Business Economics

DR. SHAKUNTALA MISRA NATIONAL

REHABILITATION UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

FACULTY OF LAW

PROJECT- ON

“UTILITY THEORY APPROACH”

SUBMITTED TO
Mrs. Monisha Thapper
GUEST FACULTY
FACULTY OF LAW
D.S.M.N.R.U

SUBMITTED BY
PREETI SINGH
B.COM L.L.B (HONS)
X SEMESTER

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I Preeti Singh would like to express my deep gratitude to Mrs.Monisha Thapper ma’am, for
giving me valuable input on the topic, which had made me competent enough to prepare my
project.

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INDEX

 Introduction
 Utility Analyses or cardinal Approach
 Meaning of Utility
 Application
 Characteristics of Utility
 Types of Utility
 Laws of utility Analyses
 Diminishing utility
 Law of Equi marginal utility
 Conclusion

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 Business Economics

Working bibleography

Books

T.r jain

v.k Ohri

h.l Ahuja

Sandeep garg

PRINCIPLES OF MICROECONOMICS, 7TH EDITION (MANKIW’S PRINCIPLES

OF ECONOMICS)

MICROECONOMICS: THEORY AND APPLICATIONS WITH

CALCULUS (4TH EDITION) (THE PEARSON SERIES IN ECONOMICS)

Secondary source

https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/explain-concept-utility-how-do-we-measure-utility-433256
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/consumer/consumer-behavior-analysis-cardinal-utility-approach/3439
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/utility/utility-meaning-characteristics-and-types-economics/13594
https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-economics-cs/theory-of-consumer-behavior/meaning-and-concept-of-
utility/
https://open.lib.umn.edu/principleseconomics/chapter/7-1-the-concept-of-utility/
https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/032615/what-concept-utility-microeconomics.asp
https://study.com/academy/lesson/diminishing-marginal-utility-definition-principle-examples.html
https://www.dineshbakshi.com/ap-economics/ap-microeconomics/revision-notes/806-equi-marginal-
principle

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 Business Economics

Introduction

The theory of consumer’s behaviour seeks to explain the determination of consumer’s

equilibrium. Consumer’s equilibrium refers to a situation when a consumer gets maximum
satisfaction out of his given resources. A consumer spends his money income on different goods
and services in such a manner as to derive maximum satisfaction. Once a consumer attains
equilibrium position, he would not like to deviate from it. Economic theory has approached the
problem of determination of consumer’s equilibrium in two different ways: (1) Cardinal Utility
Analysis and (2) Ordinal Utility Analysis Accordingly, we shall examine these two approaches
to the study of consumer’s equilibrium in greater defait.

Utility Analysis or Cardinal Approach :

The Cardinal Approach to the theory of consumer behaviour is based upon the concept of utility.
It assumes that utility is capable of measurement. It can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and so
on.

According to this approach, utility can be measured in cardinal numbers, like 1,2,3,4 etc. Fisher
has used the term ‘Util’ as a measure of utility. Thus in terms of cardinal approach it can be said
that one gets from a cup of tea 5 utils, from a cup of coffee 10 utils, and from a rasgulla 15 utils
worth of utility. 1

Meaning of Utility :

The term utility in Economics is used to denote that quality in a good or service by virtue of
which our wants are satisfied. In, other words utility is defined as the want satisfying power of a
commodity. According to, Mrs. Robinson, “Utility is the quality in commodities that makes
individuals want to buy them.”

According to Hibdon, “Utility is the quality of a good to satisfy a want.” Features :

1
https://managementation.com/types-of-utility-approach/

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Utility has the following main features :

(1) Utility is Subjective : Utility is subjective because it deals with the mental satisfaction of
a man. A commodity may have different utility for different persons. Cigarette has utility
for a smoker but for a person who does not smoke, cigarette has no utility. Utility,
therefore, is subjective.

(2) Utility is Relative : Utility of a good never remains the same. It varies with time and place.
Fan has utility in the summer but not during the winter season.

(3) Utility and usefulness : A commodity having utility need not be useful. Cigarette and
liquor are harmful to health, but if they satisfy the want of an addict then they have utility
for him. 2

(4) Utility and Morality : Utility is independent of morality. Use of liquor or opium may not
be proper from the moral point of views. But as these intoxicants satisfy wants of the
drinkards and opiumeaters, they have utility for them.

Application3

Utility is usually applied by economists in such constructs as the indifference curve, which plot
the combination of commodities that an individual or a society would accept to maintain a
given level of satisfaction. Utility and indifference curves are used by economists to understand
the underpinnings of demand curves, which are half of the supply and demand analysis that is
used to analyze the workings of goods markets.4

Individual utility and social utility can be construed as the value of a utility function and
a social welfare function respectively. When coupled with production or commodity
constraints, under some assumptions these functions can be used to analyze Pareto efficiency,
such as illustrated by Edgeworth boxes in contract curves. Such efficiency is a central concept
in welfare economics.

