio communication.....................................64
7.5 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................65
8. Basic Technologies for Batteryless Power Supply......................................................67
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................67
8.2 Inductive power transmission ..................................................................................67
8.3 Power generation ....................................................................................................73
8.3.1 Capacitive generator .........................................................................................74
8.3.2 Piezo generator.................................................................................................77
8.3.3 Summary...........................................................................................................80
8.4 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................81
9. Physical Properties of Tyre/Wheel System .................................................................82
9.1 Tyre attenuation at 434 MHz, 869 MHz, and 2.45 GHz...........................................82
9.2 Electromagnetic properties......................................................................................85
9.2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................85
9.2.2 Measurement results of permittivity...................................................................85
9.2.3 Attenuation of magnetic field below 100 MHz ...................................................89
10. Patent Overview .........................................................................................................92
10.1 Accelerometer and other sensors ...........................................................................93
10.2 Tyre integration .......................................................................................................93
10.3 Antenna...................................................................................................................95
10.4 Power transmission / generation .............................................................................96
10.5 General aspects of total system ..............................................................................96
10.6 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................98
11. Abbreviations and References....................................................................................99
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1. INTRODUCTION
Objectives
The objectives of the APOLLO project producing a prototype for an intelligent tyre/wheel system
are listed as follows:
1. To increase traffic safety by adding an intelligent tyre/wheel system to advanced vehicles
which provides data on the particular tyre and the given tyre-road contact.
2. To enable improvements for chassis/vehicle control systems, Advanced Driver Assistance
Systems (ADAS), and driver information.
3. To enable the introduction of innovative services concerning tyre and road conditions for
different user groups outside the vehicle.
The term “intelligent tyre/wheel system” does not literally mean that “intelligence” resides inside
the tyre/wheel system. The APOLLO project aims at making additional data from the tyre and the
tyre-road contact available at a communication interface on the vehicle.
The objectives are met by integrating innovative sensors into tyres and developing advanced
solutions for wireless data transmission and batteryless power supply. A mechatronic tyre/wheel
system is constructed by integrating all electronics into the tyre. [MAE02]
State of the art and potential technologies for intelligent tyre systems
The main goal of the APOLLO project is to increase traffic safety. To show the relevance of tyre
related risk factors in accident scenarios, an accident analysis was performed (Chapter 2). The
results with a more detailed description of the situation in the European countries Finland and
Germany are presented.
The basic technologies to be investigated in the APOLLO project are as follows:
• Sensor technology,
• Wireless data transmission and
• Batteryless power supply.
A crucial point of the state of the art study are sensors and sensor technologies (Chapter 4 - 6). In
this context, Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS) – the first products that have been
introduced in the market -, advanced tyre sensors and basic sensor technologies are described.
Already a TPMS contains more components than a single sensor. Therefore, important aspects of
system design and system integration into a tyre/wheel system can be derived by studying these
systems (Chapter 4). Some advanced tyre sensor systems, aiming e.g. at additional data on tyre
forces or friction information, are being developed since nearly 10 years, but products are not
available in the market yet. These sensor systems and the status of their development is presented
(Chapter 5). In addition, basic sensor technologies, that can be used for future developments of
intelligent tyre/wheel systems, are described, including the promising technology of capacitive
sensors (Chapter 6).
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Key technologies for intelligent tyre/wheel systems are technologies for wireless data
transmission and batteryless power supply. Inductive transmission and radio transmission are the
basic technologies used for wireless data transmission (Chapter 7). Radio transmission is already
used for passive systems. There are a lot of developments and research activities utilising radio
transmission for active systems, too, but still the power consumption needed for this technology is
a big hurdle. Aspects of vehicle integration and frequency bands and regulations for short range
radio devices are described. Inductive transmission and power generation are basic technologies
for batteryless power supply of electronic systems. The principles of inductive power
transmission are described, and an overview is given on ongoing developments and research
activities on different methods of power generation technologies (Chapter 8). The ongoing
evolution and high innovation rate in these technology fields are a strong support for the future
product envisaged in the APOLLO project.
Constructing a mechatronic tyre/wheel system means the integration of electronics into the
tyre/wheel system. This mechatronic system has to operate properly in a vehicle environment
under all operating conditions. For the investigation and the selection of appropriate technologies
to be used for such a system it is necessary to know the basic electromagnetic properties of a
tyre/wheel system. Therefore, a pre-study was performed to measure these parameters
(Chapter 9). First measurements and simulations which are presented show promising results
indicating that the relevant frequency bands can be used to set up a mechatronic tyre/wheel
system.
It is not possible to give a complete overview on the subject of patent applications in the field of
intelligent tyre/wheel system, because of high and ongoing activities in this field. Therefore, only
important patent applications for key systems or key components are summarised (Chapter 10).
The state of the art study of sensors and the patent application overview show that there is still a
big gap between a lot of inventions and series products which are available on the market.
Therefore, it is worthwhile to pursue the approach of the APOLLO project where new
technologies are used for the development of an innovative tyre/wheel system which is suitable
for the vehicle environment including the production process, vehicle operation and product
recycling.
Overview
This document provides an overview on the state of the art of intelligent tyre systems and
potential technologies that can be utilised for sensors, wireless data transmission, and batteryless
power supply.
An accident analysis with an investigation of tyre-related risk factors shows the great benefit of
the envisaged system to improve traffic safety. This fits to visions and strategies of vehicle
manufacturers, automotive suppliers and tyre manufactures in respect to intelligent tyre/wheel
systems that are summarised.
The first products that have been introduced in the field of intelligent tyres are Tyre Pressure
Monitoring Systems (TPMS). Different system solutions for TPMS and activities of suppliers are
described. More sophisticated sensor systems, that are still in the process of research or pre-
development, show the high interest in this field. Basic sensor technologies which enhance the
realisation potential for innovative monitoring of tyre and tyre-road contact are presented.
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Radio communication is a technology with a high potential for high performance wireless data
transmission. Applications for passive systems, trends towards radio transmission for active
systems, aspects of vehicle integration and standards are discussed. First investigations on
inductive transmission and power generation prove the potential of these technologies for the
development of a batteryless power supply.
Promising results of a pre-study, showing measurements of electromagnetic properties of the
tyre/wheel system, are presented.
An overview is given on selected patent applications for systems or key components of intelligent
tyre/wheel systems.
Following the approach of the APOLLO project is a promising perspective to achieve a
successful product for an intelligent tyre/wheel system which allows to expect over 4 000 saved
lives in all EU countries every year.
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2. ACCIDENT ANALYSIS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
European Transport Safety Council’s (ETSC) general reports on EU fatalities illustrate that each
year 42 000 EU citizens are killed and over 3.5 million are injured in transport crashes. These
accidents cost over 166 billion Euros and are the leading cause of death and hospital admission
for citizens under 45 years. As shown in Figure 2.1-1 the number of deaths varies strongly in
ETSC member countries. This is partly due to differences in traffic volume, but also other reasons
can be seen. European-wide accident comparison is impossible, because the availability of
comparable in-depth data is limited. Compilation of statistics and accident related definitions
differ from one country to another. No representative statistical data are available on road traffic
accidents in Europe that are caused by a) tyre defects and b) accidents caused by drivers not
taking into account adverse road conditions. The following studies give, however, a good idea
that we are facing a severe safety problem caused either by defective tyres, adverse road
conditions or their combination. Finnish accident analysis shows that defective tyres were either a
contributing factor or a main cause in about 16 % of all fatal accidents. According to a report
from German Traffic Safety Committee, more than half of the accidents with personal injury are
caused by slippery tracks due to rain, ice and snow. Every year 40 people are killed in Germany
and over 2 000 are injured due to defective tyres only (German Traffic Safety Committee).
[HUT1]
For the accident analysis two European countries – Finland and Germany – are selected. Finland
represents a Nordic country with a long winter period. Germany represents a country with a high
traffic volume and density.
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
A
GR (1999)
I
F
IRL
D
FIN
NL
UK
DK
LUX
Figure 2.1-1: EU road deaths in 2000. Source: IRTAD, OECD, 2002 [HUT2]
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2.2 FINLAND
The analysis is based on the reports of VALT (Finnish Motor Insurers’ Centre) and on the
investigation database of the Finnish Road Accident Investigation Teams, [HUT4]. The situation
in Finland is monitored by 21 teams having approximately 240 members in total. Every fatal road
accident is thoroughly investigated by these teams consisting of police-, vehicle engineering-,
traffic engineering-, doctor- and behavioural science- members. The lead-up to the accident, risk
factors, consequences and circumstances are documented into the album and electronic database.
By studying the figures and table presented below, it is evident, that tyre defects have a
significant role in fatal accidents. Their role is especially high in slippery and wet road conditions.
Defective tyres were either a contributing factor or a main cause in 16 % (483 accidents) of all
fatal accidents (2 980 accidents) in Finland in 1991 - 2001. In two out of three tyre related
accidents either worn-out tyres or tyres unfit for road conditions were a major contributory factor.
Under-inflated tyres were a risk factor in 12 % of tyre related accidents (see Figure 2.2-1).
Moreover, it is noteworthy that these figures do not include accidents where adverse road
conditions alone - even when tyres have been good - have been a contributory factor which is also
a target area for intelligent vehicle control systems.
TYRE RELATED RISK FACTORS IN FATAL ACCIDENTS IN 1991-

2001 (FINLAND)
Other tyre risks Under-inflated tyres
5,73% 12,15%
Worn-out tyres with Different tyre pressures
studs in tyres
19,79% 4,17%
Worn-out tyres
18,75%
Tyres unfit for road

conditions
25,52% Tyres with different
Tyres unfit for the properties
vehicle 12,67%
1,22%
NOTE: TYRE RISK FACTOR WAS INVOLVED IN 483 ACCIDENTS, WHICH IS 16,2% OF ALL 2980
Figure 2.2-1: Tyre related risk factors by type of the tyre defect. [HUT3]
The effect of defective tyres varies strongly according to the road conditions. In snowy or icy
conditions the percentage of accidents, where tyre defect has had an effect is significantly high –
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about 38 %. In these conditions, the most common deficiencies are the tyres unfit for road
conditions (about 15 %) and worn-out tyres with studs (about 14 %). In wet road conditions
defective tyres have been reported in 14 % of all accidents. The most important risk factor in wet
road conditions is worn-out tyres (about 8 %) (see Table 2.2-1).
Table 2.2-1: Tyre related risk factors by type of the defect and by road conditions. [HUT3]
TYRE DEFICIENCIES AS RISK FACTOR IN OCCUPANT-FATAL ACCIDENTS IN 1991-2001

(FINLAND)
ROAD SURFACE CONDITIONS
BARE, SNOWY
WET OTHER TOTAL
DRY OR ICY
RISK FACTORS OF TYRES N % 3) N % 3) N % 3) N % 3) N % 3)
Under-inflated tyres 1) 38 2,2 8 1,7 24 3,0 0 0,0 70 2,3
Different tyre pressures in tyres 1) 8 0,5 9 1,9 7 0,9 0 0,0 24 0,8
Worn-out tyres 1) 31 1,8 37 7,8 39 4,9 0 0,0 107 3,6
Tyres with different properties 1) 16 0,9 10 2,1 46 5,8 1 7,1 73 2,4
Tyres unfit for the vehicle 1) 3 0,2 1 0,2 3 0,4 0 0,0 7 0,2
Tyres unfit for road conditions 1) 9 0,5 17 3,6 116 14,5 5 35,7 147 4,9
Worn-out tyres with studs 1) 3 0,2 2 0,4 109 13,7 0 0,0 114 3,8
Other tyre risks 1) 14 0,8 3 0,6 15 1,9 1 7,1 33 1,1
TOTAL, ACCIDENTS INVOLVING TYRE DEFECT 2) 108 6,4 67 14,1 302 37,8 6 42,9 483 16,2
TOTAL, ACCIDENTS INVESTIGATED 1692 100 476 100 798 100 14 100 2980 100
1) Number of accidents involving risk factor in question
2) Number of accidents involving tyre related risk factors
3) Percentage of accidents investigated in the category
A more thorough investigation was made using the investigation database of the Finnish Road
Accident Investigation Teams. The objective was to study such fatal accidents which are
characterised by search parameters that are relevant for tyre monitoring and monitoring of tyre-
road contact, and based on this study to describe specific “accident scenarios” for later use in the
APOLLO project. These specific “accident scenarios” mean in this context accidents, which
possibly could be avoided by using an intelligent tyre/wheel system - the technical objective of
the APOLLO project.
In this study years 1998 - 2001 were chosen as a reference period. During this period 1 025 fatal
accidents were recorded (1998: 254, 1999: 261, 2000: 240 and 2001: 270). The main search
parameter was the loss of driving control. Other parameters (e.g. condition of tyres, abnormal
weather, road conditions, aquaplaning) varied in different searches. The percentage figure is
calculated in such a way that only accidents, where all marked search parameters are relevant, are
included (see Table 2.2-2).
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Table 2.2-2: Study of fatal accidents in 1998 - 2001 (Finland). [HUT4]
Search parameters
Tyres Dry or only
Loss of Percentage of
as a Winter slightly Dry
Year driving Aquaplaning all accidents in
risk conditions moist weather
control that year %
factor weather
X X X 9,5
X X X 2,4
1998
X X 5,5
X X 0,4
X X X 8,4
X X X 1,9
1999
X X 8,4
X X 0,8
X X X 11,0
2000 X X X 4,2
X X 12,1
X X X 10,0
X X X 3,0
2001
X X 6,3
X X 0,8
The investigation shows, that the percentage value of accidents with the same search parameters
stays roughly constant year after year. The road condition is the most significant single parameter
causing the loss of control. The icy and snowy roads are naturally strongly represented in
casualties in Finland. When investigating casualties on a dry road surface it can be seen, that
excessive speed or alcohol is the main cause for the accidents. In this study these both factors are
included, because also those accidents might be prevented by the application of an intelligent
tyre/wheel system. The most significant factor causing the loss of control directly associated with
vehicle is the condition of its tyres. Also this investigation reveals that tyre defects are strongly
presented in accidents in adverse road conditions.
2.3 GERMANY
As shown in Figure 2.3-1, the accidents with personal injury referenced to 1 000 vehicles in the
Federal Republic of Germany decrease continuously since 1980. The only eye-catching exception
in the declining of the rate is the increase of fatalities in 1991, which can be explained by the
reunification of Germany. It is worth mentioning that the number of vehicles in Germany
increased from 27 million in 1980 to about 51 million vehicles in the year 2000. [BMV99],
[SBA02]
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Fat. 0.5 20
Inj.
18
0.4 16
14
0.3 12
10
0.2 8
Fatalities 6
per 1000 vehicles
0.1 4
Injured per 1000
vehicles 2
0 0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
year
Figure 2.3-1: Road traffic accident fatalities and injured per 1 000 motor vehicles
in Germany 1980 - 2000.
The graphs in Figure 2.3-1 prove that it was possible to reduce the rate of injured persons in the
last 20 years about 47 %, while the rate of deadly injured persons has fallen about 70 %.
The main reasons for that intense reduction is the continuously rising level of technical
improvement of vehicles in the field of passive safety (airbag, side impact protection, etc.) as well
as active safety (ABS, ESP, etc.).
100%
others
90%
animals on
track
80%
sight
70% obscuration due
to fog
slipperiness
60% due to ice and
snow
50% slipperiness
due to rain
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1999 2000 2001
year © Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden 2002
Figure 2.3-2: General causes of accidents with personal injury.
The federal statistical office in Germany has analysed accidents with personal injury in term of its
causes. General causes (Figure 2.3-2) and technical faults (Figure 2.3-3) are distinguished as
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causal factors. Looking into the general causes in Figure 2.3-2, it can be seen that slippery roads
due to rain, ice and snow cause more than 55 % of the accidents with personal injury. It can be
concluded, that the lack of information on the current road conditions is an important influencing
factor for these accidents. Therefore, it can be expected that the appropriate use of additional
information on road condition in vehicle applications offers great potential in decreasing road
traffic accidents. [SBA02]
100%
others
braking system
tyre
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1999 2000 2001
year © Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden 2002
Figure 2.3-3: Accidents with personal injury caused by technical faults.
The second cause, which is mentioned by the federal statistical office, is technical faults of the
vehicle. Technical faults of the brake system, the tyre and other technical faults are distinguished.
Figure 2.3-3 shows the percentage of accidents caused by technical faults in the period of years
1999 – 2001. About 30 % of all accidents, which are due to technical faults, are caused by
defected tyres. [SBA02]
2.4 CONCLUSION
The high potential of accident prevention by using an intelligent tyre/wheel system can be clearly
seen through this accident analysis. It has been shown, that adverse road conditions, tyre defects
or their combination play an important role in road accidents.
Accident analysis reveals, that detecting adverse road conditions is of great interest from traffic
safety point of view. The road condition is the most significant single parameter causing the loss
of driving control. For example, in Germany 55 % of accidents with personal injury are caused by
slippery roads. Giving information about adverse road conditions to the vehicle applications, to
the driver and to other road users have high potential in diminishing the impacts of accidents and
preventing accidents. With this information drivers have the opportunity to adapt their speed and
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their driving behaviour to the current conditions. Additionally, existing active safety systems such
as ABS and ESP are able to work much more effectively, if current road conditions can be used
as a parameter in control algorithms. This information is missing today, and deriving this
information from tyre-road contact patch is one of the objectives in the APOLLO project.
Tyre-related risk factors were recorded in 16 % of all fatal accidents in Finland during the period
of 1991 - 2001. In two out of three tyre-related accidents either worn-out tyres or tyres unfit for
road conditions were a major contributory factor. Under-inflated tyres were a risk factor in 12 %
of tyre related accidents. Defective tyres have a significant role in fatal accidents especially in
adverse road conditions. According to the federal statistical office in Germany, defective tyres
cause about 30 % of all accidents, which are due to technical faults. These figures show, that
monitoring tyre condition and detecting tyre defects are important objectives with respect to
accident prevention. There is a clear need for monitoring not only tyre pressure, but also tyre wear
and damage.
It is impossible to give any exact figure of safety benefits resulting from an intelligent tyre/wheel
system. Accident analysis suggests that the decrease in the number of fatalities, provided that the
entire car fleet is equipped with intelligent tyre systems, could be according to a conservative
estimate at least 10 % of accidents. This would mean that over 4 000 lives could be saved every
year in EU countries.
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3. TRENDS AND STRATEGIES
3.1 VEHICLE MANUFACTURERS

The vision of accident-free traffic is one of the most challenging visions in today’s and future
automotive market. Therefore, the improvement of traffic safety is a strong motivation for many
important innovations in automotive industry. To improve traffic or driving safety is not a
specific task of some dedicated systems, but it can only be achieved by an optimised integration
of different vehicle systems such as Advanced Driver Assistance System, driver information,
power train management, chassis systems and external services (see Figure 3.1-1).
In Figure 3.1-1 the tyre itself is added to the group of chassis systems, and all systems that
contribute to reach the goal of accident free traffic are shown.
Advanced Driver
Infrastructure
Assistance System
Innovative
Peripheral vehicles for an Driver Information
Data accident free
traffic
Power Train
Management
External
Services
Chassis and Tyre

