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The current
The current status on 3D status on 3D
scanning and CAD/CAM scanning

applications in textile research

Ivana Špelic 891
Faculty of Textile Technology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Received 14 July 2018
Revised 29 July 2019
Accepted 23 September 2019
Abstract
Purpose – In order to present a significant usage of the computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) systems in the apparel and textile industry, the current literature has been observed.
Although the CAD/CAM systems have also been increasingly applied to all fields apparel and textile
manufacturing for the last few decades, improving the precision, productivity and the organization of the
information flow, they have not been fully utilized in these industrial fields. The paper aims to discuss
these issues.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper is structured in three main sections showing the vast
applicability of the CAD/CAM systems, the benefits provided by them and the future trend in their development.
Findings – Although the initial development of the CAD/CAM systems strived to completely eliminate
manual and time-consuming operations, they have not been accepted in practice due to their inflexibility at
making changes and the time needed for regenerating a complex parametric model. The textile and apparel
industries show slow progress in acquiring the CAD/CAM systems.
Originality/value – This CAD/CAM technology enabled the customization in the design process according
to individual needs and directed the textile and the apparel industry to moving into new directions such as the
mass customization to personalization. The paper makes clear that although this technological concept is
rather old, the use of the CAD/CAM systems will inevitably broaden in terms of applicability to new
production stages.
Keywords 3D body scanning, 3D CAD tool, CAD/CAM system, Computer simulation, Aided design
Paper type General review

1. Introduction
Computer-aided design (CAD)/computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) procedures have a
significant usage for many industries. Over the last few decades, the CAD/CAM systems
have also been increasingly applied to all fields of the textile and the clothing industry. The
computerization has replaced most of the slow-paced, time-consuming, labour-intensive and
less-productive manual operations. The textile and apparel industry is no exception from
other competitive fast growing industries ( Jhanji, 2018).
The use of a CAD-based automated additive manufacturing process to construct parts
that are used directly as finished products or components is called the rapid manufacturing.
The ability to produce any geometry in a 3D CAD system serves to enter a new dimension of
manufacture for design, rather than the more conventional design for manufacture
philosophy (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
Computer simulation using CAD modelling tools and finite element analysis has assisted
manufacturing engineers to reach accurate decisions in less time span (Nee et al., 2012). CAD
is the abbreviation for the computer-aided design, while the CAM is the abbreviation of
words computer-aided manufacturing. The acronym CAD/CAM is often used to refer to
three major functions: CAD, CAM and computer-aided engineering. Major contributions to
the usage of the CAD/CAM methods are being made by all over the world. CAD systems International Journal of Clothing
mainly facilitate the computers in designing process, while the CAD systems facilitate the Science and Technology
Vol. 32 No. 6, 2020
computers mainly to the control of production steps and equipment operations due to the pp. 891-907
ability of performing multiple functions (Collier and Collier, 1990). The CAM systems have a © Emerald Publishing Limited
0955-6222
major advantage due to increased equipment utilization and reduced labour cost per unit of DOI 10.1108/IJCST-07-2018-0094
IJCST production (Merchant, 1983; Collier and Collier, 1990). The CAD software shows advantages
32,6 to avoid manual work, to raise precision and productivity and organize information flow
(Beazley and Bond, 2003). The computer systems integrate all processes into one joint flow,
thus excluding the time-consuming manual preparation of patterns, creation of layouts and
relocation of written information (Dabolina and Vilumsone, 2012a). CAD systems are widely
used in apparel design since they allow an interactive manipulation of garment pieces faster
892 and more easily than in the normal drafting process for pattern making and grading.
The 3D CAD systems are recently also used for design customization and virtual
prototyping. Due to their ability of the continuous operation control and multitasking, the
CAD/CAM systems are highly applicable to continuous textile operations, such as fibre
spinning, yam processing, fabric weaving and knitting, finishing, and some dyeing
operations. Opposing the aforementioned continuous processes, the apparel manufacturing
requires more discrete operations, such as cutting, sewing and garment-dyeing operations.
However, the CAM technologies such as the computer numerical control (CNC) allow the
control of the production operations by computer technology (Collier and Collier, 1990).