2
https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/explain-concept-utility-how-do-we-measure-utility-433256
3
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/consumer/consumer-behavior-analysis-cardinal-utility-approach/3439
4
http://www.economicsdiscussion.net/utility/utility-meaning-characteristics-and-types-economics/13594

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In finance, utility is applied to generate an individual's price for an asset called the indifference
price. Utility functions are also related to risk measures, with the most common example being
the entropic risk measure.

In the field of artificial intelligence, utility functions are used to convey the value of various
outcomes to intelligent agents. This allows the agents to plan actions with the goal of
maximizing the utility (or "value") of available choices.

Characteristics of Utility:

The following are the important characteristic features of utility:

1. Utility has no Ethical or Moral Significance:

A commodity which satisfies any type of want, whether moral or immoral, socially desirable or
undesirable, has utility, i.e., a knife has utility as a household appliance to a housewife, but it has
also a utility to a killer for stabbing some body.

2. Utility is Psychological:
Utility of a commodity depends on a consumer’s mental attitude and assessment regarding its
power to satisfy his particular want. Thus, utility of a commodity may differ from person to
person. Psychologically, every consumer has his likes and dislikes and everyone determines his
own level of satisfaction.5

For instance:
A consumer who is fond of apples may find a high utility in apples in comparison to the consumer
who has no liking for apples. Similarly a strictly vegetarian person has no utility for mutton or
chicken.

3 Utility is always Individual and Relative:

5
https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-economics-cs/theory-of-consumer-behavior/meaning-and-concept-
of-utility/

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Utility of a commodity varies in different situations in relation to time and place. Even the same
consumer may derive a higher or lower utility for the same commodity at different times and
different places. For example—a person may find more utility in woolen clothes during the winter
than in summer or at Kashmir than at Mumbai.

4. Utility is not Necessarily Equated with Usefulness:

Utility simply means the ability to satisfy a want. A commodity may have utility but it may not
be useful to the consumer. For instance—A cigarette has utility to the smoker but it is injurious
to his health. However, demand for a commodity depends on its utility rather than its usefulness.
Thus many commodities like opium liquor, cigarettes etc. have demand because of utility, even
though, they are harmful to human beings.

5. Utility cannot be Measured Objectively:

Utility being a subjective phenomenon or feeling of a consumer cannot be expressed in numerical
terms. So utility cannot be measured cardinally or numerically. It cannot be measured directly in
a precise manner. Professor Marshall has however, unrealistically assumed cardinal measurement
of utility in his analysis of demand.

6. Utility Depends on the Intensity of Want:

Utility is the function of intensity of want. A want which is unsatisfied and greatly intense will
imply a high utility for the commodity concerned to a person. But when a wan is satisfied in the
process of consumption it tends to experience a lesser utility of the commodity than before. Such
an experience is very common and it is described as a tendency of diminishing utility experienced
with an increase in consumption of a commodity. In other words, the more of a thing we have,
the less we want it.

7. Utility is Different from Pleasure:

A commodity may have utility but its consumption may not give any pleasure to the consumer,
e.g., medicine or an injection. An injection or medicinal tablet gives no pleasure, but it is
necessary for the patient.

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8. Utility is also Distinct from Satisfaction:

Utility and satisfaction, both are though inter-related but they have not been considered as the
same in a strict sense.

Concepts of Utility :

There are three concepts of utility :

(1) Initial Utility : The utility derived from the first unit of a commodity is called initial
utility. Utility derived from the first piece of bread is called initial utility. Thus, initial
utility, is the utility obtained from the consumption of the first unit of a commodity. It is
always positive.

(2) Total Utility : Total utility is the sum of utility derived from different units of a
commodity consumed by a household. 6

According to Leftwitch, “Total utility refers to the entire amount of satisfaction obtained from
consuming various quantities of a commodity.” Supposing a consumer four units of apple. If the
consumer gets 10 utils from the consumption of first apple, 8 utils from second 7, 6 utils from
third, and 4 utils from fourth apple, then the total utility will be 10+8+6+4 = 28

Accordingly, total utility can be calculated as :

TU = MU1 + MU2 + MU3 + _________________ + MUn

or
TU = EMU

Here TU = Total utility and MU1, MU2, MU3, + __________ MUn =

Marginal Utility derived from first, second, third __________ and nth unit.

6
https://open.lib.umn.edu/principleseconomics/chapter/7-1-the-concept-of-utility/
7
https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/032615/what-concept-utility-microeconomics.asp

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(3) Marginal Utility : Marginal Utility is the utility derived from the additional unit of a
commodity consumed. The change that takes place in the total utility by the consumption
of an additional unit of a commodity is called marginal utility.