Steering Braking Suspension Tyre
Systems
Figure 3.1-1: Systems and system integration needed for innovative vehicles
and accident-free traffic.
Beside the development of automotive systems the improvement of road construction and
maintenance and traffic organisation are important tasks to achieve the goal of accident-free
traffic. [BAL02], [FIS01], [STE01]
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Important trends in the development of safety relevant vehicle systems (see Figure 3.1-1) are to
improve the integration or the co-operation of these systems and to make the systems more
intelligent. Intelligent systems in this context means to add new capabilities such as
• gaining information / sensing,
• actuation,
• control,
• evaluation of information and making decisions, or
• providing information to the systems or presenting information to the driver respectively.
By these means a
• lack of information and an
• incorrect acting of the driver or a control system
must be avoided to reach the overall goal of accident-free traffic. It is obvious, that an intelligent
tyre system providing information on the tyre and the tyre-road contact is an important system,
which can provide many additional information to a wide range of vehicle systems or
applications.
Examples of OEM’s activities and developments on a high level integration of vehicle systems
are integrated driver assistance systems, networked chassis control, integrated chassis control and
the integration of traction management and stability management. [BAC00], [HIE02], [KON02],
[RIE02], [ZIE01]
In the field of intelligent tyre systems Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS) have been the
first products introduced in the market. This development was mainly driven by vehicle
manufacturers. The basic functionality of a TPMS is to monitor tyre inflation pressure and
temperature. The range of available solutions and products comprises various indirect and direct
systems as well as simple or sophisticated means for the relevant driver information (see
Chapter 4). The direct TPMS are using RF technology for transmitting sensor data to the vehicle
and they are powered by batteries (see Chapter 7 and 8). Most direct TPMS are installed at the
rim or attached to the valve.
The TPMS products introduced by OEM’s are more or less proprietary systems. During last
years, standardisation activities on these systems have been started, e.g. by European ISO
committee or working groups of VDA (German Association of the Automotive Industry). These
activities are focused on standards for data exchange and communication technologies. Other
upcoming trends are the replacement of batteries by innovative solutions for electrical power
supply and the integration of electronics directly to or into the tyre. A standardisation for the
components needed at the vehicle is also important to achieve a non proprietary system.
The need for standardisation – especially in case of a tyre integrated solution – can be emphasised
by the requirement, that the customer should keep the free choice of a wide range of tyres from
different suppliers for his vehicle.
Another trend is to develop sophisticated sensors which can provide additional information for
vehicle applications. These activities are more or less driven by automotive electronic suppliers or
research organisations (see Chapter 5 and 6).
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European OEM’s have been the first players who introduced TPMS as a first step towards
intelligent tyre/wheel systems in the automotive market.
In 2002 a new standard on TPMS was established, that requires the installation of TPMS to warn
the driver when the tyre is significantly under-inflated. This standard was published in a paper on
final rule by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Department of
Transportation (DOT) in United States of America. This standard is called “Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standards; Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems; Controls and Displays”. It makes
TPMS mandatory for passenger cars, trucks, multipurpose vehicles, and buses (a gross vehicle
weight rating of 10 000 pounds or less) and contains a short term realisation period from 2003 –
2006 and a long-term realisation period starting in 2006. This legislation is a strong driver for
new developments, fast market introduction and standardisation of TPMS. It is very important for
European OEM’s, because the automotive market in the USA is the biggest national market world
wide with a high market share on exports from European countries. [NHT02]
Beside current activities in the field of TPMS there is a big interest of OEM’s in gathering more
information on the tyre-road contact, but up to know no solutions or products are available for
series production.
3.2 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS SUPPLIERS

General aspects
A wide range of different suppliers is active in the market of automotive electronics. There are
small or medium sized companies, acting as component suppliers, and large companies, which are
system suppliers for automotive manufactures. There is an ongoing trend of an increase in vertical
system integration of system suppliers in automotive industry.
In the field of TPMS most products are developed in a co-operation of system supplier and OEM.
The system supplier procures single components, e.g. a sensor, from a component supplier. Some
suppliers, which are specialised on TPMS, have started to offer their products in the after market.
Safety relevant systems such as Electronic Stability Programme (ESP), chassis control systems
and ADAS are high level systems, which are of great interest for system suppliers. Additional
information on tyre and tyre-road contact becomes more and more important to improve the
performance of these systems. For example, the influence of the characteristics of the particular
tyres of a vehicle on the performance of ESP and the driving behaviour was presented by Robert
Bosch GmbH. Activities on the development of more advanced tyre sensors are running e.g. at
Continental AG, but these systems are still in a pre-development phase (see Chapter 5). This
company is proclaiming the concept of a global chassis control system, which is comparable to
the trend followed by some OEM’s (see Chapter 3.1). The approach of such a global control
system uses advanced networking technologies for the integration of different systems. The
expected benefits are an increase in system performance and a reduction of engineering efforts for
system implementation and enhancements for different applications and vehicles. [ZAN02],
[RIE02], [ZIE01]
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Technical aspects
Tyre pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) are currently moving from high-end cars towards mid-
range vehicles with associated increase in volumes. This situation causes strong efforts to
integrate the new feature into existing car electronic system architectures in order to lower costs
by means of an optimised functions’ mapping and to opening way to new warning/control
strategies by means of more efficient sharing of information. For high volume series products of
TPMS an easy way of system implementation and cost reductions are necessary. Therefore,
existing electronics ought to be used for TPMS’s components such as dedicated antennas,
receiver, computing device and display as far as possible.
An important trend that can be seen in automotive electronics is to set up a more standardised
architecture for electronic and electrical systems. The typical bus (CAN/LIN) and node
architecture that is needed for advanced remote keyless entry feature fits well in the new
application thanks to the availability of existing RF antenna and receiver (usually located in the
body computer) and dashboard visualisation capability (see Figure 3.2-1).
DASHBOARD ROOF NODE CLIMATE ECU DOOR MODULES ST. WHEEL MODULE
CAN
TELEMATIC NODE BODY COMPUTER REAR NODE
Figure 3.2-1: Typical bus and node architecture.
Standards for communication and electronic architecture as well as synergies by using existing
hardware components are possibilities to cut costs for series products.
Beside the sensor system, the design of the interface between the tyre/wheel system and the
vehicle is very important for the implementation of an intelligent tyre/wheel system. Wireless
technologies for data transmission and electrical power supply have to be used, because the wheel
is a rotating system. This requirements fit to a current trend of using RF technologies or inductive
transmission for data transmission to vehicle systems such as keyless entry, remote sensors or
displays. The replacement of batteries by an inductive transmission or a local power generation
for those systems is of big interest, too. The main benefits are an increase of reliability and
environmental friendliness (recycling) and reduced maintenance efforts.
Another trend an intelligent tyre/wheel system can benefit from is the development of robust
electronics for a harsh vehicle environment, e.g. engine electronics.
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The introduction of x-by-wire systems is a future trend that can be foreseen for automotive
applications. X-by-wire means to replace mechanical parts by electrical or electronic parts. This
technology, which is already introduced in aircraft industry, is used for current pre-development
activities in automotive industry for different applications, e.g. steer-by-wire system or brake-by-
wire system. X-by-wire systems as well as an intelligent tyre/wheel system are safety relevant
vehicle systems. Even though wires are used for x-by-wire systems, the experience gained from
these developments, especially on relevant architectures, standards and the process of product
homologation, can be used for the design and development of an intelligent tyre/wheel system
utilising wireless technologies.
3.3 TYRE MANUFACTURERS AND CO-OPERATIONS

Tyre manufactures
Tyre manufactures as well as vehicle manufactures pay high attention to tyres, because a tyre has
a big influence on driving safety, driving behaviour, comfort and vehicle design. Therefore, the
tyre turns to be a high-tech product, which is true for the material and the manufacturing
technology, even though many customers or drivers are not aware of this context. The
introduction of a system such as TPMS and the importance of the tyre for accident-free driving
open up new chances for tyre manufacturers to increase the added value of their products and to
place new and innovative products in automotive market.
Tyre manufactures started product developments to bring intelligence into the tyre. To bring
intelligence into the tyre means to enhance tyre functionality in providing additional information
to vehicle systems. Therefore, it is necessary to apply sensors and electronics to the tyre/wheel
system. The integration of electronics into a tyre/wheel system requires a new approach for the
design of a mechatronic tyre which has to consider both the production process and the aspects of
recycling.
Tyre manufactures are taking part in standardisation activities, too, e.g. European Tyre and Rim
Technical Organisation (ETRTO), Scandinavian Tyre an Rim Organisation (STRO).
The relevant market segments for tyre manufactures are OEM’s, fleet managers and operators and
the aftermarket. A rough estimate of the yearly volume of automotive manufacturing is 40 million
pieces, which means less than 200 million tyres. The size of the tyre aftermarket is yearly about
600 million pieces. This means that for a tyre manufacturer it is important to succeed in both of
these markets. Thus the “intelligence” in a tyre should allow replacement with a newer model of
the tyre used as original equipment and even with a product from competing tyre companies.
As an example, Nokian Tyres plc, which has conventionally been an aftermarket player, has
formed a new subsidiary called RoadSnoop Ltd. to commercialise intelligent tyre technology. A
new TPMS product is being introduced in the aftermarket first, and new products are developed
to open a path towards the OEM business with high-tech an relatively high-margin tyre products.
Pirelli Pneumatici S.p.A., which is a player in the OEM market segment, is developing intelligent
tyre systems and forming a new business field called Tyre Systems. Continental AG, which was
focused on tyre business some years ago, developed a new business strategy and formed the
company division Continental Automotive System (CAS) with the members Continental Teves
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and Conti Temic. Currently the company is an automotive system supplier and a tyre
manufacturer with enlarged capabilities of developing and producing automotive electronics.
Co-operation of electronics suppliers and tyre manufacturers

The market potential of future intelligent tyre/systems is underlined by the formation of co-
operations between automotive electronics suppliers and tyre manufactures. The co-operation of
Robert Bosch GmbH and Michelin was announced in 2001. Another co-operation was formed by
Siemens VDO Automotive and Goodyear. This trend might also be a hint, that the development
of a mechatronic tyre/wheel system is a big challenge, that requires to share know-how in tyre
technology as well as automotive electronics.
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4. TYRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEMS (TPMS)
4.1 INDIRECT MEASUREMENT

A simple and low-cost way to build a tyre pressure monitoring system is to utilise the already
existing wheel speed sensors and ECU of the ABS system in the car. A tyre’s rolling radius
depends on the air pressure inside (Figure 4.1-1). However, this radius also depends on many
other variables, which do not make ABS-based TPMS very reliable.
Figure 4.1-1: Tyre rolling radius versus pressure. [NR1]
Problems that might occur using indirect tyre pressure monitoring systems are listed as follows:
[NR1]
• The system needs calibration to learn what is an appropriate wheel speed relationship, before
it can sense differences from that. A long driving time can be necessary for this calibration.
During this time the system is not detecting tyre pressure drops.
• In a test carried out by the US Department of Transportation an indirect TPMS did not detect
low tyre pressures for situations as follows:
- Two low-pressure tyres were on the same side.
- Two low-pressure tyres were on the same axle.
- All four tyres were low in pressure.
• Slip at the wheels disturbs the pressure-sensing algorithm.
• Speed, acceleration, uneven tyre wear and production tolerances affect rolling radius.
• System does not work if a compact spare tyre or tyre chains are being used.
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• Most systems warn the driver when pressure in one tyre has dropped 20 % to 30 % below the
other tyres.
For example, the tyre manufacturers Continental AG and Dunlop are supplying indirect TPMS
products. Continental’s product name is Deflation Detection System DDS (exists in BMW M3)
and Dunlop calls its system Warnair (in new Mini). [NR2], [NR3]
4.2 DIRECT MEASUREMENT - ACTIVE SENSORS
4.2.1 Battery-operated sensor technology in general
In this context an active sensor means, that the TPMS contains a component for electric power
supply. The main components of an active battery operated tyre pressure monitoring system are
battery, processor, memory, sensors, radio component and antenna. Some of these components
are usually integrated on single chips (ASIC) to save weight and space and to reduce power
consumption. The sensors typically measure pressure and temperature. Most manufacturers also
use a simple acceleration sensor or a switch that helps determine whether the tyre is rotating or
not. For example Motorola (USA) and Sensonor (Norway) manufacture commercially available
components for TPMS products (Figure 4.2-1). [NR4], [NR5]
Figure 4.2-1: Integrated pressure and temperature sensor component SP13

for TPMS from Sensonor. [NR5]
The most commonly used frequency for transmitting the measured tyre information to the
receiver is about 433 MHz. This frequency can be freely used in Europe. In the United States a
similar license-free frequency is 315 MHz. A relatively new frequency suitable for TPMS is the
band between 868 and 870 MHz. Also the 2.45 GHz ISM frequency is in some of the TPMS
manufacturers' roadmaps. These frequencies can of course be used for other applications, which
can cause interference. Both, amplitude and frequency modulation are used.
The receivers consist of antenna, processor, memory and a user interface. Products for the
aftermarket usually have a receiver that contains all of these components in one box. If the TPMS
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is an original equipment system, in other words, installed during the car manufacturing, the
receiver is typically integrated into the car and connected with an external display and keyboard,
e.g. the control panel of the car. Sometimes the receiver can be more or less integrated in the
remote keyless entry system of the car. In some OE-products the receiver uses several antennas,
one near each wheel. In such a case, the positions of the tyre sensors under the vehicle can be
automatically detected.
4.2.2 Clamp-on-rim sensors
Clamp-on rim sensors can be fixed on the well bed of the rim with a stainless steel clamp. This
fixing method can be used in aftermarket products, when the same product must suit a large
variety of cars.
SmarTire, a company based in Vancouver, Canada, is the oldest player on the TPMS market. The
first SmarTire product was presented in the early 1990’s. The newest, third generation product
consists of tyre sensors, that are fixed on the rims with stainless steel bands, and a receiver, that is
fixed on the dashboard or on the windscreen and connected to the cigarette lighter of the car for
power supply. This product is sold on the aftermarket (Figure 4.2-2). [NR6]
Figure 4.2-2: SmarTire’s latest generation TPMS product. [NR6]
RoadSnoop Pressure Watch is an aftermarket product from the Finnish tyre manufacturer Nokian
Tyres plc. It’s sensors are fixed on the rim with steel bands. The receiver is a small wireless
battery-operated device, which can be put on any place inside the car, where it can be easily seen
and heard. The receiver gets pressure and temperature data from the tyres and gives a warning, if
the pressure drops below a pre-set value. RoadSnoop will be available in the beginning of 2003
(Figure 4.2-3). [NR7]
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Figure 4.2-3: RoadSnoop Pressure Watch. [NR7]
Other aftermarket products that have a sensor with steel clamp fixing are TireSafe from
Algonquin Scientific (USA) (Figure 4.2-4), Tire-SafeGuard from Topchek System (China)
(Figure 4.2-5), The Third Eye from Strong Frontier (Malaysia) (Figure 4.2-6) and TMS from A.
M. Bromley (UK) (Figure 4.2-7). However, these products seem not to be available on the market
yet. [NR8], [NR9], [NR10], [NR11]
Figure 4.2-4: TireSafe from Algonquin Scientific. [NR8]
Figure 4.2-5: Tire-SafeGuard system components (Topcheck System):

TPM-DU = receiver, TPM-S2 = sensor, TPM-MB = fixing clamp. [NR9]
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Figure 4.2-6: The Third Eye product components (Strong Frontier). [NR10]
Figure 4.2-7: TMS product components (A. M. Bromley). [NR11]
4.2.3 Valve-attached sensors
Another sensor fixing method is attaching the sensor casing on the bottom end of the tyre valve.
In this case, the sensor is actually located on the very same spot as when using a clamp on the rim
well bed. Different rims require different valves, which means that this fixing method is better for
the original equipment market, where it only has to fit a specific car model with limited variety of
wheel types.
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Schrader Electronics from UK is the manufacturer for the standard TPMS sensors in Renault
Laguna II and some other French car models like Peugeot 607 and Citroën C5. Schrader’s sensor
is fixed on the metal tyre valve and uses the valve shaft as an antenna (Figure 4.2-8). Schrader has
recently released information about their second generation sensor, which ought to be fixed on a
snap-on-type rubber valve. [NR12]
Figure 4.2-8: Smart Valves manufactured by Schrader Electronics. [NR12]
Beru from Germany is manufacturing perhaps the most sophisticated (and no doubt the most
expensive) tyre pressure monitoring system for the original equipment market. The sensor’s valve
attachment solution is supplied by Alligator Ventilfabrik, also from Germany. Beru’s receiver has
separate antennas for every wheel and the user interface is integrated into the car’s instrument
panel (Figure 4.2-9). [NR13]
Figure 4.2-9: Beru product’s main components: wheel house antenna,

valve-attached sensor and central processing unit. [NR13]
Lots of products similar to the Schrader’s and Beru’s can be found in the Internet. These products
also contain valve-fixed sensors and a receiver, which is either a separate unit (aftermarket) or
integrated into the car (OE). These Internet presentations come from both, large and well-known
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as well as smaller companies. So far, most of these products are not yet available on the market.
Some of these products are summarised as follows:
• The German company Siemens VDO Automotive promised to bring a TPMS product of their
own as an OE-product in some car models during 2002 (Figure 4.2-10). [NR14]
Figure 4.2-10: Siemens’ TPM product. [NR14]
• The Japanese companies Pacific Industrial (Figure 4.2-11) and Omron (Figure 4.2-12) are also
promoting TPMS suitable for OE market on their Internet sites. [NR15], [NR16]
Figure 4.2-11: Pacific Industrial’s Figure 4.2-12: Omron’s TPMS. [NR16]

TPMS sensor. [NR15]
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• In Geneva car exhibition, a valve attached pressure sensor has been spotted in the Japanese
tyre manufacturer Bridgestone-Firestone’s stand with their logo on it (Figure 4.2-13). [NR17]
Figure 4.2-13 Bridgestone’s tyre pressure sensor