The improvements in the textile and the apparel industry are seen in terms of equipment
utilization, automation, precision, productivity and computerized operations. CAD
softwares are used to perform fashion research, fashion design and illustration, pattern
design, pattern making, textile design, garment construction, production management,
marketing, and sales ( Jhanji, 2018). The first designing stage of the production is nowadays
highly computerized. The graphic designs are translated to numerical instructions for
cutting parts. The designing of clothes, especially the constructing procedures, is mainly
operated by the CAD/CAM system in order to exclude routine job from the pattern-making
process. The human body measurements acquired by 3D scanning are handled by CAD
systems and applied for automatized pattern-making procedure. The automated knife or
laser cutting techniques of fabric are also controlled by the CAD/CAM technology. The
computer-aided cutting of garment pieces increases precision and speed providing savings
in labour and material costs (Segal, 1986). The CAD softwares provide the possibility to
improve precision, productivity and to organize the information flow. Computer systems
allow making two-dimensional and three-dimensional product illustrations and
visualizations (Dabolina and Vilumsone, 2012b).
The CAD systems are nowadays specialized through the simulation on pattern assembly,
garment draping using accurate mechanical models of fabrics and the visualization, which
uses the geometric techniques for quick generating of the realistic dressed mannequins
(Volino et al., 2005).

2. The application of CAD/CAM systems in the textile and apparel industry

In the late 1980s, the first study on the CAD systems was introduced by Magnenat-Thalmann
and MIRALab. Since then, the computer graphics has made significant breakthrough in this
area, from clothing design automation, interactive editing, virtual try-on, pattern generation to
custom-design clothing (Meng et al., 2012). The CAD/CAM systems provide an integrated
technology solution, which include software, hardware systems and associated services. In the
textile and apparel industry, they cover a vast application area (Mitra, 2014). The CAD/CAM
systems are used for knitting preparation showing a great deal of work simplification for
pattern making and correction. Complex multi-colour knitting patterns can be designed
graphically in a very simple way and the knitting machinery programs automatically
generate commands for flat and circular machines (Vaamonde et al., 1989).
The CAD systems are used in various aspects of the fabric and clothing production,
although not as intensively as in other industries. They are applied for fabric and apparel
design. Aside the usual designing making, they are also intended for designing processes. The
CAD systems aid the designers to create detailed collection in terms of pattern and flow.
The CAD systems also ensure time saving process, with less utilization of money and resources The current
owing to the visualization of fabrics and designs before putting into a final production stage. status on 3D
In the pattern-making process, the CAD systems are used for pattern digitizing and scanning, scanning
for pattern drafting, for pattern grading. The CAM systems, on the other hand, deal with the
operations at each stage of the garment manufacturing process particularly in all cutting room
operations, such as marker planning, spreading and cutting ( Jhanji, 2018).
Nowadays, the CAD technology assists the design of garment product addressing some 893
special issues like modelling the soft materials with low bending stiffness, garment
assembly methods following the specific pattern-making rules and evaluating the quality of
fit on 3D human models (Liu et al., 2010). The CAD apparel systems usually involve one or
more key processes such as the 2D pattern design, pattern pre-positioning, the virtual
sewing process, also called virtual try-on, drape simulation and design modification in 2D or
3D (Meng et al., 2010). Many of the USA companies are investing a great deal in the use of
CAD/CAM systems since they expand the possibility to respond more quickly both for
continuative products and for fashion products (Forza and Vinelli, 1997).
Fashion designers and manufacturers are relying on computer-based simulations especially
when designing functional clothing (Mahnić Naglić and Petrak, 2019). The CAD prototyping
and fit evaluation are important steps in apparel development. The 3D garment simulation has
the potential to eliminate the need for multiple physical prototypes during the apparel
development. The 3D garment simulation is being used as a substitute for live prototype
evaluation in practice allowing the decisions about fit (Cho et al., 2010). The 3D virtual fitting
software is becoming widely available as a tool for developing garments, but there is little
evidence on their effectiveness in terms of improving interactions between garment makers
and designers.
The application of 3D body scanners and CAD systems for construction and simulation
of clothing enables simulation of clothing, adjusted according to individual anthropometric
measurements (Cohen and Li, 2003; Wang, 2005; Azouz et al., 2006; Mahnic and Petrak,
2013). The 3D body scanning technology allows a detailed analysis of anthropometric
characteristics, relationships of body proportions, analysis of body posture and symmetry
on individual test subjects. The body posture is critical for accurate computer-based
simulation and prediction of garment drape on the human body. The CAD systems for
clothing simulations usually use parametric body models. Those parametric body models
could be customized according to individual measurements, which allows designers to
visualize how the clothing is likely to drape on different types of bodies but one of the main
insufficiencies is a lack of posture adjustment. The calculation of posture indicators from 3D
scanner measurements enables a wider use range of the posture classification method. The
morphological classifications due to 3D scanning can greatly improve sizing systems and
garment construction, focusing on customization of products for specific body types
(Petrak et al., 2015; Mahnić Naglić and Petrak, 2019).