According to Chapman, “Marginal utility is the addition made to total utility by consuming one
more unit of commodity. Supposing a consumer gets 10 utils from the consumption of one mango
and 18 utils from two mangoes, then. the marginal utility of second .mango will be 18-10=8 utils.

Marignal utility can be measured with the help of the following formula

MUnth = TUn – TUn-1

Here MUnth = Marginal utility of nth unit,

TUn = Total utility of ‘n’ units,

TUn-l = Total utility of n-i units,

Marginal utility can be (i) positive, (ii) zero, or (iii) negative.

(i) Positive Marginal Utility : If by consuming additional units of a commodity, total utility
goes on increasing, marginal utility will be positive.

(ii) Zero Marginal Utility : If the consumption of an additional unit of a commodity causes
no change in total utility, marginal utility will be zero.

(iii) Negative Marginal Utility : If the consumption of an additional unit of a commodity

causes fall in total utility, the marginal utility will be negative.

Relationship between total utility and Marginal Utility :

The relationship between total utility and marginal utility may be better understood with the help
of a utility schedule and a diagram as shown below :

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Table No. I No. of units Total Marginal Consumed Utility Utility

0 0 -1 10 10 2 18 18 3 24 64 26 2 5
26 06 24 -2 7 21 -3

The relationship between total utility and marginal utility can be explained with the help of the
above table and diagram based thereon.

1. Total utility, initially, increases with the consumption of successive units of a commodity.
Ultimately, it begins to fall.

2. Marginal Utility continuously diminishes.

3. As long as marginal utility is more than zero or positive, total utility increases, total utility
is maximum when marginal utility is zero. It falls when marginal utility is negative.

4. When marginal utility is zero or total utility is maximum, a poin of saturation is obtained.

Laws of Utility Analysis :

Utility analysis consists of two important laws

1. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility.

2. Law of Equi-Marginal Utility.

1. Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility :

Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility is an important law of utility analysis. This law is related
to the satisfaction of human wants. All of us experience this law in our daily life. If you are set
to buy, say, shirts at any given time, then as the number of shirts with you goes on increasing, the
marginal utility from each successive shirt will go on decreasing. It is the reality of a man’s life

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which is referred to in economics as law of Diminishing Marginal Utility. This law is also known
as Gossen’s First Law.

According to Chapman, “The more we have of a thing, the less we want additional increments of
it or the more we want not to have additional increments of it.”

According to Marshall, “The additional benefit which a person derives from a given stock of a
thing diminishes with every increase in the stock that he already has.”

According to Samuelson, “As the amount consumed of a good increases, the marginal utility of
the goods tends to decrease.” 8

In short, the law of Diminishing Marginal Utility states that, other things being equal, when we
go on consuming additional units of a commodity, the marginal utility from each successive unit
of that commodity goes on diminishing.

Assumptions :

Every law in subject to clause “other things being equal” This refers to the assumption on which
a law is based. It applies in this case as well. Main assumptions of this law are as follows:

1. Utility can be measured in cardinal number system such as 1,2,3 _______ etc.

2. There is no change in income of the consumer.

3. Marginal utility of money remains constant.

4. Suitable quantity of the commodity is consumed.

5. There is continuous consumption of the commodity.

6. Marginal Utility of every commodity is independent.

7. Every unit of the commodity being used is of same quality and size.

8
https://study.com/academy/lesson/diminishing-marginal-utility-definition-principle-examples.html

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8. There is no change in the tastes, character, fashion, and habits of the consumer.

9. There is no change in the price of the commodity and its substitutes.

Explanation of the Law :

The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility can be explained with the help of Table and Figure.

Table No.2 No. of Breads Marginal Utility

1 82 6 3 44 25 0point of Satiety

6 -2

It is clear from the above Table that when the consumer consumes first unit of bread, he get
marginal utility equal to 8. Marginal utility from the consumption of second, third and fourth
bread is 6, 4 and 2 respectively. He gets zero marginal utility from the consumption of fifth bread.
This is known as point of satiety for the consumer. After that he gets negative utility i.e. -2 from
the consumption of sixth unit of bread. Thus, the table shows that as the consumer goes on
consuming more and more units of bread, marginal utility goes on diminishing.

Pricing Decision :

A retailor’s price policy is a crucial positioning factor and must be decided in relation to its target
market, its product and service assortments and its competition. This involved the decisions
regarding the price lilies to be earned and overall markdown or sale policies:

Promotion Decision :

Retailers use the promotional tools - advertising, personal selling, sales promotion and public
relations to reach. Customers Personal selling requires careful training of sales people in how to
greet customers, meet their needs and handle their complaints.