(photographed in Geneva car exhibition 2002). [NR17]
• Another Japanese company in TPMS market is Alps Electric, who has published a co-
operation with Schrader Electronics (Figure 4.2-14). [NR18]
Figure 4.2-14: Alps Electric’s TPMS central unit with Schrader’s sensor. [NR18]
• The large global automotive suppliers Johnson Controls and TRW have had their TPMS
products presented on their Internet pages for a long time. Both JCI’s PSI Mirror
(Figure 4.2-15) and TRW’s Tire Watch uses the rear view mirror as a display for tyre
information (Figure 4.2-16). From these two products the PSI Mirror is available on the US
market. The manufacturers of the actual tyre sensor modules used in these products are not
known, but it can be assumed, that the sensors are supplied by other TPMS manufacturers.
[NR19], [NR20]
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Figure 4.2-15: Johnson Controls’ PSI Mirror. [NR19]
Figure 4.2-16: TRW’s Tyre Watch. [NR20]
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• A third large automotive supplier promoting its TPMS technology is Visteon (Figure 4.2-17).
[NR21]
Figure 4.2-17: Visteon’s idea of valve-fixed tyre pressure sensor. [NR21]
• Both the Italian company All-Tech (Figure 4.2-18) and the Taiwanese Cowealth
(Figure 4.2-19) have several TPMS products in their portfolio, both types, valve attached and
valve cap integrated. None of their products are on the market yet. [NR22], [NR23]
Figure 4.2-18: All-Tech’s TPMS receiver and sensor with valve attachment. [NR22]
Figure 4.2-19: Cowealth’s TPMS receiver and valve-attached sensor. [NR23]
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• Another Taiwanese company with a presentation of a TPMS on their web site is Lite-On
Automotive (Figure 4.2-20). [NR24]
Figure 4.2-20: Lite-On Automotive’s TPMS product. [NR24]
A slightly different system meant for heavy vehicles, which seems to be very final comes from
the French companies Wabco and Michelin, and it is called IVTM (Figure 4.2-21). In this
product, the sensor casing is fixed near the centre of the wheel, using the standard wheel bolts.
The sensor casing is connected to the outer end of the tyre valves with tubes. In this case, the
measured temperature at the sensor is not the temperature inside the tyre but closer to the
temperature of the wheel centre. This could cause problems in compensating the normal pressure
changes due to fluctuation of temperature. The manufacturers claim to have solved these
problems with advanced algorithms. [NR25]
Figure 4.2-21: IVTM system components (Wabco and Michelin). [NR25]
4.2.4 Valve-cap-integrated sensors
A third sensor fixing possibility is to try and squeeze the sensor electronics inside a valve cap.
This fixing method is easy and suitable for aftermarket and especially heavy vehicles. A heavy
tyre structure is typically very thick and has a steel cord in it, which makes it more difficult for
the radio signal to get out of the tyre. Valve cap sensors require a stiff metal valve and limit the
size of the battery so that these sensors typically use a mechanical pressure switch, which turns
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the radio transmitting circuitry on only if an alert is necessary. In other words, continuous tyre
pressure information is not available.
Tyre pressure monitoring systems with valve-cap-integrated tyre sensors can be found on the
Internet-sites of the US companies listed as follows:
• The Sensor Technology International with a product called Run Safe (Figure 4.2-22), [NR26]
• Fleet Specialties with “Tire Sentry” (Figure 4.2-23), [NR27],
• Sensatec with “Tire Sentinel” and
• Advantage Enterprises with “Pressure Pro”.
The last two of these companies are not showing real pictures of their products on their Internet
sites. [NR28], [NR29]
Figure 4.2-22: Run Safe product’s. Receiver display with one valve-cap-integrated
tyre pressure sensor on top of it. [NR26]
Figure 4.2-23: Tire Sentry product’s valve-cap-sensor and receiver/display. [NR27]
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A British valve cap integrated TPMS product is called Tyre Shield and comes from A.I.R.
Automotive Systems. The actual availability of these systems is not known (Figure 4.2-24).
[NR30]
Figure 4.2-24: The receiver and valve cap sensors of Tyre Shield. [NR30]
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4.3 DIRECT MEASUREMENT - PASSIVE SENSORS
4.3.1 Introduction on batteryless sensor technology
In the direct TPMS the battery is the most problematic component. It limits the operation time of
the sensor. In order to guarantee a life time of at least 5 to 10 years the battery needs to have
several hundred mAh capacity, which causes the battery to be relatively big and heavy. The
existing batteries have also temperature limitations. In very cold (under -40 °C) and very high
environment (over +130 °C) they may not work properly or may even be destroyed completely.
The obvious solution would be to replace the battery with a generator that would convert the
kinetic energy of a rolling tyre into electrical energy. So far, this kind of generators only exist in
research laboratories and patent publications. The main reasons why there are no feasible
generators available are probably the complexity, size, weight, limited temperature tolerance and
cost of the published technologies. For example, in an US-patent by D. Snyder, a concept of such
a generator is presented (Figure 4.3-1). There is a piezoelectric reed included in the tyre sensor
unit. The movements of the wheel cause the piezoelectric reed to bend and generate electricity.
[NR31]
Figure 4.3-1: Tyre monitoring system with piezoelectric reed power supply. [NR31]
Some companies have tried to solve the battery problem by using the so-called transponder
principle, in other words passive sensors. This means that the sensor electronics get the necessary
energy from the radio signal. The idea is similar to the RFID-technology, which is widely used in
authorisation cards in companies to open doors or to record working hours. The signal from the
receiver causes the circuitry of the transponder to resonate, which uses this energy to transmit a
reply to the receiver. So far, the energy from the radio signal has not been sufficient to operate a
sensor for measuring for example pressure and still have enough left for the reply. However,
some very promising technologies have been published, and they might come out on the market
in a couple of years.
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4.3.2 Batteryless TPMS at 2.4 GHz
The German IQ-Mobil GmbH is developing a batteryless tyre pressure monitoring system, which
they call RDKS. It consists of control unit, antenna controller and transponder. The control unit
feeds four antennas (one in each wheel arch) (Figure 4.3-2). The system uses the 2.4 GHz ISM
band and automatically switches to a free frequency in the 80 MHz wide band to avoid already
occupied frequencies. The radio transmission range between the sensor in the tyre and the antenna
in the wheel arch is currently from 50 cm to 70 cm. [NR32]
Figure 4.3-2: IQ-Mobil’s sensor attached on a tyre valve and the size of the electronics. [NR32]
The sensor in the tyre is irradiated by the antenna in the wheel arch at a carrier frequency of
2.45 GHz. Initially, the signal is amplitude-modulated by the control unit in the range from
5 MHz to 10 MHz.
Figure 4.3-3: The transmission principle of IQ-Mobil’s batteryless TPMS sensor. [NR32]
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The sensor receives the signal and demodulates it by means of a detector diode; the modulated
wave is used to stimulate the oscillations of a quartz. Then the modulation is switched off, and the
carrier radiated at reduced power. The quartz now vibrates at its natural frequency, which varies
with temperature or as influenced by the capacitive pressure sensor. These vibrations are mixed
with the remaining carrier signal, which is now reflected to the antenna with its modulation
sidebands. The control unit receives the signal and analyses it by means of a digital receiver
circuit (Figure 4.3-3). [NR32]
The measurable pressure ranges from 0.5 bar to a maximum of 12 bar, depending on the quartz
being used. Operating Temperature Range is from -40 °C to +170 °C. Chip Size is 22 x 22 x 6.1
mm³ and weight is 6.1 g, pressure measurement sensitivity is 500 Hz/bar. The transponder is
mounted on the tyre valve. [NR32]
4.3.3 Other systems
Fraunhofer Institut in Germany has studied a batteryless tyre pressure transponder. They utilise
surface micromachined pressure sensors with low power consumption (e.g. 150 µW). The tag
integrates an absolute pressure sensor and a temperature sensor including the necessary readout
electronics with the interface for wireless readout on one die. The die is powered by the RF-field
of a remote reader unit. The system operates with a RF carrier at 133 kHz. Only an antenna coil
with resonance capacitor and an additional resistor are needed as external components. Data of
the sensor output and calibration coefficients stored in the on-chip EEPROMs are transmitted in a
robust fully digital protocol using amplitude shift keying (ASK) modulation. Depending on the
antenna geometry, operation distance up to 1 m with data rates up to 4 kBits/s are achieved. For
the tyre pressure monitoring of trucks a 10 bar sensor is used. The sensor can either be placed
inside the tyre or the valve cap (Figure 4.3-4). [NR33]
Figure 4.3-4: Fraunhofer Institute’s tyre pressure transponder. [NR33]
The US tyre manufacturer Goodyear has announced co-operation with a technology company
Phase IV in developing tyre pressure monitoring technology. Goodyear has announced an
"intelligent" tyre system that monitors and reports tyre pressure and temperature for tyres on large
haul trucks used in mining and other off-highway, heavy-duty applications. The product has been
developed with Phase IV and was unveiled at MINExpo 2000 in Las Vegas. Phase IV specialises
in passive sensing transponders based on their custom chip and low cost, battery powered
temperature and sensing telemetry systems. Goodyear has been working with Phase IV since
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1992 to develop a system that could be embedded in a tyre for identification purposes and
monitoring air pressure and tyre temperature (Figure 4.3-5). [NR34]
Figure 4.3-5: PhaseIV Engineering’s passive RFID tag with

built in temperature sensor. [NR34]
The British technology companies Qinetiq and First Technology have also announced the
development of batteryless TPMS technology of their own. A thin element of metallic alloy is at
the heart of this system’s in-valve tyre sensors. This advanced material, developed by QinetiQ,
changes in characteristic as the tyre deflates, which is then, in turn, detected by the on-board
monitoring equipment. The Sensor is powered by harvesting energy from radio waves. These are
transmitted from a transceiver located outside the tyre on the vehicle body. The sensor modifies
the transmitted radio waves, in response to changes in tyre pressure, and the receiver section of
the on-board transceiver detects the reflected signal. Tyre pressure information is transmitted via
a frequency-modulated protocol, which allows pressure in the wheels and in the spare tyre to be
individually monitored (Figure 4.3-6). [NR35]
Figure 4.3-6: Qinetiq’s and First Technology’s illustration of their

batteryless TPMS technology. [NR35]
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4.4 CONCLUSION
TPMS are the first series products in the field of intelligent tyre/wheel systems which are already
introduced in the automotive market. The development activities on TPMS are still high. This
applies to nearly all aspects of components and technologies used for a TPMS such as indirect
measurement principle or direct measurement principle, sensor, power supply, data transmission
and data handling. Further improvements for TPMS for direct measurements are expected in an
increased robustness of the electronics, an easy way of vehicle integration including vehicle
assembly process and a simple handling for service and maintenance purposes. Therefore, many
pre-development activities are focused on wireless data transmission and batteryless power
supply. These technologies are important for the way of integrating a TPMS into the vehicle and
the tyre/wheel system. Different possibilities where to locate and how to attach a TPMS are still
investigated and discussed. There is not a clear trend whether future TPMS are valve-attached,
rim-attached, attached to the tyre surface or even integrated into the rubber. The legislation in the
US by the NHTSA is a strong driver for new developments, fast market introduction and
standardisation of TPMS. These activities are supporting the development of more advanced
intelligent tyre/wheel systems the APOLLO project is aiming at. The functionality of TPMS can
not be replaced by a more sophisticated tyre/wheel system. The tyre inflation pressure and
temperature are important data to derive information on forces or friction parameters from more
advanced sensors. Therefore, future development might result in a solution for an intelligent
tyre/wheel system with an incorporated functionality of TPMS.
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5. ADVANCED TYRE SENSOR SYSTEMS
5.1 SIDE WALL TORSION SENSOR

A vehicle is affected by longitudinal forces during braking and accelerating and by lateral forces
while cornering. Both, longitudinal and lateral forces cause global deformation of the tyre,
including belt and side walls. The German tyre manufacturer and automotive systems supplier
Continental uses two combined sensor devices to measure this deformation in order to derive the
acting forces. Two sensors are attached to the chassis. They are set up to measure at different
diameters of the tyre side wall and oriented perpendicular to the side wall. The special
characteristic of the tyre is that it contains two magnetised stripes on the inner side wall. The
magnetised stripes consist of a regular pattern of magnetic material, incorporated into the rubber
material. These stripes are arranged at two different diameters of the tyre (Figure 5.1-1). [NR39]
Figure 5.1-1: Continental’s SWT sensor.

(1) Magnetic field sensors.
(2) Tyre with two magnetised stripes at the side wall. [NR39]
To magnetise the tyre side wall, synthetic magnetic fields with alternating north and south poles
are installed along the entire circumference of the side wall. The two sensors applied to the
chassis are measuring a signal which is proportional to the magnetic field of the individual poles
at the tyre side wall. If no longitudinal forces are being applied to the tyres, alternations between
the magnetic poles occur simultaneously at both sensors, and the time difference between these
signals is zero. However, if longitudinal forces are applied, i.e. during a braking or accelerating
operation, the maximum of the magnetic poles on the inner diameter and those of the outer
diameter pass the sensors at different times. This effect results in a phase shift between the two
sensor signals. The phenomenon is identical for acceleration and deceleration, except that the
polarity signs of the readings are reversed. The magnitude of the longitudinal force acting on each
tyre is nearly linear to the phase shift between the two sensor signals of each magnetic stripe. This
SWT sensor offers potential information for an improvement of slip control systems such as ABS
and TCS. In addition the sensor signal can be used to measure the wheel speed. [BEC98], [NR39]
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In cornering conditions, lateral forces act on the tyres due to the centrifugal forces acting on the
vehicle mass. This results in lateral deflections of the side wall which cause variations of the
distance between the sensors and the magnetised tyre side wall. Depending on this behaviour, the
measured strength of the magnetic field changes. The measured amplitudes can be used to derive
the acting lateral force. This value is of importance, especially for chassis control systems such as
ABS and ESP.
Two technical characteristics of this sensor system can be mentioned: All electronic components
needed are located at the chassis and the sensor component at the tyre – the magnetised rubber –
is a fully passive component. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a special tyre and a special tyre
manufacturing process. Magnetising processes are known, tested and stable. Mechanical
problems have been essentially eliminated, because the inside wall of the tyre facing away from
the curb is magnetised.
The SWT sensor allows to measure the forces acting at the tyre-road contact. As a result of this
more precise information about the driving states of the tyres can contribute to further
optimisation of the electronic vehicle stability systems. The benefits for the driver are a shorter
braking distance and improved vehicle control in difficult driving manoeuvres and on difficult
road surfaces. [BEC98], [NR39]
Following an extensive patent application activity, the development team is now involved in an
accelerated effort to introduce the system into series production. These activities are focused on a
sensor system for longitudinal forces. A system enhancement is under development to detect a
tyre defect and transmit relevant data to the control system. [NR39]
One of the most critical design issues of the SWT system is the distance between the sensor at the
chassis and the magnetised tyre side wall and the fact that the signals are measured with a phase
shift of one half tyre rotation at the opposite of the tyre-road contact. While the longitudinal force
measurement works adequately in driving tests, the side force measurements are more
complicated, due to the small lateral deformations which occur in the upper region of the tyre,
where the sensors are placed. Another reason is the decreasing signal amplitude due to an
increasing distance between the sensor and the magnetised side wall. It has to be considered, that
the models needed for signal interpretation and calculation of the lateral forces from the sensor
data are more complex compared to the calculation of longitudinal forces. Models and algorithms
needed for processing the sensor data to derive the relevant forces are not yet published. The
vertical force and friction available can not be detected with the SWT sensor. The question how
to set up an appropriate process for mass production of series products is still an issue. An
important requirement in the automotive market is the free choice of the tyre by customers and
vehicle manufactures. This is another issue for commercialisation of a special tyre as it is
necessary for the SWT sensor.
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5.2 DARMSTADT TYRE SENSOR

Another innovative application in the field of intelligent tyre technology is the sensor system
developed by the researchers in Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany. In this invention
a magnet is placed inside the tyre tread block and the movements of this magnet are monitored by
a Hall-sensor (Figure 5.2-1). The movements of the tread block are dependent on the friction and
the forces at the tyre-road contact, and can be monitored. [NR40]
Figure 5.2-1: Darmstadt tyre sensor: Magnet and Hall sensor. [NR40]
The position sensor employs four monolithically integrated Hall crosses and an additional
temperature sensor. A permanent magnet is mounted within the tyre rubber in a distance of 1mm
from the Hall cross for position and deflection monitoring. The differential signals of two crosses
in x- and y-direction deliver the x- and y-deformation output signal. The sum of the four Hall
voltages forms the z-signal. The quasi-linear measurement range is 1 mm. For a wireless
transmission of the sensor signals from inside the tyre to a measuring device, a miniature low
power four-channel telemetry system has been realised. [NR40]
A deformation of a tyre element takes place even before it gets in direct contact with the road
surface. The x-deformation is, analogue to the brush-model, directed against driving direction in
front and into driving direction behind the contact patch. The y-signal stands for the deformation
in lateral direction. A deflection can be seen although the tyre runs without lateral force. Test
stand experiments have shown the potential to measure tyre pressure (z, x), wheel load (z), forces
in circumferential (x) and lateral direction (y). [NR40]
The sensor miniaturisation enables the integration of chip and magnet into a single tread lug
element. So, standard steel belt tyres can be investigated without any influence of the steel cord
on the magnetic field. The power consumption has been successfully reduced to enable the use of
a transponder system. An important point is the increase of the possible mechanical resolution.
This parameter depends on the Hall cross magnetic field sensitivity, the size of the magnet and
the distance of the Hall crosses. [NR40]
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In addition, the sensor signal is influenced by the driving speed or the water depth on the road. It
is expected, that this effect can be used to derive a warning on arising aquaplaning (see
Figure 5.1-2).
Standard parameter, Contidrom

Deflection of water depth 9 mm
tread element,
x-direction
[mm]
Roll off path,

based on end of
contact patch [m]
Veh. velocity
[km/h]
Figure 5.2-2 Tyre tread block movement in x-direction on a wet surface

with different driving speeds. [NR41]
Many measurements have been performed with the Darmstadt tyre sensor. The results show
dependencies of the longitudinal deformations on the friction available between the tyre and the
road. [STR02], [FAC00]
Adequate evaluation routines to derive friction data from the measured deflections have not yet
been published. These measurements are performed at a laboratory test rig under nearly ideal
conditions for the tyre-surface contact and for low velocities. A lot of data have to be processed,
because the full signal information from entering the contact patch until leaving it is needed for
deriving relevant data for application systems from measured signals. The model which is used to
interpret the sensor data for deriving friction information is based on the so called brush model. It
is used to describe the behaviour of the tread lug element at the tyre contact patch. Algorithms for
the calculation of forces, pressure or friction parameters are not yet published. It has to be
considered that the height of the tread lug has a significant influence on the characteristics of the
tread lug. [STR02], [FAC00], [BRE98]
The aforementioned four channel telemetry system can actually be used only for laboratory
purposes. The dimensions (30x30x20 mm³) and the power consumption of the Hall element (ca.
60 mW including sensor electronics) are still too high for system integration into the tyre in serial
products.
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5.3 SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE SENSOR

Filters based on Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) technology are widely used in mobile phones and
televisions, among others. The SAW filters are used to screen out unwanted frequencies from the
signal received by the device. This ceramic component can be designed in such a way that only
predefined frequencies can pass the filter. The SAW technology can be used to design sensors,
too. The incoming HF signal is transformed into a surface acoustic wave. This wave is reflected
on the device and again, transformed back into a HF signal which can be detected by a reader
system. To design a sensor means, to make this device sensitive for the desired signal. This can be
achieved by selecting the appropriate material and by a specific design of the reflectors on the
surface (Figure 5.3-1). In many applications, SAW devices are fully passive components. The
energy needed is provided from the input signal which is the output signal of the receiver
component or the reader system. [BUL98]
Figure 5.3-1: Functional principle of a SAW component. [NR36]
An UK company Transense is developing SAW sensor technology for tyre monitoring purposes.
Transense has announced co-operation with the US TPMS manufacturer SmarTire and the French
tyre manufacturer Michelin. Transense’s sensor uses the SAW device as a diaphragm between the
side of the sensor subjected to tyre pressure and a sealed reference chamber. Changes in tyre
pressure cause the resonant frequency of one device to increase whilst the frequency of the
second device decreases. The change in the difference between these two frequencies is directly
proportional to the difference in pressure of the tyre and the reference chamber. The energy
needed is provided from the signal of the receiver component [NR37]
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Figure 5.3-2: Photographs of Transense’s and SmarTire’s SAW sensor