There are a large number of commercial CAD systems enabling a comprehensive
development of patterns across all phases of construction preparation. They are also used for
simulation and prototyping. The implementation of the individualized industrial clothing
production based on the computer technologies is still developing due to the complexity of the
highly sophisticated computer and measuring equipment. Also, the significant financial
investments are necessary for the implementation and maintenance of such systems.
The systematic approach combining knowledge from several scientific disciplines adds to the
complexity. The knowledge on the anthropometric body measurements, the objective evaluation
of mechanical fabric properties and the knowledge on the apparel design, garment
manufacturing technology, computer graphics and mathematics are needed. The conventional
2D CAD system transform patterns using the transformations of individual points of the pattern
contours segments and the transformations of one pattern do not depend on the other pattern.
IJCST In other words, the computer processing of each pattern should be separately processed.
32,6 The new innovative 2D/3D CAD systems, such as Optitex 2D/3D CAD system, which are used
for design and simulation of clothing, allow the simultaneous modification of several patterns
(Mahnic and Petrak, 2013).
The 3D systems for simulation in the apparel industry were faced with the special
challenges that initially slowed its adoption. The process of translating flat pattern data into
894 a 3D simulation is more complicated when working with apparel, due to the varying and
unpredictable nature of cloth as well as the force exerted by the body model underneath the
garment (Magnenat-Thalman and Volino, 2005; Porterfield and Lamar, 2017). There is also a
problem with the garment assembly, which differs depending on the garment type and
components involved (Liu et al., 2010; Porterfield and Lamar, 2017).

3. The benefits of the CAD/CAM systems in the textile and apparel industry
In contrast to conventional manufacturing processes, any complex shapes or features
produced by CAD can be directly translated into the final product (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
While the traditional clothing production uses manual processes for design optimization, the
CAD systems allow automatic customization. Traditionally, the clothing patterns are
constructed manually as in 2D form. This is performed with significant knowledge of
construction experts, which manipulate a set of basic blocks and alter the existing similar
patterns. The CAD systems in other hand allow simpler and faster pattern design.
The successful CAD/CAM applications have also been shown in the control of
production steps and equipment operations by computers. The major advantages of CAM
systems are increased equipment utilization and reduced labour cost per unit of production
(Collier and Collier, 1990). The CAD systems allow creating a virtual garment model and
different variants in design due to the choice of fabrics and draping. They also help to
visualize the finite models by simpler pattern design.
Flexible objects, such as fabrics, are more difficult to model than the rigid objects. As the
appearance is generally more important than physical accuracy in computer animation, the
emphasis is more on visual realism than on physical accuracy. However, the textile and
apparel industries require both the visual realism and physical accuracy. Another problem
is that the fabrics are a nonlinear materials and most of the models employed in the physical
techniques are based on elasticity theory, which considers macroscopic behaviour and thus
does not accurately describe a fabric properties (Ng and Grimsdale, 1996).
The 3D CAD systems are divided into two main groups according to purpose, the surface
modelling and the so-called solid modelling CAD systems (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
Most of the studies on virtual draping show a direct garment model generation from 2D
pattern around a human body model. The garment form is represented by curves, a
wireframe and surface, and changed by deforming the curves and wireframe to obtain the
pattern. The mapping method of virtual draping can be used to create patterns for a
garment (Mesuda et al., 2018).
While the automotive and aircraft industries quickly adopted the CAD/CAM approaches,
the textile and apparel industries had a great problem in acquiring the proper physical models
and computational strategies to successfully simulate fabric drape and manipulation. It has
long been acknowledge that CAD/CAM processes increase the competitiveness by increasing
flexibility and quality and decreasing response times. The textile and apparel industries are
looking to automate facilities in their conventional production lines, especially during the
fabric assembly, when considering automation for fabric pick-up and lay-down, fabric draping
on the stacker and intermediate operations such as fabric folding. Fabric designers, on the
other hand, look to benefit from simulation capabilities that address variable material
properties. The study of fabric mechanics concentrating on fabric-buckling behaviour began
after 1960s. The first study to use the finite-element modelling was the study by Lloyd.
