Chapter 13

The Laplace Transform in Circuit

Analysis

13.1 Circuit Elements in the s Domain

13.2-3 Circuit Analysis in the s Domain
13.4-5 The Transfer Function and Natural Response
13.6 The Transfer Function and the Convolution
Integral
13.7 The Transfer Function and the Steady-
State Sinusoidal Response
13.8 The Impulse Function in Circuit Analysis

1
Key points

 How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the

s-domain?
 Why the functional forms of natural and steady-
state responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?
 Why the output of an LTI circuit is the
convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
2
Section 13.1
Circuit Elements in the s
Domain

1. Equivalent elements of R, L, C

3
A resistor in the s domain

 iv-relation in the time domain:

v (t )  R  i (t ).

 By operational Laplace transform:

Lv(t )  LR  i (t )  R  Li (t ) ,

 V ( s )  R  I ( s ).

 Physical units: V(s) in volt-seconds, I(s) in

ampere-seconds.

4
An inductor in the s domain

 iv-relation in the time domain:

d
v (t )  L  i (t ).
dt
 By operational Laplace transform:

Lv (t )  LL  i(t )  L  Li(t ) ,

 V ( s )  L  sI ( s )  I 0   sL  I ( s )  LI 0 .
initial current

5
Equivalent circuit of an inductor

 Series equivalent:  Parallel equivalent:

Thévenin 
Norton

6
A capacitor in the s domain

 iv-relation in the time domain:

d
i (t )  C  v (t ).
dt
 By operational Laplace transform:
Li (t )  LC  v(t )  C  Lv(t ) ,
 I ( s )  C  sV ( s )  V0   sC  V ( s )  CV0 .
initial voltage

7
Equivalent circuit of a capacitor

 Parallel equivalent:  Series equivalent:

Norton 
Thévenin

8
Section 13.2, 13.3
Circuit Analysis in the s
Domain

1. Procedures
2. Nature response of RC circuit
3. Step response of RLC circuit
4. Sinusoidal source
5. MCM
6. Superposition 9
How to analyze a circuit in the s-domain?

1. Replacing each circuit element with its s-domain

equivalent. The initial energy in L or C is taken
into account by adding independent source in
series or parallel with the element impedance.
2. Writing & solving algebraic equations by the
same circuit analysis techniques developed for
resistive networks.
3. Obtaining the t-domain solutions by inverse
Laplace transform.

10
Why to operate in the s-domain?

 It is convenient in solving transient responses of

linear, lumped parameter circuits, for the initial
conditions have been incorporated into the
equivalent circuit.
 It is also useful for circuits with multiple essential
nodes and meshes, for the simultaneous ODEs
have been reduced to simultaneous algebraic
equations.
 It can correctly predict the impulsive response,
which is more difficult in the t-domain (Sec. 13.8).
11
Nature response of an RC circuit (1)

 Q: i(t), v(t) = ?

 Replacing the charged capacitor by a Thévenin

equivalent circuit in the s-domain.
 KVL,  algebraic equation & solution of I(s):
V0 I CV0 V0 R
  IR,  I ( s )   1
.
s sC 1  RCs s  ( RC )
12
Nature response of an RC circuit (2)

 The t-domain solution is obtained by inverse

Laplace transform:

1  V0 R  V0 t ( RC ) 1  1 
i (t )  L  1 
 e L  
 s  ( RC )  R s
V0 t ( RC )
 e u(t ).
R
 i(0+) = V0/R, which is true for vC(0+) = vC(0-) = V0.
 i() = 0, which is true for capacitor becomes
open (no loop current) in steady state.
13
Nature response of an RC circuit (3)

 To directly solve v(t), replacing the charged

capacitor by a Norton equivalent in the s-domain.