(see leaflet given out in Tire Technology Expo 2002 in Hamburg). [NR37]
The German company Siemens has a slightly different approach. They also use SAW technology
suitable for tyre sensors, but they are researching the possibility of generating the energy for the
SAW filter from physical phenomena near the SAW device. Siemens has announced co-operation
with the tyre company Continental and the Darmstadt University of Technology. They are aiming
at a sensor inside the tread block of the tyre based on a SAW device which can provide data
comparable to the Darmstadt tyre sensor (see Chapter 5.2). [NR36], [NR38], [POH99], [KLU02]
Siemens has researched piezoelectric crystals connected with a SAW filter. These could be used
for example as a wireless light switch in buildings. The piezo crystal generates the necessary
energy when pressing the light switch. This energy is lead through the SAW filter’s bar-code-like
surface and sent out to a receiver, located in the light bulb to be switched on. Pyroelectric
versions of these devices could react to a change in temperature and transmit their own signal to a
receiver. These autonomous sensors could be vulcanised into tyres and calibrated to produce a
signal for a given reduction in air pressure. Pyroelectric versions could warn of excessive tyre
temperature. [NR38]
Figure 5.3-2: Siemens’ SAW sensor with energy generating piezoelectric crystals. [NR38]
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The main issues on SAW sensors for tyre applications are the robustness of the electronics and
the way of integrating it into the tyre.
5.4 CONCLUSION
The concepts and prototypes of innovative tyre sensors presented in this chapter prove the interest
in the field of intelligent tyre/wheel systems. The idea behind all these systems is to provide more
information on the tyre and the tyre-road contact such as forces and friction parameters. A critical
issue for all concepts is the way of bridging the distance between the vehicle and the rotating
tyre/wheel system and it is not yet solved. Many publications are available describing the sensor
and measurements but there is a lack of information on algorithms and models which are
necessary for the interpretation and processing of the measured data to derive the relevant
information for vehicle applications. In addition, the effort which is needed for these calculations
is not described in the publications. For some sensor systems the possibility to monitor several
data such as lateral forces, longitudinal force, vertical force, tyre inflation pressure and friction
parameters with only one sensor is claimed. This might be possible for laboratory measurements
but it seems to be not realistic for a series product. The functional correlation between these data
has to be considered in more detail. The innovative tyre sensor systems are published and
discussed since about ten years but up to now no product is available and there is no
announcement for the market introduction from any company.
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6. BASIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Sensor technology is a large subject. Here we consider only those technologies that are relevant
for research and development of innovative solutions for intelligent tyre/wheel systems and for
automotive industry at large. In the following chapters, an overview is given on the sensor
technologies listed as follows:
• Acoustic sensor,
• Optical Sensor,
• Vibrating string sensor,
• Ultra Wide Band Technology and
• Capacitive Sensor.
6.2 ACOUSTIC SENSOR

A company from the UK Tekgenuity claims to have developed a technology where the “sound
signature” of a tyre is measured by microphones and post-processed with special signal
processing technologies. The name of this product is Chromasonics. Tekgenuity’s researchers say
that changes in this measured sound signature can be interpreted as changes in tyre pressure,
temperature, wear status or even available friction on the road. Warnings to the driver or
information to electronic control systems of the vehicle could be delivered in real time. [NR44]
6.3 OPTICAL SENSOR

The German company Optimess is developing laser sensors which can be used for tyre
manufacturing and testing. The sensor is a non-contact measurement detector, based on
triangulation principle. By means of two laser sensors arranged in a traversing way, one above
and one below the test material, a running tape's entire profile can be measured. The sensor can
also be used to measure the profiles of tyre running treads. [NR45]
Non-contact scanning of tyre surfaces offers the possibility of measurement of a tyre's expansion
at maximum speed. This can be carried out either at a roller type test stand or directly at the
vehicle. Optimess sensors provide the possibility of non-contact detection of tyre deformations
under various test conditions, as, for example, wheel pressure, track and inclination. These can be
measurements at a roller type test stand but also - due to the small size of the sensors -
measurements at the test vehicle. A special preparation of the tyre, e.g. erasing of the marking, is
not necessary. An extreme mode of application for this sensor is the deformation measurement of
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the contact surface of the tyre inside of a truck tyre. In this case, a specific Optimess sensor has
been installed inside the tyre at the wheel rim, that measures in direction of the tyre's surface (see
Figure 6.3-1). [NR45]
Figure 6.3-1: Optimess laser measurement instrumentation inside a truck tyre. [NR45]
Another area of application is the non-contact distance measurement vehicle - road for
performance characterisation of the driving behaviour of a vehicle. In the sector of tyre test
running, the laser offers the possibility to scan the tyre's surface on a test device, i.e. the entire
tyre surface is measured after fixed driving cycles. Independently of genuine wear and tear, also
saw tooth formation, washing out, possible rolling off the rim, etc. can be analysed and
documented. [NR45]
The laser sensor is used for the detection of road surface conditions while driving, too. This is
important for test stand simulation, for which as accurate information as possible about the actual
road conditions of test routes are required for carrying out a field-experienced simulation.
Furthermore, knowledge about road surfaces is an important parameter for the development of
tyres with regard to aquaplaning and noise behaviour. [NR45]
The Optimess sensor is not used in series production vehicles.
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An optical sensor concept for the measurement of the water film height on the road surface is
shown in Figure 6.3-2. The sensor consists of a infrared source which is directed from the vehicle
to the tyre surface and two light receivers which are directed to the tyre, too. These receivers
detect the diffused and reflected light. Depending on the percentage of the received diffused and
reflected light the water film height is calculated by a specific algorithm. [GOE93]
100
Infrared Reflected light
reflexed light
source
Relative light flux [%]

Diffused light
receiver Diffused light
diffused light
Reflected light
receiver
10
Thickness of waterfilm [µm]
Figure 6.3-2: Optical tyre sensor for detection of water film height. [GOE93]
The German company Hella built up a prototype of a infrared sensor which directly illuminates
the road (see Figure 6.3-3). The sensor is mounted on the front part of the vehicle. The spectral
intensities of the reflected light are analysed and an algorithm is used for the detection of road
condition such as dry, wet, icy, snowy. The goal is to estimate the friction available and to warn
the driver in case of low friction. Up to now the reliability of the system is not sufficient to use
the sensor information for vehicle dynamic control systems. [BMW00]
Figure 6.3-3: Optical sensor prototype by Hella. [BMW00]
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6.4 VIBRATING STRING SENSOR

A simple metal wire in a plastic tube and a standard microwave radio transceiver are the basic
components of this technology which is proposed by the Swedish company Vibstring. When
mechanically excited, the wire is vibrating at its natural frequency which is correlated to the
length of the wire, its material properties and the state of strain. The vibration of the wire has been
found to modulate a radio signal at the frequency of vibration. The demodulated radio signal can
be analysed to determine the frequency of wire vibration, and thereby, the state of strain in the
wire can be detected. [NR42]
Application of pressure to the sensor increases or decreases the strain in the wire resulting in a
corresponding shift in natural frequency. The relationship between the natural frequency and
strain in the wire determines the high sensitivity of the sensor. A transceiver directed towards the
sensing wire emits a monotone HF signal and receives the HF signal, modulated by the vibrations
of the wire. Modulation due to the wire vibration overrides all other vibrational effects due to the
antenna nature of the wire, whose length is selected in accordance with the HF signal frequency.
Demodulation of the HF signal results in a signal corresponding to the wire vibration. This signal
is filtered, amplified and analysed to determine its frequency and thus the corresponding torque
on the shaft (Figure 6.4-1). [NR42], [NR43]
Figure 6.4-1: Basic principle of a vibrating string tyre pressure sensor. [NR43]
A potential application of a vibrating string sensor is to measure strains in the tyre.

Measurement results with a vibrating string embedded in the tyre as well as strategies what
signals are measured or how the signals can be interpreted have not yet been published.
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6.5 ULTRA WIDE BAND TECHNOLOGY

Ultra Wide Band radio (UWB) is a revolutionary wireless technology for transmitting digital data
over a wide spectrum of frequency bands with very low power. It can transmit data at very high
rates e.g. for wireless local area network (WLAN) applications. Within the power limit allowed
under current US regulations, UWB radio can not only carry huge amounts of data over a short
distance at very low power, but also has the ability to carry signals through doors and other
obstacles that tend to reflect signals at more limited bandwidths and a higher power. At higher
power levels, UWB signals can be transmitted over significantly greater ranges. Instead of
traditional sine waves, ultra wideband radio broadcast digital pulses, that are timed very precisely
on a signal across a very wide spectrum at the same time. Transmitter and receiver must be
coordinated to send and receive pulses with a high accuracy. Ultra Wide Band can also be used
for very high- resolution radars and precision (sub-centimeter) radio location systems. [NR46]
UWB-devices can be used for precise measurement of distances or locations and for obtaining the
images of objects buried under ground or behind surfaces. UWB devices can also be used for
wireless communication, particularly for short-range high-speed data transmissions suitable for
broad band access to the Internet. At this time UWB technology does not have regulatory
approval outside USA. However, there is significant interest in many countries and steps are
being taken to explore a number of foreign markets and regulatory processes. [NR46]
UWB wireless is unlike familiar forms of radio communications such as AM/FM, short-wave,
police/fire, radio, television, and so forth. These narrow band services which avoid interfering
with one another by staying within the confines of their allocated frequency bands, use what is
called a carrier wave. Data messages are impressed on the underlying carrier signal by
modulating its amplitude, frequency or phase in some way and then are extracted upon reception.
Conventional narrow band radio techniques rely on a base "carrier" wave that is altered in a
systematic manner (modulated) to embody a coded bit stream. Carrier waves can be modified to
incorporate digital data by varying their amplitude, frequency or phase. UWB wireless technology
uses no underlying carrier wave, instead modulating individual pulses in some way. In a bipolar
modulation scheme, a digital 1 is represented by a positive (rising) pulse and a 0 by an inverted
(falling) pulse. In another approach, full-amplitude pulses stand for 1's, whereas half-amplitude
pulses stand for 0's. Pulse-position modulation sends identical pulses but alters the transmission
timing. Delayed pulses indicate 0's (Figure 6.5-1). [NR47]
Figure 6.5-1: Various modulation techniques in common narrow band and in

wide band transmissions. [NR47]
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A system to alert drivers to potential tyre blow-out situations prior to the actual tyre failure has
recently been developed by the US company McEvanTechnologies (MET) using a new 24 GHz
pulse Doppler radar. The new system can immediately detect tyre abnormalities such as tread
delamination, bald spots, side wall ballooning and embedded nails. With spread spectrum
emissions to permit four or more units to operate on a single vehicle in an environment crowded
with similar sensors, the MET sensor also detects tyre and wheel geometry errors such as out-of-
round and run-out. The microRADAR system can measure wheel speed on a non-contact basis,
and should find application in sensing and controlling wheel lockup during heavy braking,
particularly on large trucks, or wheel slip for traction control systems on SUVs and other four-
wheel drive vehicles. Even high performance race cars will benefit from this new technology.
Prototype tests were conducted at 24 GHz using MET's DPD-24 range gated motion sensor.
[NR48]
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6.6 CAPACITIVE SENSOR
6.6.1 Micromechanical sensor
The silicon technology called microelectromechanical systems MEMS has experienced a

revolution in recent years. MEMS allows sensors, electronics, and actuators to be fabricated on a
single chip. In principle, MEMS sensors can be designed for nearly all quantities (temperature,
pressure, acceleration, deformation, electric voltage, current, etc.) but also other electric
components can be realised. Figure 6.6-1 shows a MEMS acceleration sensor and Figure 6.6-2
shows an oscillator
Figure: 6.6-1: MEMS acceleration sensor. Figure 6.6-2: MEMS oscillator.

The length of the side of the
figure is 42 µm.
MEMS manufacturing processes can be divided into four categories:

• bulk micromachining,
• surface micromachining,
• high aspect ratio micromachining (HARM) and
• silicon on insulator (SOI) micromechanics.
Bulk micromechanics makes micromechanical devices by etching deeply into silicon wafer. The
acceleration sensor of Figure 6.6-1 a is made by bulk micromachining. In surface
micromachining, thin layers of sacrificial and structural material on the surface of a silicon wafer
which acts as a carrier only, is deposited. In addition to airbag acceleration sensors, microphones,
flow sensors, etc. have been fabricated with this method. HARM provides ability to fabricate high
aspect ratio microstructures that are very tall with aspect ratios larger than 1:10 with relatively
low costs. In SOI techniques the active sensor is made by etching monocrystalline silicone that is
bonded with an insulating silicon oxide layer to silicon wafer. The insulating layer is sacrificially
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etched. The monocrystallinity of the silicon in SOI gives advantages: negligible residual stresses
and possibility to make electrical circuits. Thus standard integrated circuit manufacturing process
CMOS can be combined with SOI MEMS. [PII99]
The MEMS sensors are so called capacitive sensors. It means that the quantity to be measured
acts on the sensing element by bending or deforming it, and the change in the capacitance
between the element and some other part of the structure is measured electronically.
6.6.2 Capacitive displacement sensor
Capacitance value of a capacitor can be varied by varying any of the parameters in the
capacitance formula for a plate capacitor:
A
C = ε 0ε r
d
xy
∆C = −ε r ε 0 ∆z
z y z2
x
Figure 6.6-3: Vertical displacement sensor based on plate capacitor.
y
∆C = −ε r ε 0 ∆x
z y z
x
Figure 6.6-4: Lateral displacement sensor based on plate capacitor.
Based on plate capacitors, Figure 6.6-3 show an arrangement to measure vertical displacement. A
design for measuring a lateral displacement is described in Figure 6.6-3. Using interdigitated
capacitor a lateral displacement sensor can be designed, that provides a better sensitivity than the
one shown in Figure 6.6-4 (see Figure 6.6-5).
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l
F
C
F
d 0.1 m m w
3 mm
Fig.6.6-5: Lateral displacement sensor based on interdigitated capacitor.
The following principles can be used to eliminate the effect of dispalcement in uninteresting
directions.
Eliminating the effect of vertical displacement in measurement of lateral deformation can be
achieved by the special arrangement of two capacitors is shown in Figure 6.6-6.
C1
Vi
V0
C2
Figure 6.6-6: Lateral displacement sensor with elimination of vertical displacement.
By measuring alternating voltage V0, only the difference between the two capacitances C1 and C2
can be measured. The both are sensitive to vertical deformation, but, because of the different
construction of the plates, only C2 is sensitive to lateral displacement.
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A sensor arrangement for eliminating the effect of lateral displacement in the measurement of
vertical displacement is described in Figure 6.6-7.
C
Figure 6.6-7: Vertical displacement sensor with elimination of lateral displacement.
Capacitor C is formed by two capacitors that are connected in series by a common conducting
plane. This plane is large enough to make the structure insensitive to lateral displacement.
6.6.3 Measurement of capacitance
A simple method of direct readout that is suitable for the measurement of capacitance changes, is
shown in Figure 6.6-8. The electronics is based on an operational amplifier that is directly
connected to the capacitor.
_
V C
+
VC
Figure 6.6-8: A simple electronics for measuring capacitance changes.
The electronics shown in Figure. 6.6-8 is suitable for the measurement of capacitance changes
only. The method works poorly at low frequency, because of the 1/f-noise of the amplifier.
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The more sophisticated way to convert the change of capacitance into voltage value is to use a
complementary-phase AC bridge (see Figure 6.6-9). The capacitance change is monitored with an
oscillator, amplifier, mixer, and filter.
+1
C+ C
OSC. V C/C
C
-1
Figure 6.6-9: A complementary-phase AC bridge for measuring capacitance.
Capacitive sensors are used in many applications, and a lot of experience exists in using this
sensor technology to solve new measurement tasks by innovative solutions. [ELW00], [FRA1],
[SEP95], [TIL93]
6.7 CONCLUSION
From the sensor technologies investigated in this chapter the capacitve sensor has the highest
potential to be used for the development of an intelligent tyre/wheel system. The main advantages
are robustness, small size, low power consumption and good possibilities for the integration into
the electronics of a total system. Therefore, capacitive sensor technology opens up new
perspectives for an intelligent tyre/wheel system. It fulfils the requirements on high robustness
and low demand on electrical power supply. Series products based on capacitive sensor
technology are available on the market and they are used in many industrial applications. This, in
addition, offers cost benefits.
Acoustic sensors and optical sensors have the potential to detect data on road condition which can
be used to derive friction parameters, but they can not be used for force measurement. The low
robustness in a harsh environment during vehicle operation is a disadvantage for optical sensors.
First investigations are started to use a mechanical sensor such as the vibrating string sensor for
pressure measurement. The capability of this technology for more challenging measurement tasks
seems to be limited.
For the development of an intelligent tyre wheel system further investigations have to be
performed to answer the following questions:
• Which physical phenomena of the tyre/wheel system and the tyre-road contact contain
relevant information needed for specified vehicle applications?
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• Which measurement tasks for a sensor in a tyre/wheel system can be specified to detect the
relevant information and which sensor type is the best solution?
• Which models and algorithms are needed to provide the relevant data for vehicle
applications?
• Which is an appropriate design for an integrated electronics including all components of the
total system and for a mechatronical integration into the tyre/wheel system?
7. BASIC TECHNOLOGIES FOR WIRELESS DATA

TRANSMISSION
7.1 TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
7.1.1 Classification of wireless data transmission
Wireless sensors are classified into three types:

• Active sensors have a power supply, have active components for communication, e.g. RF
components, and are able to send e.g. a radio signal.
• Semipassive sensors have a power supply, but they use it only after a wake-up signal from the
reader unit. They use back scattering, i.e. modulate the signal of a base station or reader to
send data instead of sending an RF carrier.
• Passive sensors have no power supply or a battery. They also use back scattering for RF
communication. For performing the measurement and transferring the information, passive
sensors take energy from the electromagnetic field emitted by the reader.
Wireless sensors are also divided according to the type of electromagnetic coupling to the reader:
• Inductive uses magnetic field,
• Capacitive uses electric field or
• Radiating uses radiating field.
Low-frequency inductively coupled systems are in a widespread use in RFID. Capacitively

coupled sensors require in practice a very short reading distance – nearly contact – and do not suit
for tyre monitoring.
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7.1.2 Data transmission of passive wireless sensors
The simplest and cheapest wireless sensor is based on an inductor-capacitor resonator. One
example of such a sensor is the 8 MHz resonator used in electrical article surveillance systems.
The manufacturing price of this kind of a sensor is in the order of few cents in large volumes. The
functionality of this sensor is, however, limited. Data can be coded into the resonant frequency or
the Q-value of the resonance only. [WDT01]
If an integrated circuit (IC) chip is connected to an antenna, the wireless sensor can have much
more complicated functions. The IC has a microcontroller or a finite state machine and it
communicates to both directions wirelessly. It also contains a circuit, a voltage rectifier which
derives power for the sensor from the field of the reader or the base station. Because the power
available from this supply gets smaller when the distance between the base station and the sensor
is increased, the power consumption must be very small if long operation distances are required.
This means that there can be no active RF components or radio transmitter on the chip.
Figure 7.1-1 shows the concept of a passive wireless RF sensor system. The antenna of a wireless
sensor is fabricated on a laminate or a printed circuit board. The chip, fabricated with CMOS
technology, consists of antenna matching circuit, voltage rectifier, detector, logic, sensor, sensor
electronics and memory. The reader interrogates the wireless sensor by sending a measurement
command and then continues sending a constant RF signal for powering the sensor. The value of
the measured quantity is either converted into digital form and stored into the memory or is
immediately transmitted by modulating the antenna impedance. At each interrogation the sensor
transmits the content of its memory which contains the identification code of the sensor. When
the impedance of the sensor antenna is modulated, the back scattering from the antenna is also
modulated. The back scattering is then detected by the reader. [WDT01], [WDT12 – WDT15]
READER WIRELESS SENSOR

LAMINATE CMOS
Modulation
Prosessor Voltage
Antenna Matching rectifier Logic
Demodulator and detector
RF electronics Sensor Sensor Memory

electronics
Figure 7.1-1: Concept of a passive wireless RF sensor system.
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The schematic diagram of the reader RF electronics is shown in Fig. 7.1-2. In principle this type
of electronics is suitable for reading all the RF sensors using back scattering. The electronics is in
effect a sensitive impedance measurement device. When the wireless sensor modulates the
impedance of its antenna, these modulations are reflected to the impedance of the antenna of the
reader. The back-scattered signal from the sensor is detected by a sensitive impedance
measurement of the reader antenna. [WDT14]
Modulation
IF
RF OUT
RF LO
0
o PA
VCO
o
0
Frequency
control PLL
0 o o
90
LO LO
Q out IF RF RF
o
0
LNA
IF 0 o
I out
Figure 7.1-2: Schematic diagram of the RF electronics of a reader unit of a wireless sensor.
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7.2 EXISTING WIRELESS VEHICLE APPLICATIONS

Automotive security systems (Keyless Entry / Keyless Go) use RF wireless data transmission. A
typical system topology is presented in Figure 7.2-1.
Figure 7.2-1: System topology of wireless application system.