He applied a finite-element method to the analysis of complex fabric deformations but treated The current
only in-plane deformations and neglected bending, twisting deformations and transverse status on 3D
shear–strain fields. The finite-element method shows a significant promise in the area of fabric scanning
motion simulation (Eischen et al., 1996). One of the most fundamental problems in creating
body fitting textiles using current CAD systems is that they are not intended or capable of
creating such complex assemblies. However, the CAD systems do provide the creation of the
accurate geometric models and prototypes directly from CAD data, including all the internal 895
details (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
By deploying the finite-element modelling, the CAD systems allow the analysis of
material behaviour without constructing actual models. The structure is analysed by
graphically dividing a model into small geometric elements, whose interrelated responses to
forces can be determined by computer programs. The results are displayed graphically by
computer and allow designers to predict the possible deformations and strains. This CAD
analysis can facilitate the development of new textile and apparel products (Collier and
Collier, 1990). The CAD systems also provide the flexibility in obtaining the model replica by
printing, saving, editing and retrieving the developed models ( Jhanji, 2018). Beside the
ability to create and visualize the digital model, the CAD systems also save time by limiting
the need for tailoring and physical sample preparation. The designers are able to visualize
the designed fabrics and clothing models in virtual environment using virtual models
(Stylios et al., 1996; Mahnic and Petrak, 2013).
During apparel designing process, the CAD systems provide a greater flexibility in
pattern designing, grading and reduction in waste percentage. During apparel production
process, the CAD systems provide an increase in quality of cutting and reduction in sample
making time ( Jhanji, 2018).
The application of the CAD systems in the design process has been accounted as
(Dabolina and Vilumsone, 2012a):
(1) acquisition of anthropometrical data, calculation of ease allowances, development of
the basic construction and development of the model to verify the construction;
(2) input of anthropometrical data for the parameterization of a 3D mannequin and the
imitation of the basic construction in the 3D environment;
(3) development of model drawings, the exploration of pattern designs and different
model variations;
(4) development of schematic images and the model constructions; and
(5) processing of graphical data and model presentation in a 3D environment to
evaluate the appearance of models.
The CAD systems also allow the human body modelling. The 3D scanning technology
enabled easy assistance in obtaining the 3D information of individual body in the format of
point clouds by implicit, parametric and triangulation methods. In addition to continuous
human model reconstruction from measured point cloud, in garment design the CAD
systems are used to build semantic features on the human model, so that the garment can be
efficiently designed with respect to human body distinct features due to data preparation,
human model construction and semantic feature extraction.
The 3D data, in the form of a point cloud, are used as the basis of a CAD model for the
user-fit interface of the product and the CAD design can then be produced as the rapid
manufacturing model and presented to the customer. The final product can be manufactured
using further CAD/CAM techniques (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
The contemporary CAD system still struggle to overcome the inability to derive the
appearance simulation with accurate details, such as folding and wrinkles. Numerical
animation of deformable cloth models is a way to generate realistic fine details on garment
IJCST draping in real time. The CAD systems are used to predict the garment draping and to
32,6 transfer fine details in precomputed garment to quickly visualize the accurate fitting effect
of garment style on customized bodies (Liu et al., 2010).
3D body scanning systems, on the other hand, provide the ability of obtaining the
comprehensive and accurate set of measurements. Each measurement is provided individually
for a particular scanned human subject. Acquiring the exact and precise measurements work
896 to enhance the ability of producing customize garments with perfect fit. The 3D body scanning
technologies have a significant potential for applications in the apparel industry. They provide
obtaining an unlimited number of linear and nonlinear human body measurements only in few
seconds with greater precision and reproducibility in comparison to traditional physical
measurements. The garments CAD designing procedures are adjusted in accordance to unique
scanned body features, since the measured data are obtained in digital format and can be
imported to CAD systems automatically (Istook and Hwang, 2001).
The CAD/CAM technologies are primary milestone supporting the mass customization
(MC). In 1980s, the concept of the MC emerged, relating to the ability to provide customized
products or services through flexible processes, high volumes and low costs. MC relates to the
ability to provide individually designed products and services to every customer through high
process flexibility and integration. The advanced manufacturing technologies and MC are
supported through the CNC, flexible manufacturing systems and communication and network
technologies such as CAD, CAM, computer integrated manufacturing and electronic data
interchange. The large companies all over the world employ the CAD/CAM systems,
advanced computer-controlled machines and robots in implementing their MC manufacturing
system. In most cases, the design elements are imported to the CAD/CAM systems. The CAD
systems allow customer-driven design changes to be implemented and deployed into
production instructions in due time, while the CAM systems handle the diversity of parts
ordering while maximizing machine use (Da Silveira et al., 2001). The investment made to
develop the CAD/CAM systems serves to shorten lead times further so that the company can
be even more responsive and closer to market demands (Bruce et al., 2004).