 Solve V(s), perform inverse Laplace transform:

V V0
CV0  sCV  ,  V ( s )  1
.
R s  ( RC )
 
 v (t )  L1V0 s  ( RC ) 1   V0e t ( RC )u(t )  Ri (t ).
14
Step response of a parallel RLC (1)
 Q: iL(t) = ?

iL(0-) = 0
vC (0-) = 0

15
Step response of a parallel RLC (2)

 KCL,  algebraic equation & solution of V(s):

I dc V V I dc C
 sCV   ,  V ( s )  2 1 1
.
s R sL s  ( RC ) s  ( LC )

 Solve IL(s):
V ( s) I dc ( LC ) 1
I L ( s)   2
sL 
s s  ( RC ) 1 s  ( LC ) 1 
3.84  107

 
.
s s  (6.4  10 ) s  (1.6  10 )
2 4 9

16
Step response of a parallel RLC (3)

 Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse

Laplace transform:
24 20127 20  127
I L ( s)    (mA  s).
s s  ( 32k  j 24k ) s  ( 32k  j 24k )


iL (t )  24u(t )  20e j127 ( 32 k) t
e 
e j ( 24 k ) t u(t )  c.c.
 
 24  40e ( 32 k)t cos ( 24k)t  127  u(t ) (mA)
 24  e ( 32 k)t 24cos(24k )t  32sin(24k )t  u(t ) (mA).

17
Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (1)

 For a parallel RLC circuit, replace the current

source by a sinusoidal one: ig (t )  I mcost  u(t ).
The algebraic equation changes:
V V sI m
sCV    Ig  2 ,
R sL s  2

 V ( s)  2
 I m C s 2
 
,
s    s  ( RC ) s  ( LC )
2 2 1 1

V I m ( LC ) 1 s
 I L ( s)   2
 
.
sL s    s  ( RC ) s  ( LC )
2 2 1 1

18
Transient response due to a sinusoidal source (2)

 Perform partial fraction expansion and inverse

Laplace transform:
K1 K1* K2 K 2*
I L ( s)     .
s  j s  j s  (   j ) s  (   j )
Driving Neper Damped
frequency frequency frequency

iL (t )  2 K1 cost  K1   2 K 2 e t cost  K 2  u(t ).

Steady-state Natural response (RLC
response (source) parameters)

19
Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (1)
 Q: i1(t), i2(t) = ?

i2(0-)
i1 (0-) = 0 =0

20
 Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (2)

 MCM,  2 algebraic equations & solutions:

 336
8.4 sI1  42( I1  I 2 )   (1)
 s
42( I 2  I1 )  (10s  48) I 2  0 ( 2)

42  8.4 s  42   I1  336 s

      .
  42 90  10s   I 2   0 
15 14 1 
336 s   s  s  2  s  12 
1
 I1  42  8.4 s  42 
 I     42     .
 2  90  10s   0   7  8.4  1.4 
 s s  2 s  12 
21
Step response of a 2-mesh circuit (3)

 Perform inverse Laplace transform:

i1 (t )  15  14e u(t )  (42 // 48)  15 A.

2 t 12 t 336
e

i2 (t )  7  8.4e u(t )  15 42  48  7 A.
2 t 12 t 42
 1.4e

22
Use of superposition (1)

 Given 2 independent sources vg, ig and initially

charged C, L,  v2(t) = ?

23
 Use of superposition: Vg acts alone (2)

1 2

 V1  Vg V1 V1  V2  1 1  Vg

 
 R  sL  ( sC ) 1  0,  R  sL  sC V1  sCV2  R ,
  1 

1 1
 
V2  V1  V2  0.  sCV    1  sC V   0.
 ( sC ) 1 R2  1 R  2
  2 
24
Use of superposition (3)

 For convenience, define admittance matrix:

1 1 

 R sL  sC  sC  V1
 1  
 1  V 
 sC  sC 2
 R2 
Y11 Y12  V1 Vg R1 
       .
Y12 Y22  V2  0 
 Y12 R1
 V2  V.
Y11Y22  Y12
2 g

25
Use of superposition: Ig acts alone (4)

1 2

Y11 Y12  V1  0  Y11

Y Y   V    I ,  V2  Y Y  Y 2 I g .
 12 22   2   g  11 22 12

Same matrix Same denominator

26
Use of superposition: Energized L acts alone (5)

1 2

Y11 Y12  V1   s Y12 s

Y Y   V    0 ,  V2 Y Y  Y 2  .
 12 22   2    11 22 12

Same matrix Same denominator

27
Use of superposition: Energized C acts alone (6)

 11 12  V1   C 
Y Y ""
1
2 Y Y    ""    C ,
 12 22  V2   
 (Y11  Y12 )C
 V2 
""
.
Y11Y22  Y122

 The total voltage is: V2  V2  V2 V2 V2"" .