SA: Smart antenna.
The smart antenna (Figure 7.2-1) is a mechatronic device consisting of a wirewound coil and
electronics (driver, logic and LIN interface). Such a solution gives maximum flexibility for
system definition and antenna allocation, allowing reduction of EMI (Electromagnetic
Interference).
Smart Antennas communicate at 125 kHz with a Custom Identification Device (CID) by means of
magnetic near field (inductive coupling) in order to discriminate the position of CID (external, in
the passenger compartment or in the trunk) for a maximum distance in the order of 1 meter. They
are all transmitting antennas (their function is to communicate a vehicle identification code to the
CID for example when a handle is pulled) except for one recovery antenna that is a receiver able
to operate at a distance of few centimeters when CID’s battery is exhaust (Easy Go function). Just
in this case, there is also a power transmission as for the former anti-theft immobilizer function
(transponder in keyfob and reader antenna on ignition block) with a data transmission based on
back-scattering principle (Figure 7.2-2).
If the CID acknowledges vehicle’s identification code, it sends its CID identification code to the
body computer via UHF (434 / 868 MHz, ASK / FSK / OOK modulated). With this strategy the
CID is allowed to transmit only when required by the car which it is associated with, thus
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avoiding useless transmission and battery’s energy consumption. The same UHF range is used for
conventional remote control and other functions like TPMS.
Figure 7.2-2: Custom Identification Device (CID).
The adoption of a RF link to Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems is required to establish the
transmission of on-wheel sensors’ data to the related vehicle electronics without a wired
connection. Battery powered sensors’ reading electronics consist of signal conditioning circuits
and RF transmitting means, namely transmitter and antenna. On the vehicle the RF components
antenna and receiver are needed in order to receive data from the sensor.
If low-end TPMS are just requested to give a generic warning about sub-inflated tyres, more
performant ones must be able to identify the faulty tyre. In a high volumes context, identification
must be automatically done, without the need for time-lossy and expensive end-of-line manual
operations. The more obvious approach is to have separate antennas/receivers for each tyre but
this would mean high complexity and costs. Applying a different concept the receiver could be
centralised and an RF multiplexer might be employed to switch dedicated antennas. Also this
architecture is expensive and problematic due to the fact that high frequency cables should be
needed in order to feed signals from antennas to the receiver. The more advanced concept of
using a bi-directional RF link would allow identification with just one antenna and one receiver in
the vehicle. This approach would ease anti-collision strategies and allow better remote power
management. Obviously this solution implies the use of a transceiver (transmitter and receiver)
both on wheel and on vehicle electronics.
In the future, an architecture with bi-directional RF link will be able to manage other information
coming from additional and new sensors located inside the tyre, giving an opportunity for more
sophisticated control strategies and driver information.
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7.3 STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

Table 7.3-1 shows the frequency bands and power levels allocated for short-range radio devices
(SRD) mainly in Europe but also in some bands in America. No license is needed if the device
operating within the given bands and power. The regulations for wireless sensor communication
are not well harmonised worldwide. This is a major obstacle for the widespread acceptance of the
passive RF sensors today. [WDT13]
Table 7.4-1: Frequency bands power levels generally allocated for SRD in Europe.
Some American bands are also given.
EIRP = Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power; ERP = Equivalent Radiated Power
FREQUENCY BAND POWER, LIMITATIONS, REGION
<125 kHz Allowed in many countries for inductively coupled RF

sensors.
1.95 MHz, 3.25 MHz and Inductively coupled theft tags, world wide
8.2 MHz
13.56 MHz Inductively coupled RFID tags and sensors, worldwide.
Maximum magnetic field at 10 m: Hmax = 125 µA/m
27 MHz and 40 MHz 0.1 W ERP, Europe
138 MHz 0.05 W ERP, Duty cycle < 1%, Europe
402-405 MHz Medical implants, 25 µW ERP
433.05-434.79 MHz 25 mW ERP, Duty cycle < 10 %, Europe
468.200 MHz 0.5 W ERP, Europe
869.40 - 869.65 MHz 0.5 W ERP, Duty cycle < 10%, Europe
902-928 MHz 4 W EIRP, America
2400 - 2483.5 MHz ISM band, 0.5 W EIRP Europe, 4W America, Bluetooth
5725 - 5875 MHz 25 mW EIRP
24.00 - 24.25 GHz 0.1 W EIRP (Police radars)
61.00 - 61.50 GHz 0.1 W EIRP
122 - 123 GHz 0.1 W EIRP
244 - 246 GHz 0.1 W EIRP
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In the VHF (30 MHz - 300 MHz) and UHF (300 MHz – 3 000 MHz) bands there is only one band
accepted worldwide, the 2.45 GHz ISM (Industrial Scientific Medical) band. In this band,
however, the allocated radiated power is only 0.5 W in Europe while in the US the reader can use
a power of 4 W. A 0.5 W power limits the maximum reading distance of a passive sensor to well
below 1 m which is too low for most applications. At frequencies just below 1 GHz there are no
common frequency bands. In Europe the most used band will be 869 MHz, whereas in the US the
corresponding band is around 915 MHz. Again, a much higher power is allowed in the US (4 W
vs. 0.5 W). Because frequencies above 900 MHz are reserved for GSM in Europe, a discussion of
allocating band of 865-868 MHz with a power of 4 W to SRD is going on.
Concerning older inductive passive sensors, the worldwide harmonisation is more mature,
especially in the 13.56 MHz, 8.2 MHz and lower-frequency bands.
7.4 TRENDS
7.4.1 Wireless sensors using active radio communication
Wireless sensors using active radio communications can utilize frequency bands allocated for
non-specific short range devices. The bands allocated in Europe are around 434 MHz, 869 MHz,
and 2.45 GHz. Concerning wireless tyre monitoring the active radio transmission offers benefits
but also drawbacks. The frequency of 434 MHz is already extensively used in automotive
industry in Europe. The frequency bands around 434 MHz or 869 MHz do not allow high speed
data transmission. The maximum practical transmission rate is about 100 kBits/s in these bands.
In the band 2.400 GHz – 2.4835 GHz which is allocated worldwide, much higher transmission
rate may be possible. The Bluetooth standard is designed for 1 Mbits/s and the IEEE 802.11b
standard of WLAN even for 11 Mbits/s. These high data rates could make it possible to transmit
the sensor data from the tyre to receiver in the vehicle chassis without preprocessing. On the
negative side is the high power consumption of active radios, 10 mW and much above depending
on the transmission rate. Therefore, the radio should have external power supply, either a battery,
power delivery via a lower frequency inductive transmission (8 MHz, 13.56 MHz or 27 MHz) or
the power is scavenged from the wheel rotation. An important aspect is the interference caused by
other radios in the same frequency band. If the tyres of all vehicles are equipped with active
radios, interference will occur in dense traffic. This is alleviated by sophisticated communication
protocols, such as Bluetooth or IEEE 802.11, and by the use of sensor identification codes but it
necessarily leads to a lower effective transmission rate. [WDT02 – WDT07]
Zigbee is a new radio communication technology. It is based on IEEE 802.15.4 low power, low
data rate WPAN (Wireless Personal Area Network) radio standard. The technology is aimed at
battery powered low data rate application, where low power consumption is essential. It operates
at three frequency bands: 868 MHz, 915 MHz and 2.4 GHz. At 2.4 GHz band the maximum data
rate is 250 kBits/s. Both, star and peer-to-peer network topologies are supported. First ZigBee
chips will be available in 2003. [WDT09 - WDT11]
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The technologies used for radio communication are summarised in Table 7.4-1:
Table 7.4-1: Characteristics of radio communication technologies.

Standard IEEE802.11a IEEE802.11b Bluetooth HomeRF ZIGBEE
Speed [Mbps] 54 11 1 10 0.25
Carrier
5 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4
frequency [GHz]
Modulation OFDM/CCK QPSK/CCK GFSK/FHSS SWAP/FHSS O-QPSK/DSSS
Range [m] 15-20 40-50 <10 <20 <10
Host/client or Host/client or Host/client or Peer-to-peer
Net Point-multipoint
peer-to-peer peer-to-peer peer-to-peer /Star
Price/module >100 <100 <10 >10 <5
7.4.2 Vehicle applications using active radio communication
Bluetooth is a global wireless technology standard for short range radio links operating at
2.45 GHz (ISM band). [WDT02]
This technology offers new interesting opportunities both to reduce harnesses weight and
complexity and to generate links to external systems. A Bluetooth transceiver, integrated for
example in the body computer, is able to transmit vehicle data (therefore, tyre data as well) to a
Bluetooth-equipped PDA or GSM cellular phone. It is possible to perform several functions
inside the car (e.g. vehicle information, services, Trip Online, Trip rear view, Trip warning,
Check/Control, Telepass, Additional display, smart user data entry, car maintenance manager),
near outside (e.g. near-outside checks/controls, car diagnosis, passive entry, car switch off, car
data download, trip data download/retrieve, user data transfer) and remote information can be
send by means of GSM link (e.g. remote check/control, alarm ring warning, light, doors, climate,
windows, handbrake, fuel check, remote car diagnosis, remote trip path download, remote trip
checks).
Moreover, in a garage equipped with Bluetooth antenna and PC network an automatic vehicle
diagnosis of first level can be done in a fast way and vehicle data can be exchanged with a central
server.
Bluetooth enables the implementation of an “entry level” telematics concept that, apart from cost
reduction and a possibility of introducing telematics on low-end cars, gives the advantage of
allowing the driver to use his personal cell phone, PDA and other devices.
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Different application examples using Bluetooth technology in a vehicle environment are shown in
Figure 7.4-1.
Figure 7.4-1: Bluetooth application example in vehicle environment (Telematics entry-level)
7.5 CONCLUSION
Wireless concepts are rapidly expanding in automotive applications due to the possibilities they
offer to improve security and confort, to allow communication with portable electronic devices,
and to have access to a high number of services. In the future RF technology will substitute
existing wired connections in the applications in which cabling is critical and/or expensive or
innovative features can’t be realised by cabling technology.
For vehicle applications such as system monitoring and control it is necessary to improve existing
technologies of active radio communication such as Bluetooth, HomeRF and IEEE 802.11 to
achieve a fully reliable communication (data security, data integrity, and authentification),
efficient communication for short messages (low data volume, simple data protocol) and real time
performance (short response time and short cycle time for communication). Other important
aspects for vehicle applications are the reduction of power consumption of the RF electronics,
coexistence of different RF technologies and worldwide standards (regulations). [WDT08],
[WDT16]
For the subsystem of wireless data transmission in the APOLLO project an active radio
communication which is able to receive and to transmit radio signals seems to be the appropriate
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technology to fulfil the requirements on data rate and response time. An active radio system and
local capabilities for data pre-processing require more electrical power than a semipassive or
passive system. Therefore, the electrical power is provided either by an inductive transmission
system or a piezo power generator (see Chapter 8). The frequency bands 433 MHz or 869 MHz
are suggested for developing a demonstrator. The communication protocol has to be kept very
simple to allow a real time communication and to avoid a time consuming protocol overhead.
There is a potential perspective to change over to a more powerful radio communication
technology at higher frequency bands in the future. But this step depends on further developments
to make standards such as Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11 or Zigbee suitable for control applications in
a vehicle environment.
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8. BASIC TECHNOLOGIES FOR BATTERYLESS

POWER SUPPLY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Present automotive wireless applications like Remote Keyless Entry and TPMS use small size
batteries in order to provide electrical power for driver’s activation devices or sensors. Batteries
are still acceptable for applications with an extremely low duty cycle of operation that affects
battery’s life time marginally.
A future trend is the development of wireless power supplies in order to eliminate the necessity of
batteries in the remote sensing modules inside the tyres. Actual battery-powered solutions are
critical due to their limited life span: increasing complexity (high sensors number, quantity of
data transmitted, bi-directionality) causes faster discharge and need for frequent replacements.
Such a situation has great impact on costs and environmental issues when volumes are high.
There are also safety problems due to the fact that lithium (that is commonly employed in these
applications) melts at 180 °C (electronics inside the tyre must survive at a peak temperature of
180 °C for about 20 minutes) and reacts with water to produce hydrogen with risk of explosion.
Different kinds of solutions are under investigation in order to achieve a battery-less system:
• Passive sensors.
• Inductive power transmission.
• Electric far field transmission.
• Piezo and capacitive conversion.
If RF wireless power will be employed either alone or in combination with other technologies,
vehicle electronic system will have to provide electronics for generation and transmission devices
controlled by a power management supervisor.
The technologies and applications of inductive power transmission and power generation using
capacitive and piezo power conversion seem are described in the following chapters.
8.2 INDUCTIVE POWER TRANSMISSION

A system for inductive power transmission is basically composed of two components:
• Reader, intended to generate a low frequency magnetic field and to read/elaborate
information.
• Transponder (tag), activated by the magnetic field and able to send back data to the reader.
Due to the low operating frequency, wavelength is very high (2.4 km @ 125 kHz and 22 m @
13.56 MHz). If the distances are much lower than the wavelength of the signal, a near field
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magnetic inductive coupling is achieved. Both, a reader and a transponder are equipped with
antenna coils and electronic circuits. In particular, the reader comprises an AC voltage generator
(usually square wave, either half or full bridge) which supplies a series resonant circuit consisting
of the antenna coil and a capacitor. The resonant circuit is tuned at the operating frequency.
Electronic means are provided in order to demodulate sent back data as resonant current
variations.
The transponder comprises of a parallel resonant circuit which is also tuned at the operating
frequency consisting. This resonant circuit consists of its antenna coil and a capacitor. Rectifying
means are used in order to provide DC power supply for the tag which is represented by the load
in Figure 8.2-1. For data transmission to the reader a digitally controlled switch is used to load the
secondary resonant circuit. The digitally controlled switch is a part of the tag (see Chapter 7).
A block diagram of an inductive transmission system consisting of a reader (base station) and a
transponder (batteryless system) is presented in Figure 8.2-1. [IPT01 – IPT07]
Primary antenna and Secondary antenna Rectifier Energy

Coil series resonant and parallel resonant bridge storage
driver capacitor capacitor
Load
Base-station (e.g. vehicle)

Base-station (e.g. vehicle) Battery-less system (e.g. tyre)
Inductive
coupling
Figure 8.2-1: Block diagram of inductive transmission system.
Some characteristics of an inductive system can be summarised as follows:

• Distance is limited to the ranges of the lines of force emitting from a magnetic field generator.
• To spread the lines of flux the antenna sizes need to be large.
• 125 kHz operating tags have numerous turns of fine wire on ferrite rod. The practical distance
is in the order of few centimeters.
• This kind of transponder is used in immobilizer anti-theft systems.
• 13,56 MHz operating tags have few turns etched on flexible printed circuit substrate to which
a single chip is bonded. The practical distance is in the order of tens of centimeters.
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The equivalent circuit diagram of an inductive power transmission system is shown in

Figure 8.2-2.
Reader Transponder
rR
NR turns H
d
IR
Figure 8.2-2: Principle scheme of inductive power transmission.
For a flat circular coil in free air the following equation for calculation of H-field (H magnetic
field strength) can be used:
NR IR rR 2
H =
2 (rR2 + d2)3/2
From this relationship two considerations can be immediately obtained:

• for d >> rR field decreases as d3, so this kind of operation is not efficient at long distances and
• at a given distance (d), a maximum field exists for rR = √ 2 d .
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For an efficient power transmission reader coil radius must be in the order of magnitude of the
distance. This condition is practical for ranges of few centimeters (as for the immobilizer
application in which the transponder is in the keyfob and the reader coil on ignition block).
H-field values for 1A turns (rR = 5 cm, 10 cm, 15 cm) are shown in Figure 8.2- 3:
10
r= 5 cm
9 r=10 cm
r=15 cm
8
6
H (A/m)
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
distance (m)
Figure 8.2-3: H-field depending on distance (air gap).
Figure 8.2-4 shows H-field peak values for a distance of 10 cm as a function of reader coil radius:
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
H (A/m)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
radius (m)
Figure 8.2-4: H-field peak values for a distance of 10 cm.
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For a low coupling factor (Kcou) an approximation of the peak transponder voltage (VT) can be
calculated by the following equation:
LT
VT ≈ VR Kcou QT
LR
The parameters in this equation are the reader and transponder coils inductance values (LR) and
(LT), coupling factor (Kcou), reader coil voltage (VR) and transponder quality factor (QT).
The equation for the peak transponder voltage (VT) is valid for the following assumptions: free air
conditions for transmission, no load and perfect tuning of primary and secondary resonant circuits
with operation frequency.
Besides the aspects of a big antenna size described above, a further limitation to the use of the
low frequency inductive transponder principle are effects caused by of metal parts close to the
system.
Low resistive metals allow the flow of induced eddy currents the effect of which is to generate a
magnetic field in opposition to the main one. This effect causes an attenuation of useful field
strength and results in a reduction of the possible operating range in terms of distance. Another
effect of the same cause is the reduction of self inductance of the reader coil and an increase of its
equivalent series resistance.
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The summary of inductive power transmission possibilities in automotive applications is

presented in the following table (Table 8.2-1). [IPT01 – IPT07]
Table 8.2-1: Summary of inductive power transmission possibilities in vehicle applications.
Low frequency Low frequency Medium frequency

(rotational transformer) (transponder concept) (transponder concept)
Typical freq. 100-300KHz Typical freq. 125KHz Typical freq. 13.56MHz

Two ferrite half cores, the Resonant circuits mutually Resonant circuits mutually
first one located on the coupled. Receiving coil may coupled. Coils usually
vehicle close to the wheel, be wound on a small ferrite realized by means of copper
the second one on the wheel rod. Typically used for few tracks on flexible substrate.
itself. An air gap (as small as centimeters distance range. Distances in the order of 1
possible) exists between the meter achievable.
two half cores allowing
mutual rotation.
Advantages: Advantages: Advantages:

high power transfer low cost driving electronics flat design
capability possibility of data transfer possibility of data transfer
fair efficiency (good coupling (backscattering) (backscattering)
factor) well established concept low turn number required
possibility of data transfer well established concept
little influence of surrounding
metal parts
no tuning issues
Disadvantages: Disadvantages: Disadvantages:

mechanical issues achievable distance limited achievable distance limited
cost effective for power level by generator coil size by generator coil size
much greater than what very low coupling factor very low coupling factor
estimated for the application high influence of surrounding high influence of surrounding
metal parts metal parts
critical tuning critical tuning
high turn number required
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8.3 POWER GENERATION

Two possibilities to convert mechanical energy into electricity are capacitive and piezo
generators. In both mechanical energy causes geometrical changes in the generator and this in
turn causes movement of charge (= electric current). The current restricts the mechanical
movement and power is generated. The two following chapters will explain the two types in more
detail.
The reasons to select these two generator types for a further study are listed as follows:
• Simple structure, can be integrated with a tyre.
• No moving parts, can withstand high accelerations.
• Energy is extracted from tyre deformations.
• Can operate with low frequencies.
An overview on characteristics of different energy sources in a tyre is given in Table 8.3-1.
Table 8.3-1: Characteristics of different energy sources in a tyre.