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Principal of Equi marginal utility

Principle of Equi-marginal utility occupies an important place in the marginal utility analysis. It
is through this principle that consumer’s equilibrium is explained. A consumer has a given
income which he has to spend on various goods he wants.

Now, the question is how he would allocate his money income among various goods that is to
say, what would be his equilibrium position in respect of the purchases of the various goods. It
may be mentioned here that consumer is assumed to be ‘rational,’ that is, he coldly and carefully
and substitutes goods for one another so as to maximize his utility or satisfaction.9

Suppose there are only two goods X and Y on which a consumer has to spend a given income.
The consumer’s behavior will be governed by two factors: first, the marginal utilities of the goods
and secondly, the prices of two goods. Suppose the prices of the goods are given for the consumer.

The law of equi-marginal utility states that the consumer will distribute his money income
between the goods in such a way that the utility derived from the last rupee spend on each good
is equal. In other words, consumer is in equilibrium position when marginal utility of money
expenditure on each goods is the same.

Now, the marginal utility of money expenditure on a good is equal to the marginal utility of goods
divided by the price of the goods.

In symbols:
MUe= MUZ/PZ

Where MUe is marginal utility of money expenditure and MUz is the marginal utility of the goods
X and Pz is the price of X. The law of equi-marginal utility can, therefore, be stated thus: the
consumer will spend his money income on different goods in such a way that marginal utility of
each good is proportional to its price. That is, consumer is in equilibrium in respect of the
purchases of two goods X and Y when

9
https://www.dineshbakshi.com/ap-economics/ap-microeconomics/revision-notes/806-equi-marginal-principle

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MUz/ PZ = MUz / PZ
Now, if MUz / PZ and MUy/ PZ are not equal and MUz / PZ -is greater than MUz / PZ then the
consumer will substitute goods X for goods Y. As a result of this substitution the marginal utility
of goods Y will rise. The consumer will continue Substituting goods X for goods Y till MUy/
PZ becomes equal to MUy / PZ When MUZ/ PZ becomes equal to the Muy/PZy consumer will be in
equilibrium.
But the equality of MUZ / PZ with MUy/PZ can be achieved not only at one level but at different
levels O expenditure. The question is how far a consumer goes on purchasing the goods he wants.
This is determined by the size of his money expenditure. With a given expenditure a rupee has a
certain utility for him: this utility is the marginal utility of money by him.
Since the law of diminishing marginal utility applies to money also, the greater his money
expenditure the consumer will go on purchasing goods till the marginal utility of expenditure on
each good becomes equal to the marginal utility of money to him.

Thus, the consumer will be in equilibrium when the following equation holds good:
MUZ,/PZ = MUY/Py = MUm
If there are more than two goods on which the consumer is spending his income, the above
equation must hold good for all of them.

Let us illustrate the law of equi-marginal utility with the aid of an arithmetical table given
as follows:
Table-Marginal Utility of Goods X and Y:

Units MVZ (units) MUY (Units)

1 20 24

2 18 21

3 16 18

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4 14 15

5 12 9

6 10 2

Let the prices of goods X and Y be Rs. 2 and Rs. 5 respectively.

Reconstructing the above table by dividing marginal utilities of X (MUZ) by Rs. 2 and
marginal utilities of Y (MUY) by Rs. 3 we get:
Table-Marginal Utility of Money Expenditure:

Units MUZ/PX MUY/PY

1 10 8

2 9 7

3 8 6

4 7 5

5 6 3

6 5 1

Suppose, the consumer has Rupees 19 with him to spend on the two goods X and Y. By looking
at the table it is clear that MUZ/PX is equal to 6 units when the consumer purchases 5 units of
goods X; and MUZ/PX is equal to 6 units when he buys 3 units of goods y. Therefore, consumer
will be in equilibrium when he is buying 5 units of good X and 3 units of goods Y and will be
spending (Rs. 2×5+ Rs. 3×3) = Rs.19 on them.

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Conclusion

Utility is based on the analyses is based on many unrealistic and impractical assumption, yet
being the first theory seeking to determine consumer equilibrium, it will continue to occupy first
place and important place. It is worth mentioning that indifference analyses and reveled analyses
their genesis in the scathing criticism of cardinal utility analyses.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this “Internship Diary” for the award of Bachelor of Commerce & Law
Integrated (B. Com. LL.B) has been done by PREETI SINGH Roll No. 143070035 who is the
bonafide student to of Dr . Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow for
the academic session 2018- 19. It is also certified that this project has been pursued under the
guidance of Mrs. Monisha Thapper professor in Law Dr Shakuntala Misra National
Rehabilitation University, Lucknow and that the project has been duly authorized by Faculty of
Law Dr. Shakuntala Misra National Rehabilitation University, Lucknow.

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