28
Section 13.4, 13.5
The Transfer Function and
Natural Response

29
What is the transfer function of a circuit?

 The ratio of a circuit’s output to its input in the

s-domain:
Y ( s)
H ( s) 
X (s)

 A single circuit may have many transfer

functions, each corresponds to some specific
choices of input and output.

30
Poles and zeros of transfer function

 For linear and lumped-parameter circuits, H(s)

is always a rational function of s.
 Poles and zeros always appear in complex
conjugate pairs.
 The poles must lie in the left half of the s-plane
if bounded input leads to bounded output.

Im

Re

31
Example: Series RLC circuit

input

 If the output is the loop current I:

I 1 sC
H ( s)   1
 2 .
Vg R  sL  ( sC ) s LC  sRC  1
 If the output is the capacitor voltage V:
V ( sC ) 1 1
H ( s)   1
 2 .
Vg R  sL  ( sC ) s LC  sRC  1
32
How do poles, zeros influence the solution?

 Since Y(s) = H(s) X(s),  the partial fraction

expansion of the output Y(s) yields a term K/(s-a)
for each pole s = a of H(s) or X(s).
 The functional forms of the transient (natural)
and steady-state responses ytr(t) and yss(t) are
determined by the poles of H(s) and X(s),
respectively.
 The partial fraction coefficients of Ytr(s) and Yss(s)
are determined by both H(s) and X(s).

33
Example 13.2: Linear ramp excitation (1)

 Q: vo(t) = ?

50tu(t)

50/s2

34
Example 13.2 (2)

 Only one essential node,  use NVM:

Vo  Vg Vo Vo
  6  0,
1000 250  0.05s 10 s
Vo 1000( s  5000)
 H ( s)   2 .
Vg s  6000s  2.5  10 
7

 H(s) has 2 complex conjugate poles:

s  3000  j 4000.
 Vg(s) = 50/s2 has 1 repeated real pole: s = 0(2).
35
Example 13.2 (3)

 The total response in the s-domain is:

5  104 ( s  5000)
Vo ( s )  H ( s )Vg ( s )   Ytr  Yss
s 2 s 2  6000s  2.5  107 
expansion coefficients depend on H(s) & Vg(s)
5 5  104 80 5 5  104   80 10 4  104
   2 .
s  3000  j 4000 s  3000  j 4000 s s
poles of H(s): -3k  j4k pole of Vg(s): 0(2)
 The total response in the t-domain:
vo (t )  ytr  yss   5 10 3 3, 000 t
e 
cos(4,000t  80 ) u (t )
 
 10t  4 10  4 u (t ).
36
Example 13.2 (4)

Steady state
component yss(t)

Total response
 = 0.33 ms, impact of ytr(t)

37
Section 13.6
The Transfer Function and
the Convolution Integral

1. Impulse response
2. Time invariant
3. Convolution integral
4. Memory of circuit

38
Impulse response

 If the input to a linear, lumped-parameter circuit

is an impulse (t), the output function h(t) is
called impulse response, which happens to be
the natural response of the circuit:
X ( s )  L (t )  1, Y ( s )  H ( s )  1  H ( s ),
y (t )  L1Y ( s )  L1H ( s )  h(t ).
 The application of an impulse source is
equivalent to suddenly storing energy in the
circuit. The subsequent release of this energy
gives rise to the natural response. 39
Time invariant

 For a linear, lumped-parameter circuit, delaying

the input x(t) by  simply delays the response y(t)
by  as well (time invariant):
X ( s, )  Lx (t   )u(t   )  e s X ( s ),
Y ( s, )  H ( s ) X ( s, )  e s H ( s ) X ( s )  e sY ( s ),
y (t , )  L1Y ( s, )  L1Y ( s )
t t 

 y (t   )u(t   ).