Generation principle Speed dependency Frequency
Tyre deflection Small dependence on Low freq. <100Hz
speed
Change of radial Depends on speed Low freq. <100Hz
acceleration
Vibrations Amplitude depends on High freq. >100Hz
speed and road surface
A complete power supply needs also other parts. With low transducer power output a carefully
optimised regulator is needed. It must both maximise the input energy and regulate the output
voltage. Optionally, it must handle the charging and recharging of the backup battery (see
Figure 8.3-1).
Figure 8.3-1: Functions of a complete generator.
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8.3.1 Capacitive generator
The energy (E) is a function of the voltage (V) and charge (Q) or capacitance (C). It can be
calculated by the following equation:
E = 12 QU = 12 CU 2 .
The capacitance (C) of a capacitor depends on the geometry and insulating material. For an ideal
plate capacitor it is:
e r e0 A
C= .
d
The parameters are the relative permittivity ( er ) of the material and the area (A) and the distance
(d) of the electrodes.
Figure 8.3-2: Capacitive generators Figure 8.3-3: A variable capacitor made of

idealised working cycles. dielectric elastomer.
A capacitive generator has two idealised working cycles (Figure 8.3-2). In both cycles the
capacitance is first at its maximum and is charged to an initial voltage. Then, either voltage or
charge is kept constant while the capacitance goes to minimum. In both cases the initial charge is
recovered from a higher voltage and energy is gained.
A serious drawback of a capacitive generator is the need of an initial charge. It means a need of a
separate voltage source and charging electronics.
In Figure 8.3-3 a variable capacitor made of dielectric elastomer is described. It has two main
working principles. If a pressure is applied to electrodes, and the area remains constant, the
change of capacitance depends on the bulk modulus of the dielectric (middle). If the applied force
stretches the capacitor, and the volume of the dielectric remains constant, the change of
capacitance depends on the elastic modulus of the dielectric (lower). As the bulk modulus is much
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higher than the elastic modulus, the latter case results to much bigger capacitance changes. In
practice the capacitance change consists of both phenomena.
When the polymer volume (P) is constant Az = P, the electric energy (E) and voltage (V) can be
calculated as follows:
E = CV 2 / 2 = Q 2 / 2C = QV / 2 = Q 2 P /(2er e0 A 2 )
and
V = Q / C = Q / P /(er e0 A 2 ) .
With constant charge the energy is inversely proportional to the square of the capacitor area.
Figure 8.3-4 shows one example of a state-of-the-art capacitive generator. It can be used to power
wearable electronics.
Figure 8.3-4: The output of a multilayer acrylic elastomer in a heel-size

capacitive generator device.
The device uses a diaphragm arrangement to stretch DE diaphragms upon heel strike. With an
energy density of roughly 0.2 J/g the output from the device is up to 0.28 J per heel strike.
[POG01]
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In Table 8.3-2 some other possible applications are presented.
Table 8.3-2: Potential applications of dielectric elastomer capacitive

generator technology. [POG01]
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8.3.2 Piezo generator
There is a unsymmetrical distribution of charges in a piezoelectric material (Figure 8.3-5). When

a force is applied to a piezo device, the charges move in different directions and an electric field
appears in the device (Figure 8.3-6). The field is directly proportional to the strain. If the
electrodes are open circuited, a voltage appears. If the electrodes are short-circuited, current flows
and a charge is generated to the electrodes. When there is no load, the generated charge cancels
the internal electric field. To get work from a piezo, it must be connected to an electric load. The
optimum operation point is half way between the no-voltage and no-current case (Figure 8.3-7).
Figure 8.3-5: Lead Zirconate Titanate PZT unpolarised and polarised. [POG02]
Figure 8.3-7: Piezoelectric generator voltage,

Figure 8.3-6: Piezoelectric device. charge and strain relationships.
Piezoelectric constants are defined so that the first subscript defines the direction of electric field,
and the second subscript the direction of force. If the applied force is shear, the subscript 5 is
used.
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For parallel compression and tension by a force (FT) in direction of the thickness (T) the
generated charge (Q) and charge induced voltage (V) between the piezo electrodes can be
calculated by the following equations:
Q = FT d 33 and
V / T = FT g 33 / LW ,
with the respective piezoelectric constants (d33) and (g33) and the parameters length (L) and W
(width) of the piezo element.
Equally for transverse compression or tension by a force (FL) in direction of the length (L) the
following equations can be used:
Q / LW = FL d 31 / TW and
V / T = FL q31 / TW .
Commonly used piezoelectric materials are ferroelectric ceramics, such as Barium titanate
BaTiO3 and Lead circonium titanate PZT-4. Another group of material is polymer based films
such as PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride). Ferroelectric ceramics are formed by high temperature
reaction of the oxides or carbonates of lead, zirconium, and titanium with selected metal dopants.
These ceramics display ferroelectric properties below a critical or Curie temperature.
Consequently, they may be oriented, ‘poled’ by the application of large dc electric field. This sets
the orientation of the electromechanical response. After poling the materials retain the impressed
orientation unless they are exposed to elevated temperatures, large mechanical stresses, or large
electric fields.
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Figure 8.3-8 to Figure 8.3-10 present some commercial piezoelectric applications. Piezoelectric
dampers generate power which is then dissipated in resistors. A walking generator can be used to
power wearable electronics for example in military applications. [POG03], [POG04], [POG05],
[POG06]
Figure 8.3-8: Damping the vibrations of a Figure 8.3-9: A piezo vibration damper module
baseball bat. [POG03] used in a snowboard. [POG04]
Figure 8.3-10: Piezo shoe generator and

delivered power (right). [POG06]
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8.3.3 Summary
There are still a lot of ongoing research activities in the field of power generation techniques.
[POG07 – POG09]
The company Enocean is presenting first products for the home automation market based on
piezo generators and a wireless data transmission. The technology is used for example for remote
wireless switches. First measurements are started to investigate the potential of this technology
for tyre sensors with a demonstrator. Up to now this technology is not implemented into the tyre.
[POG10], [POG11]
Table 8.3-3 presents properties of different generator types in a tyre environment. All of them can
provide enough power for the electronics of an intelligent tyre/wheel system.
Piezo polymer generator seems to be most suitable to produce a working prototype.
Table 8.3-3: Properties of different capacitive and piezo generators in tyre environment.
Generator type Advantages Disadvantages

Capacitive (elastomer) • Good thermal properties. • Needs a separate supply for
initial charging.
• Can be integrated into tyre.
• Strains in a tyre relatively small,
small capacitance changes.
Piezo polymer, PVDF • Can be integrated into tyre. • Thermal limit
• Strains in a tyre compatible to
piezo working strain
Piezo ceramic • Good thermal properties • Brittle, difficult to integrate into
a tyre
• Good conversion efficiency
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8.4 CONCLUSION
Power supply is one of the key points in the design of an intelligent tyre. Main issue is the need
for a batteryless/wireless system: energy can be either generated inside the tyre (like in the piezo
solution) or transmitted by means of inductive, capacitive or electromagnetic coupling. In both
cases the available power is very low, and a care must be taken in order to minimise losses in the
tyre electronics. This means high efficiency in voltage regulation (i.e. switch mode power
supply), very low supply and quiescent currents, and strategies to limit power consumption. Since
the most power consumption is due to data transmission, a trade-off must be considered between
a high data rate for data transmission and a local pre-processing of data allowing lower data rates..
So, power supply aspects strongly impact the overall system architecture of the electronics needed
for a intelligent tyre/wheel system.
The conclusions of the possibilities of different techniques for batteryless power supply are
presented below (Table 8.3-4).
Table 8.3-4: Comparison of different techniques for batteryless power supply for
intelligent tyre applications.
Piezoelectric Capacitive Inductive

Strain in piezoelectric Change in capacitance Coil moves through
material causes a charge causes either voltage magnetic field causing
separation (voltage across or charge increase. current in wire.
capacitor)
Advantages: Advantages:
Advantages: - Easier to accomplish - Low mechanical damping
- No voltage source needed with micro-fabrication. - No voltage source needed
- Currently working best - Potentially easier to
- Output voltage is 3-8 v. integrate w/ electronics Disadvantages:
and solar cells - Obtainable output voltage
Disadvantages: in 1cm3 is very low
- More difficult to integrate Disadvantages: (a 1-2 tenths of a volt)
w/ micro electronics - Requires voltage source - Requires strong magnetic
and solar cells. - Parasitic capacitance field.
- Practical difficulties in
physical implementation
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9. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TYRE/WHEEL SYSTEM
9.1 TYRE ATTENUATION AT 434 MHZ, 869 MHZ, AND 2.45 GHZ
Communication with a passive wireless sensor placed in the tyre may be hampered by the tyre
rubber and steel belt that may cause substantial attenuation to the electromagnetic radiation. In
order to find out the attenuation and to estimate the power available for the sensor from a reader
antenna that is located in the vehicle chassis near the wheel, simulation and measurements were
performed on Pirelli P6 195/65 R 15 91H tyre at 434 MHz, 869 MHz, and 2.45 GHz. Fig. 9.1-1
shows the experimental setup.
When placed inside a tyre, the transponder lies between two conducting surfaces: rim and steel
belts. The only way for radiation to penetrate the tyre with moderate attenuation is through the
side wall. Also the polarisation of the antenna should be perpendicular to the belt and the rim
surface.
The tyre side wall attenuation was measured by placing a λ/4 –antenna inside the tyre and
measuring S21 –parameter using a network analyser. The rim was used as the ground potential.
Comparison measurements were carried out in free space at same distances.
Figure 9.1-1: Measurement of the attenuation caused by the tyre wall at

434 MHz, 869 MHz, and 2.45 GHz.
The electromagnetic simulations were performed with HFSS (High Frequency Structure
Simulator by Ansoft Corp.). The simulator is based on the finite element method. A realistic tyre
model was constructed with measured rubber permittivity values (see Chapter 9.2).
The loss factors were in the high side in order to get a conservative estimate of the attenuation.
The steel belt was simulated with a corresponding steel plate.
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The following model was used to model the tyre (Figure 9.1-2):
Figure 9.1-2: Tyre model.
The material parameter values are as follows:

ε’ = 31; ε” = 25 @ 434 MHz
ε’ = 23; ε” = 14 @ 869 MHz and @ 2.45 GHz.
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The material parameter values are selected from the measurement data of different rubber
compounds to represent the ‘worst-case’ –situation. The λ/4 –monopole antenna placed in the
middle of the rim is used as the radiation source. The rim is replaced by an infinite ground plane.
The simulated model represented in Figure 9.1-2 is one-eight space model, in which three
symmetry planes are used to empower calculation. The other three faces of the box limiting the
problem are so called ‘radiation boundaries’ that absorb the radiation to which they are exposed.
This makes the situation similar to the one in which the tyre is in free space. The results of
measurements and simulations are shown in Table 9.1-1.
Table 9.1-1: Measured and simulated attenuations of the tyre.
Frequency Measured Simulated with

HFSS
434 MHz 1 dB 6 dB
869 MHz 10 dB 16 dB
2.45 GHz 7 dB -
Accuracy of the measurement is about +/- 1 dB. The simulations based on the worst case situation
of permittivity values predict somewhat higher attenuation values, but the difference between
434 MHz and 869 MHz is about the same. The case of 2.45 GHz could not be simulated because
of the size of the problem in wavelengths (software limitations).
Using the data of Table 9.1-1 one can estimate the power available for the sensor from the
electromagnetic radiation. The estimation is given in Table 9.1-2. The distance between the reader
antenna and the sensor was assumed to be 0.5 m.
Table 9.1-2: Power available for the sensor in the tyre for the radiation distance of 0.5 m.
Frequency [MHz] 434 468.2 869 2450

Wavelength [cm] 69.1 64.1 34.5 12.2
Duty Cycle 100 % 100 % 10 % 100 %
Band Width [kHz] 25 25 250 1000
Allowed Radiated power [W] 0.01 0.5 0.5 0.5

Allowed Radiated power [dBm] 10.0 27.0 27.0 27.0
Antenna gain [dB] 0 0 0 2
Air transmission loss [dB] -19.17 -19.83 -25.20 -34.20
Tyre wall transmission loss [dB] -1 -1 -10 -7
Receiver antenna gain [dB] 2 2 2 2
Conversion loss [dB] -6 -6 -8 -11
Power available [ dBm] -14.17 2.16 -14.21 -21.21
Power available for sensor [uW] 38 1644 38 8
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In conclusion, attenuation of the tyre wall at UHF and microwave frequencies is not prohibitively
large, less than 20 dB. Therefore communication through the tyre wall is possible at 434 MHz,
869 MHz or 2.45 GHz. Frequencies 434 MHz and 468.2 MHz are probably too low for tyre
applications because antennas are too large, especially if the radiation is the only power source for
the sensor. At higher frequencies, especially at 2.45 GHz, patch antennas on the inner liner are
feasible. The polarization of the radiation must be such that the electric field is perpendicular to
the belt because of the steel wires of the belt.
9.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC PROPERTIES
9.2.1 Introduction
The electromagnetic properties of the rubber compounds used in the tyres play a crucial role
when considering the communication through the tyre wall. Therefore, the electromagnetic
properties such as
• permittivity and
• attenuation of magnetic fields below 100 MHz
were investigated by an extensive series measurements. These measurements were performed on
samples of different rubber compounds provided by Nokian Tyres and Pirelli as follows:
• Samples of pure rubber,
• Samples of rubber with steel,
• Rubber compound with high content of graphite and
• Rubber compound with low content of graphite.
Samples are named by manufacturer.
The measurements were performed by using Hewlett-Packard RF Impedance/Material Analyser
4291A.
9.2.2 Measurement results of permittivity
Rubber compound used in tyres is dielectric, lossy material which can be modelled by the
complex permittivity (εr):
ε r = ε ' − jε ' '
The relative permittivity (ε’) and the loss factor (ε”) are the parameters used in this formula.
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Also the tyre layer including steel belts is modelled using equivalent value of complex
permittivity. The measurement of material permittivity using test fixture is based on the following
capacitive model including losses which is described in Figure 9.2-1.
C R
A d
C = ε 0ε ' R= σ = 2πfε 0ε "
d σA
Figure 9.2-1: Capacitive model used for measurement of permittivity.
The measurement results are described in the following paragraphs. For interpreting the graphs
(see following figures) it is mentioned that the jump at 50 MHz in some of the graphs is due to
measuring the frequency range in two parts. The jumps also give some information on the
uncertainty of results when measuring in different time a bit different point of a sample.
Measurement results for samples of pure rubber

Figure 9.2-2 shows typical measurement results for rubber with high graphite content. The
relative permittivity (ε’) is high – of the order of 1 000 – at 1 MHz and is between 10 and at 100
at 1 GHz. The loss factor (ε”) behaves essentially the same way, so that the Q-value which is
defined by the equation
Q = ε’ / ε” ,
of these rubber samples is about one.
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The two different materials of the tyre samples used are indicated in the following figures by red
and blue colour of the graphs.
AMET
TR1
1000 10000
1000
100
100
10 10
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
f / MHz f / MHz
Figure 9.2-2: Relative permittivity (ε’) and loss factor (ε”) for a typical rubber with
high content of graphite in the frequency range 1 MHz – 1 GHz.
Figure 9.2-3 shows typical measurement results for rubber with low graphite content. The relative
permittivity is typical for most plastics – between 4 and 5 in the entire frequency range. The loss
factor is also low, so that the Q-value for these rubber samples is about 30.
3VH1
BISI
6 0.25
5 0.2
4
0.15
3
0.1
2
1 0.05
0 0
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
f / MHz f / MHz
Fig. 9.2-3: Relative permittivity (ε’) and loss factor (ε”) for a typical rubber with
low content of graphite in the frequency range 1 MHz – 1 GHz.
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Measurement results for samples of rubber with steel

Measurement results for samples of rubber with steel from Pirelli are shown in the following
figures. Figure 9.2-4 shows results for rubber compound with high content of graphite and
material with low content of graphite was used for the measurements presented in Figure 9.2-5.
#1
#2
# 1-4: different times of measurement
#3
#4
10000 10000
#1
#2 1000
1000
#3
#4
100 100
10 10
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
f / MHz f / MHz
Figure 9.2-4: Relative permittivity (ε’) and loss factor (ε”) for a
rubber with steel and high content of graphit (material 2).
#1
#2
# 1-4: different times of measurement
#3
#4
4.5
9
4 #1
8 3.5 #2
7 3 #3
6 2.5 #4
2
5
1.5
4
1
3 0.5
2 0
1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
f / M Hz f / MHz
Figure 9.2-5: Relative permittivity (ε’) and loss factor (ε”) for a
rubber with steel and low content of graphit
(material MS06-3).
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Both tyre manufacturers have two main types of rubber compound:

• Highly lossy conducting type and
• Low-loss more ‘plastic-like’ rubber.
It is interesting to note the resonance behaviour of the rubber sample in Figure 9.2-5 at about
900 MHz. These are actual electromagnetic resonances of the wires in the steel belt. The rubber in
this sample is a relatively good insulator as the loss factor indicates and the resonances are not
damped.
9.2.3 Attenuation of magnetic field below 100 MHz
Inductive data transmission and powering is widely used in sensor applications in machines. The
attenuation of the ac magnetic field through the rubber compound with embedded steel belt was
measured by using the setup shown in Figure 9.2-6. Two ferrite-core coils (diameter 2 mm, length
10 mm) were fabricated. The mutual magnetic coupling between the coils was measured with a
Hewlett-Packard Network Analyser 8753D. The measurement was done with and without the
rubber compound between the coils in the frequency range 0.1 – 100 MHz. The transmission
through the belt can be calculated from the data.
Network Analyzer
HP 8753D
S12
ferrite core
coils
sample
Figure 9.2-6: Measurement of the ac magnetic field transmission through

rubber compound with embedded steel belt.
The measurement results are shown in Figures 9.2-7 and 9.2-8. The transmission factor is 0.7 or
higher for all samples studied.
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1
0.9
transmission factor 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1 1 10
f / MHz
MS06-3 #1 #2 #3
Figure 9.2-7: AC- magnetic field transmission through four Pirelli rubber samples
in the frequency range 0.1 – 10 MHz.
Network Analyzer
HP 8753D 0.8
Trans mis s io n
S12
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Fre que nc y [MHz]
1 0 .3.2 0 0 2 Apo llo 03 .wk4
Figure 9.2-8: AC magnetic field transmission through a standard tyre

in the frequency range 0.03 – 100 MHz
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Conclusion
The permittivity is measured in the frequency range of 1 MHz – 1 GHz for various samples of
rubber material. Results are presented for standard tyres which have a high content of graphite
and tyres with a low content of graphite. Standard tyres have a high loss factor (ε”) and are
relatively bad insulators. The loss factor (ε”) of tyres with low content of graphite is low and it
indicates that they are relatively good insulators. More important for evaluation is the Q-value
which is the ratio of the relative permittivity (ε’) and the loss factor (ε”). The Q-value in the
relevant frequency range is in the range of 1 – 30. It is about 30 for rubber with low content of
graphite and about 1 for rubber with high content of graphite.
The transmission factor in a frequency range of up to 100 MHz is 0.7 or higher for all samples
studied.
Therefore, one can conclude that inductive coupling, e.g. at 13.56 MHz, is one viable option for
the communication and power supply of the sensor and the electronics of an intelligent tyre/wheel
system.
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10. PATENT OVERVIEW

There are strong activities in patent applications in the area of intelligent tyre/wheel systems. For
the patent overview the term Tyre Monitoring System (TMS) is used to describe various sensor or
monitoring systems. Nearly each week it is possible to see new patents reporting new potential
innovative proposals in the TMS area.
The main actors (patents assignee) are listed as follows:
• Tyre manufacturers:
(i.e. Michelin, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Pirelli Pneumatici, Continental,
Bridgestone/Firestone Inc, Nokian Tyres),
• Electronics suppliers:
(Robert Bosch, Siemens VDO, Philips Electronic, TRW Inc., Schrader Electronics, SmarTire,
Delphi Technologies, Beru, Transense Technologies, etc.),
• Vehicle manufactures:
(Peugeot, DaimlerChrysler, Ford, BMW, Ford, Toyota, Mitsubishi, etc.) and
• Other companies:
(Epic Technologies, Pacific Industrial, Dassault Electronique, Pacific Industrial Company,
Computer Methods Corporation, Nanodevices Inc., Microchip Technologies).
The patents area covers the entire system – the mechatronic tyre - and the subsystems, such as
sensor, radio receiver and transmitter (RX and TX), antenna, power supply, tyre integration, CPU,
analysis of data, system management, etc.).
A significant patent activity can be monitored in the area of sensors for TMS. Patents present
solutions using different types of sensor elements or technologies, such as magnetic sensor, piezo
cable sensors, piezo sensor (in general), SAW sensor, optical sensor, acceleration sensor,
displacement sensor, Doppler Effect sensor, etc. It seems, that nearly all potential techniques have
been proposed for potential solutions.
In this chapter the patent activity referring to TPMS is not described.
The following compilation of patents quotes some examples which have relevance to the
APOLLO project. The oldest patent application is from the year 1990, the next one from 1996.
All other patents were placed from 1998 until now. The description of patent applications is
organised in the systems and aspects as follows:
• Accelerometer and other sensors,
• Tyre integration,
• Antenna,
• Power transmission / generation and
• General aspects of total system.
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10.1 ACCELEROMETER AND OTHER SENSORS

The patents show some possible use of accelerometers to be inserted in the tyre; for instance to
measure the revolutions, the length of the foot print or the speed; examples concerning how to
analyse the signal are also reported.
US 5749984: “Tire monitoring system and method” by Michelin.

A method and system for monitoring and measuring the amount of deflection of a pneumatic tyre
and the length of the contact patch are proposed. The embedded sensor device generates a signal
which varies as it passes through the tyre contact patch. The sensor is mounted at the middle of
the inner liner. The goal is to determine deflection, tyre speed and number of tyre revolutions.
WO 09856606: “Monitoring a tyre by acceleration measurement” by Dassault Electronique.
The concept shows an acceleration sensor that is mounted on the wheel. It is implanted in the tyre
running tread or in the proximity thereof. The sensor is combined with a transmitter for energy
and information.
EP 0988160: “Surveillance d’un pneuamtique par mesure d’acceleration” by Thales Systemes
Aeroportes.
A system for monitoring a tyre by acceleration measurements is described (in French).
EP 1163136 and WO 015455: "Device for continuously measuring deformations in a tyre during
the travel movement of a motor vehicle" by Pirelli Pneumatici.
A device for continuously measuring deformation of a tyre is proposed. A emitter of a light beam
and an optical sensor are mounted on the rim and a reflector is attached in the opposite to the
inner surface of the tyre. The beam of light is reflected back to the rim and detected by a light
sensitive element. The intensity of the reflected light beam is detected by the sensor which
provides a signal representing the deformation of the tyre.
10.2 TYRE INTEGRATION

The reported patents show some possible methods how to link the TMS to the tyre. Not only
mechanical approaches, but also adhesion way or a non-contact solution - leaving the system free
to float inside the rolling tyre – are documented.
As it is for practical products, the task of tyre integration seems to be one of the most difficult
problems to be solved in the TMS area. It is important in fact to maintain the standard behaviour
of the tyre (performance, integrity and fatigue included). Up to now no verified and tested product
has been presented on the market.
US 05500065: “Method for embedding a monitoring device within a tire during manufacturing”
by Bridgestone/Firestone.
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The invention concerns a manufacturing method of a tyre, wherein a monitoring device is

embedded within the tyre during its manufacture. The method consists of mounting the device by
means of a dowel. When the device is covered with layers of the inner liner, the dowel is removed
and produces an aperture in order to contact the embedded monitoring device.
US 6217683: “Monitored vehicle tire and monitor retainer assembly” by Michelin.
The invention provides a tyre monitor retainer assembly. A module which monitors tyre
information is supported by a rubber ply affixed to the inside surface of the tyre.
US 6452650: “Tire module attachment mount” by Michelin.
A method to affix a module to the inner surface of the tyre by the help of a special rubber ply is
described. The module is used for monitoring tyre information (not specified in detail). The
module is mounted to be removed, exchanged, etc. A damping element may also be used to limit
the movement and vibrations of the module.
US 6386254: “Device to encapsulate a substrate containing sensitive electronic component“ by
Bridgestone/Firestone.
The patent describes a device for encapsulating a pressure sensor in combination with an antenna.
The invention takes care that the pressure sensor is prevented from being clogged with the
encapsulating material by a damming element and that the connection between the body and the
antenna holds the sensor in a floating position.
US 6435020: “Method for allocating tire pressure control device to wheel position in a tire“ by
Continental.
A method for allocating tyre pressure control measurements to wheel positions using some kind
of a central clock is proposed.
US 6360594: “Non attached monitoring assembly for pneumatic tyre” by Bridgestone/Firestone.
A very original method to place a monitoring assembly inside a tyre is proposed. The tyre is filled
partly with a liquid. The monitoring assembly is encapsulated within a spherical protective body
and is swimming on the surface of the liquid.
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10.3 ANTENNA
The material used for an antenna can be metallic, rubber like or plastic. The antenna can be
located inside the tyre, outside the tyre or embedded in the tyre. The antenna can be used to
transmit the signal or also to receive electrical energy (e.g. for a transponder or similar devices).
EP 1049196: “Dipole antenna for tire tag” by Bridgestone/Firestone.

A monitoring device for at least one property of a tyre is proposed. The device is located in the
side wall. It includes a sensing element and a dipole antenna for communication. The dipole
antenna is disposed perpendicular to the reinforcing cords in order to maximise the probability of
signal propagation through the side wall.
WO 9929523: “Antenna for radio transponder“ by Goodyear.
The patent describes an antenna which is embedded in a non-conductive elastomeric material
located within the toroidal region of a pneumatic tyre or on the radial outer side of the wheel rim.
The device includes a radio-frequency transponder and optional sensors placed on an integrated
circuit chip. The transponder has at least the capacity to transmit data relating to tyre or wheel
identification.
EP1048494 (similar to EP1048493): “Combination monitoring device and patch for a pneumatic
tyre and method to installing the same with a coupled antenna” by Bridgestone/Firestone.
The patent describes the combination of a monitoring device and a patch to monitor the
conditions of a tyre. The patch is adapted to carry the monitoring device and to mount the
monitoring device on the inner liner of the tyre. The focus of the invention concerns the
assembling and the electrical contact of the antenna and monitoring device.
WO 9929522 (similar to WO 9929523): “Pneumatic tyre with antenna for radio transponder” by
Goodyear.
A device is embedded in substantially non-conductive elastomeric material located within the
toroidal region of a tyre. It is coaxially positioned with respect to the tyre or wheel and is
embedded in the tyre at its equatorial plane. The device contains a RF transponder, including an
integrated circuit chip and optical sensors.
WO 02068224: “Monitoring device and tire combination” by Bridgestone/Firestone.
The patent proposes a combination of an antenna and a monitoring device (sensor). The antenna
is mounted on the tyre side wall outside the body cords of the tyre or it is embedded in the body
of the side wall. The sensor is located inside the tyre opposite to the antenna. The connection
between sensor and antenna may be a plug and socket connection or capacitive coupling.
EP 1262339 and US 6518877: “Pneumatic tire monitor” by Goodyear.
A system for monitoring pneumatic tyre conditions for one or more tyre-wheel assemblies is
described. The system is mounted on a vehicle preferably in combination with a tyre pressurising
and regulating device. The patent focuses on a data transmission system using an arrangement of
different antennas.
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10.4 POWER TRANSMISSION / GENERATION

The patents family referring to power transmission is very large and many solution have been
proposed. The solutions are focused mainly to avoid the use of the battery inside the tyre and
transmitting the energy from the vehicle to a system inside the tyre. For power transmission it is
necessary to use an antenna on the vehicle which is placed close to the tyre and another antenna
inside the tyre. The more significant problems are the size of the antenna, the possible locations
for antenna integration inside the tyre and the electrical connection between the antenna and the
electronics. Most patents referring to power generation at the tyre are using piezo electronics.
US 5483827: “Active integrated circuit transponder and sensor apparatus for sensing and
transmitting vehicle parameter data“ by Computer Technologies Inc.
An active integrated circuit transponder with on-board power supply is mounted in or on a vehicle
tyre. A pressure sensor, a temperature sensor and a tyre rotation sensor are mounted on a substrate
along with the integrated circuit transponder chip, the power supply and the antenna. Upon an
interrogation signal from a remote source, the transponder activates the sensors to sense and to
transmit the signals.
WO 0180327: "Piezoelectric Generator for sensors inside vehicle tyre” by Pirelli Pneumatici.
A system for generating electrical energy in a vehicle tyre is proposed. It comprises at least one
piezoelectric element which generates energy when it is deformed. The piezo element preferably
comprises a coaxial cable extending along e.g. a straight path of the tyre circumference. The
element is connected to an electrical circuit that is applied to the tyre.
10.5 GENERAL ASPECTS OF TOTAL SYSTEM

This area covers a number of possible ways to manage the data and to arrange the entire system.
Potential methods of data management are e.g. to analyse the data inside or outside the tyre, use
of single tyre data or co-use of tyre data of all tyres. together. It is possible to set up a digital or an
analog data analysis. A large number of possible algorithms to be used for data interpretation and
processing is proposed. Many patents show a solution based on a combination of some of the
possibilities.
EP 1263616 and WO 0168388: “System, tyre and method for determining the behaviour of a tyre
in motion” by Pirelli Pneumatici.
The patent concerns a system for the continuous determination of the interaction between tyre and
the ground during the movement of the vehicle. The sensor is located at the middle of the inner
liner of the tyre and comprises an elongate piezoelectric element, which generates a signal during
the rotation of the tyre. The sensor is associated with processing means.
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WO 0108908: “Method and System for controlling the behaviour of a vehicle by controlling its
tyre“ by Pirelli Pneumatici.
The invention relates to a method, a system and a pneumatic wheel for measuring the
deformations of the casing of a tyre in operation, for the purpose of taking appropriate corrective
action on the vehicle driving control system. More specifically, the method consists of the
following steps: measuring the extent of the characteristic deformations of the casing profile of at
least one tyre at a given inflation pressure, comparing the values of these characteristic
deformations with stored values and generating signals from the difference for devices which
control the vehicle behaviour.
US 5559484: “Data logging tire monitoring with condition predictive capabilities and integrity
checking“ by Epic Technologies.
A device for sensing a condition of a non rotating pneumatic tyre mounted on a rim is described.
The device comprises a housing, a band for mounting the housing to the rim, a sensor for
monitoring the condition of the tyre and circuitry operatively connected to the sensor for
generating radio signals to transmit data. The system includes data logging capability for storing
time series tyre condition information for use as a historical log and other information.
US 6448891: “Wireless remote tire parameter measurement method and apparatus“ by GeoMatt
Insights.
The proposed system allows a tyre pressure control without any monitoring device located in the
wheel. Basic information are acquired from the acoustic signature of the rolling tyre. A processor
is used to calculate the pressure values. The calculation takes into account a set of reference
parameters and warnings are generated.
WO 02053429: “Method and system for controlling and / or regulating the handling
characteristic of a vehicle“ by Bosch.
The invention relates to a system for monitoring the properties of at least one tyre. The system
includes sensors and a device for storing data. A method for monitoring the properties of a tyre is
proposed The information may be used to improve the performance of driver assistance systems.
EP 1245412: “A system and an apparatus for monitoring a tire condition value in a pneumatic”
by Goodyear.
A system for monitoring at least one tyre condition is proposed. The tyre is associated with a
passive electronic tag which is responsive to an interrogation signal transmitted from the vehicle
to the rotating tyre. The patent describes the data transmitting system in some detail.
US 0095253: “Vehicle stability control system with tyre sensor assembly” by Siemens VDO
Automotive.
A vehicle control system tyre characteristic information such as tyre pressure and temperature
during vehicle operation is presented. Variances in tyre temperature and pressure which can effect
the tyre radius are used to calculate vehicle speed and individual tyre rotation speed. This speed
data are used for generating control signals for vehicle control systems such as ABS, traction and
stability control systems.
IST-2001-34372 Page 97
_____________________________________________________________________________
US 6518876: “Determination of Wheel Sensor Position Using Radio Frequency Detectors in an

Automotive Remote Tire Monitor System" by Schrader-Bridgeport International.
The patent describes a RF data transmission system (tyre - chassis). Data from a plurality of tyre
monitors (sensors) located at wheels of a vehicle are transmitted to a RF receiver on the vehicle.
The transmitted data contain both the sensor data and the transmission indication. The system is
used for an automatic update of the position of the tyre monitors on the vehicle.
US 6340930: “System and methods for monitoring a condition of a vehicle tire“ by TRW.
A system for monitoring a condition of the tyre (condition not specified) is a component of the
proposed concept. The patent contains a radio frequency based signal transmission from the tyre-
based unit to the vehicle-based unit. Only one receiver unit is used on the vehicle. A method to
identify the tyre position corresponding to reception success rates is described.
10.6 CONCLUSION
The overview on patent applications in the field of an intelligent tyre/wheel system can be
summarised as follows:
• Many areas are covered such as subsystems or total systems and a wide range of technologies
are used for the proposed solutions.
• Many inventors or companies are active in this field.
• There is a high activity on patent applications and it is still increasing.
These aspects show, that on one hand there is a high interest in this field but on the other hand
there is a big gap between the proposed systems and series products which are available on the
market up to now, with the exception of TPMS. This gap is a reason why further research
activities are needed for the development of an intelligent tyre/wheel system. This research
activities can benefit from a high innovation rate in the fields of electronics/microelectronics,
radio communication and power generation technologies. The innovations and new technologies
resulting from these activities are supporting the development of e.g. sensors, wireless data
transmission and batteryless power supply that are key subsystems for an intelligent tyre/wheel
system. It can be concluded that there is a promising perspective to set up a successful product by
the help of research in the APOLLO project.
IST-2001-34372 Page 98
_____________________________________________________________________________
11. ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERENCES

Abbreviations
ABS Antilock Braking System

AC Alternating current
ADAS Advanced Driver Assistance System
AM Amplitude Modulation
ASIC Application-Specific Integrated Circuit
ASK Amplitude Shift Keying
bps Bits/s (data rate)
CAN Controller Area Network
CID Custom Identification Device
CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
CPU Central Processor Unit
DC Direct current
DDS Deflation Detection System
DE Dielectric Elastomer
DOT Department of Transportation (United States of America)
ECU Electronic Controlling Unit
EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
EIRP Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
ERP Equivalent Radiated Power
ESP Electronic Stability Programme
ETRTO European Tyre and Rim Technical Organisation
ETSC European Transport Safety Council
FM Frequency Modulation
FSK Frequency Shift Keying
GSM Global System Mobile
HARM High Aspect Ratio Micromachining
HF High Frequency
IC Integrated Circuit
IST-2001-34372 Page 99
_____________________________________________________________________________
IRTAD International Road Traffic and Accident Database