40
Motivation of working in the time domain

 The properties of impulse response and time-

invariance allow one to calculate the output
function y(t) of a “linear and time invariant (LTI)”
circuit in the t-domain only.
 This is beneficial when x(t), h(t) are known only
through experimental data.

41
Decompose the input source x(t)

 We can approximate x(t) by a series of

rectangular pulses rec(t-i) of uniform width :
sq  (t )
sq  (t  i )

 By having ,  rec(t-i)/ (t-i), x(t)

converges to a train of impulses:

x(t )   x(i )  lim rec  (t  i )
 0
i 0

  x(i )     (t  i ).
i 0
42
Synthesize the output y(t) (1)

 Since the circuit is LTI:

 (t )  h(t ),

 (t  i )  h(t  i ),
 a x (t )  a y (t );
 i i i i

  x (i )   (t  i )
i 0

  x (i )  h(t  i ).
i 0

43
Synthesize the output y(t) (2)

 As , summation  integration:

if x(t) extends (-, )
 
y (t )   x ( )h(t   )d   x ( )h(t   )d .
0 

 By change of variable u = t-, 


y (t )   x (t  u )h(u )du.


 The output of an LTI circuit is the convolution of

input and the impulse response of the circuit:
y (t )  x (t )  h (t )
 
  x ( )h(t   )d   x (t   )h( )d .
 
44
Convolution of a causal circuit

 For physically realizable

circuit, no response can
occur prior to the input
excitation (causal),  {h(t)
= 0 for t < 0}.
 Excitation is turned on at t
= 0,  {x(t) = 0 for t < 0}. 
y (t )  x (t )  h (t )
t
  x (t   )h( )d .
0
45
Effect of x(t) is weighted by h(t)

 The convolution integral

t
y (t )   x (t   )h( )d
0

shows that the value of y(t)

is the weighted average of
x(t) from t = 0 to t = t [from  0
t

= t to  = 0 for x(t-)].

 If h(t) is monotonically decreasing, the highest

weight is given to the present x(t).
46
Memory of the circuit

 If h(t) only lasts from t

= 0 to t = T, the
T
convolution integral
t
y (t )   x (t   )h( )d .
0

implies that the circuit

has a memory over a
finite interval t = [t-T,t].

 If h(t) = (t), no memory, output at t only depends

on x(t),  y(t) = x(t)*(t) = x(t), no distortion.
47
Example 13.3: RL driven by a trapezoidal source (1)

 Q: vo(t) = ?

1 Vo 1
Vo  Vi ,  H ( s )   .
s 1 Vi s  1
1 1  t
 h (t )  L    e u(t ).
 s  1 48
Example 13.3 (2)
t
vo (t )   vi (t   )h( )d .  Separate into 3 intervals:
0

49
Example 13.3 (3)

 Since the circuit has certain memory, vo(t) has

some distortion with respect to vi(t).

50
Section 13.7
The Transfer Function and
the Steady-State Sinusoidal
Response

51
How to get sinusoidal steady-state response by H(s)?

 In Chapters 9-11, we used phasor analysis to

get steady-state response yss(t) due to a
sinusoidal input x (t )  A cost   .
 If we know H(s), yss(t) must be:
yss (t )  H ( j ) A cost     ( ),
where H ( j )  H ( s ) s  j  H ( j ) e j ( ) .

 The changes of amplitude and phase depend

on the sampling of H(s) along the imaginary axis.

52
 Proof
x (t )  A cost     A cos  cos t  A sin  sin t.
s  s cos    sin 
X ( s )  A cos   A sin   A .
s 
2 2
s 
2 2
s 
2 2

s cos    sin 
Y ( s)  H ( s) X ( s)  H ( s)  A  Ytr ( s )  Yss ( s ),
s 
2 2

K1 K1*
where Yss ( s)   , K1  Y ( s )( s  j ) s  j
s  j s  j
s cos    sin  j cos    sin  H ( j ) Ae j
 H ( s) A  H ( j ) A  .
s  j s  j
2 j 2
j (  ) j
 H ( j ) e Ae 
  c.c.  A H ( j ) cost     ( ).
1
yss (t )  L 
 2( s  j ) 
53
Obtain H(s) from H( j)

 We can reverse the process: determine H( j)

experimentally, then construct H(s) from the
data (not always possible).
 Once we know H(s), we can find the response to
other excitation sources.