ISM Industrial Scientific Medical (RF Frequency band)
ISO International Standardisation Organization
LIN Local Interconnect Network
MEMS MicroElectroMechanical System
MET McEvanTechnologies
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (United States of America)
OE Original Equipment
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OOK On-Off Keying (Modulation)
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PIEZO Piezo motors (actuators) convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, and piezo
generators (sensors) convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
PVDF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
PZT Lead Zirconate Titanate; PZT based ceramic materials are most often used today for
Piezo materials. Actuators made of this ceramic are often referred to as PZT actuators.
RADAR Radio Detection And Ranging
RF Radio Frequency
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RX Radio receiver
SA Smart Antenna
SAW Surface Acoustic Wave
SOI Silicon On Insulator
SRD Short-Range Radio Devices
STRO Scandinavian Tyre and Rim Organisation
SUV Sport Utility Vehicle
SWT Side Wall Torsion (sensor)
TMS Tyre Monitoring System
TCS Traction Control System
TPMS Tyre Pressure Monitoring System
TX Radio transmitter
UHF Ultra High Frequency
UWB Ultra Wide Band
IST-2001-34372 Page 100

_____________________________________________________________________________
VALT Finnish Motor Vehicle Insurers’ Centre; Traffic Safety Committee of Insurance
Companies
VDA German Association of the Automotive Industry
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WPAN Wireless Personal Area Network
X-by-wire Fault tolerant electronic systems without mechanical backup in vehicles.
The "x" in "x-by-wire" represents the basis of any (safety) related application, such as
steering, braking, power train etc.
IST-2001-34372 Page 101

_____________________________________________________________________________
References
[MAE02] Mäkinen, T.; Wunderlich, H.: Intelligent Tyre Promoting Accident-free Traffic. IEEE
Intern. Conf. on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC 2002), Singapore, 2002.
References of Chapter 2 (Accident analysis)

[BMV99] Bundesministerium für Verkehr-, Bau- und Wohnungswesen.
Verkehr in Zahlen 1999. Deutscher Verkehrs-Verlag, Hamburg, 1999.
[HUT1] Available in WWW-format (referred 12.12.2002):
URL:http://www.etsc.be/index.html
[HUT2] Available in WWW-format (referred 12.12.2002):
URL:http://www.etsc.be/stats1.ppt
[HUT3] Available in Finnish in WWW-format (referred 12.12.2002):
URL:http://www.vakes.fi/LVK/LVK_PDF/Raportit/vuosirap2001.pdf
ISBN 951-9346-19-8
[HUT4] The investigation database of the Finnish Road Accident Investigation Teams
(Not available in public)
[SBA02] Statistisches Jahrbuch 2002 für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland,
Statistical Yearbook 2002 for the Federal Republic of Germany.
Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, 2002.
http://www.destatis.de/themen/d/thm_verkehr.htm
References of chapter 3 (Trends and strategies)

[BAC00] Bachmann, T.; Naab, K.; Reichart, G.; Schraut, M.: Enhancing Traffic Safety with
BMW’s Driver Assistance Approach ConnectedDrive.
7th World Congress on Intelligent Transport Systems, Turin, 2000.
[BAL02] Bald, S.: Die Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Straßenoberfläche.
In: Winner, H. (ed.):
4. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI
Reihe 12 Nr. 511, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2002.
[FIS01] Fischlein, H.; Gnadler, R.; Unrau, H.-J.: Der Einfluss der Fahrbahnoberflächen-
struktur auf das Kraftschlussverhalten von Pkw-Reifen bei trockener und nasser
Fahrbahn. ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift, Heft 10/2001.
[HIE02] Hiemenz, R.; Klein, A.: Interaktion von Fahrwerkregelsystemen im Integrated
Chassis Control (ICC).
Tag des Fahrwerks, Institut für Kraftfahrwesen Aachen (ika), Aachen, 2002.
[KON02] Konik, D.; Redlich, P.; Coelingh, E.: Vernetzte Fahrwerkregelsysteme und deren
Anforderungen an die funktionellen Schnittstellen der beteiligten elektronischen
Komponenten.
Tag des Fahrwerks, Institut für Kraftfahrwesen Aachen (ika), Aachen 2002.
IST-2001-34372 Page 102

_____________________________________________________________________________
[NHT02] Department of Transportation; National Highway Traffic Safety Administration; 49

CFR Part 571; (Docket No. NHTSA 2000-8572); RIN 2127-AI33; Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standards; Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems; Controls and Displays.
[RIE02] Rieth, P.: Global Chassis Control, Sicherheit und Komfort durch Systemvernetzung.
Tag des Fahrwerks, Institut für Kraftfahrwesen Aachen (ika), Aachen, 2002.
[STE01] Steinauer, B.: Threshold Values for the Skid Resistance of Road Surfaces.
VDI-Berichte Nr. 1632, Tagung Reifen, Rahrwerk, Fahrbahn Hannover, VDI-Verlag,
Düsseldorf, 2001.
[ZAN02] van Zanten, A. T.: Einfluss der Reifen auf Fahrverhalten und ESP-Funktion.
In: Winner, H. (ed.): 4. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI
[ZIE01] Ziebart, W.: Global Chassis Control – Improved Safety and Comfort Through Chassis
System Networking.
VDI-Berichte Nr. 1632, Tagung Reifen, Rahrwerk, Fahrbahn Hannover, VDI-Verlag,
Düsseldorf, 2001.
References of Chapter 4 (Tyre Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS))

[NR1] http://www.autospeed.com/A_1267/P_4/article.html
[NR2] http://www.conti-online.com/generator/www/de/en/continentalteves
/continentalteves/themes/products/tire_pressure_loss_detection/dds_0602_en.html
[NR3] http://www.dunloptyres.co.uk/data/innovations/warnair.html
[NR4] http://e-www.motorola.com/brdata/PDFDB/docs/BR1564.pdf
[NR5] http://www.sensonor.no/main.html
[NR6] http://www.smartire.com
[NR7] http://www.roadsnoop.com
[NR8] http://www.tiresafe.com
[NR9] http://www.topchek.com.cn/index2.html
[NR10] http://www.asiapacific.com.my/the3rdeye/home.html
[NR11] http://www.ambromley.co.uk
[NR12] http://schrader-bridgeport.net
[NR13] http://www.beru.com
[NR14] http://www.siemensauto.com
[NR15] http://www.pacific-ind.com
[NR16] http://www.omronauto.com
[NR17] http://www.bridgestone-firestone.com
[NR18] http://www.alps.co.jp/press/new2002/f0508b-e.htm
IST-2001-34372 Page 103

_____________________________________________________________________________
[NR19] http://www.johnsoncontrols.com
[NR20] http://www.trw.com
[NR21] http://www.visteon.com/technology/automotive/tirepress_monitor .shtml
[NR22] http://www.alltech.it
[NR23] http://www.tiresmonitor.com.tw
[NR24] http://www.liteonauto.com/index.htm
[NR25] http://www.ivtm.com
[NR26] http://www.stisensors.com
[NR27] http://www.tiresentry.com
[NR28] http://www.sensatecllc.com
[NR29] http://www.advantagepressurepro.com
[NR30] http://www.tyreshied.co.uk
[NR31] US-Patent 4,510,484 by Daniel S. Snyder, Apr. 9, 1985
[NR32] http://www.iqmobil.com/
[NR33] http://www.ims.fhg.de/datenblaetter/pressure_sensors/p_tele/ p_tele-e.html
[NR34] http://www.goodyear.com/media/pr/22179ti.html
[NR35] http://www.qinetiq.com/applications/news_room/press_packs/
qinetiq_at_convergence_2002/ convergence_web_tyre_pressure_ sensor.doc
References of Chapter 5 (Advanced tyre sensor systems)

[NR36] Strothjohann, T. et al.: In: Breuer, B. (ed.): 3. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium,
Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe 12 Nr. 437, VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2000.
[NR37] http://www.transense.co.uk/
[NR38] http://w4.siemens.de/FuI/en/archiv/newworld/heft4_00/artikel05/index.html
[NR39] http://www.contitevesna.com/0824992.htm
[NR40] http://www.hf.e-technik.tu-darmstadt.de/~www_adm/JB1997/pdf_ files/ brand_3.pdf
[NR41] Breuer, B. et al.: Der “Intelligente Reifen” – Zwischenergebnisse einer
interdisziplinären Forschungskooperation. ATZ Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift,
Heft 12/1995.
[BEC98] Becherer, T.: The Sidewall Torsion Sensor. 2. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium.
Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe 12 Nr. 362, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1998.
[BRE98] Breuer, B.; Bachmann, V.; Fach, M.: Future Car-Tires as Provider of Information for
Vehicle Systems to Enhance Primary Safety. SAE Special Publication 1375, Society
of American Engineers, Warrendale, USA, 1998.
IST-2001-34372 Page 104

_____________________________________________________________________________
[BUL98] Bulst, W.-E.; Fischerauer, G.; Reindl, L.: State of the Art in Wireless Sensing with
Surface Acoustic Waves. 24th Annual Conf. of the IEEE Industrial Electronics
Society, IECON’98, Aachen, 1998.
[FAC00] Fach, M. Lokale Effekte der Reifen zwischen Pkw-Reifen und Fahrbahn.
[KLU02] Kluge, S.; Volk, H.: Der intelligente Reifen – Neue Trends und Entwicklungen für
Fahrwerkssysteme und Reifen.
[POH99] Pohl, A.; Steindl, R.; Reindl, L.: The “Intelligent Tyre” Utilizing SAW Sensors –
Measurement of Tire Friction. IEEE Transaction on Instrumentation and
Measurement, Vol. 48, No. 6, 1999.
[STR02] Strothjohann, T.; Winner H.: Reibwerterkennung mit dem Darmstädter Reifensensor.
References of chapter 6 (Basic sensor technologies)

[NR42] http://www.torque-sensor.com/css/descript.htm
[NR43] Tyren, C.: Messen von Reifendehnungen mit Mikrowellen – Eine neuartige Rolle des
Stahldrahtes im Gummi. 4. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI
Reihe 12 Nr. 511, VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2002.
[NR44] http://www.tekgenuity.com
[NR45] http://www.optimess.de/goe.htm
[NR46] http://www.uwb.net/faqs.html
[NR47] http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0002D51D-0A78-1CD4-
B4A8809EC588EEDF&pageNumber=3&catID=2
[NR48] http://www.mcewantechnologies.com
[BMW00] BMW Publication: Fahrerassistenz durch Reibwerterkennung. Elektronik 2/2000.
[ELW00] Elwenspoek, M.; Wiegerink, R.: Mechanical Microsensors, Springer, Berlin, 2000.
[GOE93] Görich, H.-J.: System zur Ermittlung des aktuellen Kraftschlußpotentials eines Pkw
im Fahrbetrieb.
[FRA1] Fraden, J.: AIP Handbook of Modern Sensors.
[PII99] Microsystem Technology: The Technology for the Next Silicon Revolution?
In: Piironen, Päivi (ed.): Tekes‘ Technology Programme Report 2/99,
ISBN 952-9621-48-5, 1999.
[SEP95] Seppä, H.: Resolution of Capacitive Sensor, in Automation Technology Review 1995,
Ranta, J. (ed.), ISBN 1238-8688, pp. 88-97, 1995.
IST-2001-34372 Page 105

_____________________________________________________________________________
[TIL93] Tilmanns, H.A.C.: Micromechanical sensors using encapsulated built-in resonant

strain gauges. Thesis, ISBN 90-9005746-3, 1993.
References of chapter 7 (Basic technologies for wireless data transmission)

[WDT01] Finkenzeller, K.: RFID Handbook. Radio-Frequency Identification Fundamentals and
Applications. Wiley & Sons, 2002.
[WDT02] BluetoothTM:
http://www.bluetooth.com
[WDT03] Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT):
http://www.dect-mmc.com
[WDT04] HomeRFTM:
http://www.homerf.com
[WDT05] IEEE 802.11 (WLAN):
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11
[WDT06] IEEE 802.15 WPANTM Task Group 2 (TG2) – Coexistence for WPANs:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/15/pub/TG2.html
[WDT07] Ultra Wide Band (UWB):
http://www.uwb.org
[WDT08] Mobilian TrueRadioTM: Enabling Wi-Fi and BluetoothTM Coexistance without
Compromise.
http://www.mobilian.com
[WDT09] ZigBeeTM:
http://www.zigbee.org/zigbee_new/resources/ZigBeeOverview4.pdf
[WDT10] ZigBeeTM:
http://e-www.motorola.com/brdata/PDFDB/docs/802_15_4FACT.pdf
[WDT11] ZigBeeTM:
http://www.zigbee.org/zigbee_new/meetings/MemberMeetingJanuary2003/
OHagendaPresentations.asp
[WDT12] Electro – Magnetic RF ID. White Paper on RFID Technology, Motorola, 1997.
[WDT13] Radio Frequency Identification Systems. European UHF Frequency Requirements.
[WDT14] Declercq; Dehollian; Joehl; Curty: Active Backscattering Techniques for Micro-
power Short-range Data Transmission.
[WDT15] Integrating Passive RF Technology with Crypto-graphic Communications Protocols.
Microchip, 2000.
[WDT16] Wunderlich, H.; Schwab, M., Fredriksson, L.-B.: Opening Bluetooth for Technical
Tasks – Possibilities and Challenges for Automotive Applications.
Bluetooth Congress 2000, Monte Carlo, 14.-16.06.2000.
IST-2001-34372 Page 106

_____________________________________________________________________________
References of chapter 8 (Basic technologies for batteryless power supply)

[IPT01] Electronic Immobilizers for the Automotive Industry. ATMEL, 2000.
[IPT02] microID™ 125KHz RFID, System Design Guide, Microchip, 1998.
[IPT03] Using Low Power Transponders and Tags for RFID applications. EM Microelectronic
MARIN SA.
[IPT04] Radio Tags & Transponders. Sensors & Signals, 2001.
[IPT05] TIRIS Technology. General Reference Manual. Texas Instruments, 1996.
[IPT06] Passive RFID Basics. Microchip, 1998.
[IPT07] U2270B Antenna Design Hints. Application Note, ATMEL, 2000.
[POG01] Ron Pelrine, et al.: Dielectric Elastomers: Generator Mode Fundamentals and
Applications, Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 4329.
[POG02] Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity and Piezo Actuators
http://www.physikinstrumente.com/tutorial/4_15.html
[POG03] Electric baseball bats
http://www.acx.com/lab/cool_bat.html
[POG04] Electric snowboard
http://www.acx.com/lab/cool_board.html
[POG05] Clyde Jake Kendall: Parasitic Power Collection in Shoe Mounted Devices,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1998.
[POG06] Parasitic Power Harvesting at the MIT Media Lab,
http://www.darpa.mil/dso/thrust/md/energy/briefings/12mit1.pdf
[POG07] Material systems inc. Technologies,
http://www.matsysinc.com/coretech.html
[POG08] Mikio Umeda, et al.: Energy Storage Characteristics of a Piezo-Generator using
Impact Induced Vibration, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol 36, May 1997.
[POG09] M. El-hami, et al.: Design and fabrication of a new vibration-based electromechanical
power generator, University of Southampton, Nov. 2000.
[POG10] Enocean
http://www.enocean.de
[POG11] Schmidt, F.: Mechanisch gespeister Funk-Reifensensor. In: Winner, H. (ed.):
4. Darmstädter Reifenkolloquium. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI
- End of document -
IST-2001-34372 Page 107

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APOLLO

Intelligent Tyre Systems – State of the Art and

Project Co-ordinator: Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) FI

Project funded by the European Community

DELIVERABLES SUMMARY SHEET

Project Number: IST-2001-34372

Partners owning: The APOLLO consortium

7.3 Standards and regulations ......................................................................................62

TYRE RELATED RISK FACTORS IN FATAL ACCIDENTS IN 1991-

Tyres unfit for road

TYRE DEFICIENCIES AS RISK FACTOR IN OCCUPANT-FATAL ACCIDENTS IN 1991-2001

Table 2.2-2: Study of fatal accidents in 1998 - 2001 (Finland). [HUT4]

Figure 2.3-2: General causes of accidents with personal injury.

Figure 2.3-3: Accidents with personal injury caused by technical faults.

3. TRENDS AND STRATEGIES

3.1 VEHICLE MANUFACTURERS

Chassis and Tyre

3.2 AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONICS SUPPLIERS

TELEMATIC NODE BODY COMPUTER REAR NODE

Figure 3.2-1: Typical bus and node architecture.

3.3 TYRE MANUFACTURERS AND CO-OPERATIONS

Co-operation of electronics suppliers and tyre manufacturers

4. TYRE PRESSURE MONITORING SYSTEMS (TPMS)

4.1 INDIRECT MEASUREMENT

Figure 4.1-1: Tyre rolling radius versus pressure. [NR1]

4.2 DIRECT MEASUREMENT - ACTIVE SENSORS

4.2.1 Battery-operated sensor technology in general

Figure 4.2-1: Integrated pressure and temperature sensor component SP13

4.2.2 Clamp-on-rim sensors

Figure 4.2-2: SmarTire’s latest generation TPMS product. [NR6]

Figure 4.2-3: RoadSnoop Pressure Watch. [NR7]

Figure 4.2-4: TireSafe from Algonquin Scientific. [NR8]

Figure 4.2-5: Tire-SafeGuard system components (Topcheck System):

Figure 4.2-7: TMS product components (A. M. Bromley). [NR11]

4.2.3 Valve-attached sensors

Figure 4.2-8: Smart Valves manufactured by Schrader Electronics. [NR12]

Figure 4.2-9: Beru product’s main components: wheel house antenna,

Figure 4.2-10: Siemens’ TPM product. [NR14]

Figure 4.2-11: Pacific Industrial’s Figure 4.2-12: Omron’s TPMS. [NR16]

Figure 4.2-13 Bridgestone’s tyre pressure sensor

Figure 4.2-15: Johnson Controls’ PSI Mirror. [NR19]

Figure 4.2-16: TRW’s Tyre Watch. [NR20]

Figure 4.2-17: Visteon’s idea of valve-fixed tyre pressure sensor. [NR21]

Figure 4.2-19: Cowealth’s TPMS receiver and valve-attached sensor. [NR23]

Figure 4.2-20: Lite-On Automotive’s TPMS product. [NR24]

Figure 4.2-21: IVTM system components (Wabco and Michelin). [NR25]

4.2.4 Valve-cap-integrated sensors

Figure 4.2-23: Tire Sentry product’s valve-cap-sensor and receiver/display. [NR27]

4.3 DIRECT MEASUREMENT - PASSIVE SENSORS

4.3.1 Introduction on batteryless sensor technology

4.3.2 Batteryless TPMS at 2.4 GHz

4.3.3 Other systems

Figure 4.3-4: Fraunhofer Institute’s tyre pressure transponder. [NR33]

Figure 4.3-5: PhaseIV Engineering’s passive RFID tag with

Figure 4.3-6: Qinetiq’s and First Technology’s illustration of their

5. ADVANCED TYRE SENSOR SYSTEMS

5.1 SIDE WALL TORSION SENSOR

Figure 5.1-1: Continental’s SWT sensor.

5.2 DARMSTADT TYRE SENSOR

Standard parameter, Contidrom

Roll off path,

Figure 5.2-2 Tyre tread block movement in x-direction on a wet surface

5.3 SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE SENSOR

Figure 5.3-1: Functional principle of a SAW component. [NR36]