54
Section 13.8
The Impulse Function
in Circuit Analysis

55
E.g. Impulsive inductor voltage (1)

 Q: vo(t) = ?

i2(0-)=0
i1(0-)=10 A

 The opening of the switch forces the two

inductor currents i1, i2 change immediately by
inducing an impulsive inductor voltage [v = Li'(t)].
56
E.g. Equivalent circuit & solution in the s-domain (2)

initial current

V0  (100 s  30) V0
  0,
10  3s 15  2s
improper rational
2(6s 2  65s  150) 60 10
 V0 ( s )   12   .
s ( s  5) s s5
57
E.g. Solutions in the t-domain (3)
 60 10 
1
v0 (t )  L 12     12 ( t )  ( 60  10e 5 t
)u(t ).
 s s  5
 To verify whether this solution vo(t) is correct, we
need to solve i(t) as well.
100 s  30 4 2
I (s)    ,  i (t )  (4  2e 5t )u (t ).
10  3s  15  2s s s  5

jump

jump
58
Impulsive inductor voltage (4)

 The jump of i2(t) from 0 to 6 A causes i2 (t )  6 (t ) ,

contributing to a voltage impulse L2i2 (t )  12 (t ).
 After t > 0+,
vo (t )  (15)i2 (t )  ( 2 H )i2 (t )
 15( 4  2e 5t )  2( 10e 5t )  60  10e 5t ,
consistent with that solved by Laplace transform.
59
Key points

 How to represent the initial energy of L, C in the

s-domain?
 Why the functional forms of natural and steady-
state responses are determined by the poles of
transfer function H(s) and excitation source X(s),
respectively?
 Why the output of an LTI circuit is the
convolution of the input and impulse response?
How to interpret the memory of a circuit by
convolution?
60
Practical Perspective
Voltage Surges

61
Why can a voltage surge occur?

 Q: Why a voltage surge is created when a load

is switched off?
 Model: A sinusoidal voltage source drives three
loads, where Rb is switched off at t = 0.

 Since i2(t) cannot change abruptly, i1(t) will jump

by the amount of i3(0-),  voltage surge occurs.
62
Example

 Let Vo = 1200 (rms), f = 60 Hz, Ra = 12 , Rb = 8

, Xa = 41.1  (i.e. La = Xa/ = 109 mH), Xl = 1  (i.e.
Ll = 2.65 mH). Solve vo(t) for t > 0-.

 To draw the s-domain circuit, we need to

calculate the initial inductor currents i2(0-), i0(0-).
63
Steady-state before the switching

 The three branch currents (rms phasors) are:

I1 = Vo/Ra = (1200)/(12 ) = 100 A,
I2 = Vo/(jXa) = (1200)/(j41.1 ) = 2.92-90 A,
I3 = Vo/Rb = (1200)/(8 ) = 150 A,
 The line current is: I0 = I1 + I2 + I3 = 25.2-6.65 A.
 Source voltage: Vg = Vo + I0(jXl) = 125-11.5 V.

 The two initial inductor currents at t = 0- are:

 i2(t) = 2.92(2)cos(120t-90),  i2(0-) = 0;
 i0(t) = 25.2(2)cos(120t-6.65),  i0(0-) = 35.4 A.
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 S-domain analysis

 The s-domain circuit is:

(I0 = 35.4 A)

Vg = (Ll = 2.65 mH)

125-
11.5
V (rms) (12 ) (La = 109
mH)
Vo  Ll I 0  Vg Vo Vo
 By NVM:    0,
sLl Ra sLa
Ra Ll Vg ( s)  I 0 Ra 253 866.85 86  6.85
Vo    
s  Ra ( La  Ll ) La Ll  s  1475 s  j120 s  j120
65
Inverse Laplace transform
253 866.85 86  6.85
 Given Vo ( s )    ,
s  1475 s  j120 s  j120

 
 vo (t )  253e 1475t  173 cos(120t  6.85 )  u (t ).

66