4. The challenges of applying the CAD/CAM systems in the textile and

apparel industry
There are few problematic areas when considering virtual garment simulation. To enable
virtual garment simulation, two prime factors should be taken into account; first, the
accurate representation of the human form, and second the realistic cloth simulation (Power
et al., 2011). The deformability of fabrics deals with both the fabric drape behaviour and the
deformational behaviour of fabrics when covering defined surfaces. The 3D display of a
model with regard to the fabric draping in order to get realistic impression of the model is
still very weak, since most often the material behaviour and the material parameters are not
taken into account (Krzywinski et al., 2001). Since the virtual garment simulation mainly
deals with fabric simulation, many different fabric properties are yet to be incorporated into
3D CAD softwares in order to gain fully realistic garment visualization (material analysis,
mechanical modelling, geometrical modelling, simulation scheme and numerical
integration). In order to derive any realistic 3D garment simulation, any simulation
should authentically represent the real fabric drape based on the measured fabric
mechanical properties. The accurate behaviour of a fabric interacting with any object also
needs a proper amount of knowledge on physical and mechanical properties of the fabric as
well as a precise animation in order to look realistic. However, there is a great disadvantage
in most of the currently known systems. The existing systems are still unable to incorporate
both physical behaviour of textiles, and in the same time provide realistic simulation due to
the high computational complexity (Han and Stylios, 2010). There are several methods
trying to achieve realistic behaviour of fabrics. While geometric methods are limited to
simple straightforward representations of a certain phenomenon, physical models, on the The current
other hand, lack the information on the fabric physical properties. In the last 15 years, status on 3D
the virtual 3D draping of fabrics begun to examine fabric mechanical properties in relation scanning
to drape simulation, such as tensile, bending, shear, compression, surface roughness and
friction. But as any textile material is almost completely different to another, the static and
dynamic material properties of fabrics are still hard to connect to realistic computer
simulations. The drape attributes of fabrics, number of folds, depth of folds and evenness of 897
folds affect the finite realistic performance of any further CAD application, whether to be
used as virtual try-on system or any other garment visualization technique. The way that
fabric drapes and falls into folds is an important aesthetic property of apparel’s appearance
(Stylios et al., 2002; Stylios and Powell, 2003).
In recent studies, fabric draping and origami is combined with the common practices of
triangulated pattern development in order to resolve automated fit problems and to get
more realistic garment fit since methods of removing and flattening the 3D model surface
layer proved to be unsatisfying. Simplifying a layer surface from a 3D model offered fit
achieved with a block that suitably clones body contours. However, the shapes resulting
from the flattened mesh do not adhere to the principles of fabric grain and dart manipulation
essential for apparel pattern development (Scott and Sayem, 2018; Ernst et al., 2018). There
is also a general problem since most of the existing methods still lack the complex
simulations based on mechanical fabric properties or realistic anatomical features of the
human body. To simulate the most realistic garment fit, important for the customization and
product development process in the apparel industry, one must always rely on texture
rendering in order to gain most realistic garment simulation. The use of 3D CAD systems as
a prototyping tool is widely used; however, the physical parameters of the materials already
pre-set in most of the existing 3D simulating software do not correspond to actual behaviour
properties of fabrics, which can result in the misrepresentation of the volume and the
draping of the garment. In addition to sophisticated simulation algorithms, realistic fit
prediction requires accurate material properties of both garments and the human body.
While technology for fabric property measurement is currently widely available,
standardized measurement protocols have not been developed for garment simulation
based on the appropriate range of fabric material data required for simulation. The material
properties required for contact simulation and the distribution of these properties over the
human body are still unexplored (Harrison et al., 2018).
2D patterns involve several information in order for them to be connected to the 3D
garments. This is still complex process facing many difficulties, which the modern studies
should try to overcome. The types of stitching, material properties and texture
information are still hard to incorporate into virtual garment simulation in order to define
realistically looking 3D simulation. Even the most precise 3D CAD tools for the scan
modelling and scan reconstruction cope with inability to precisely reconstruct draping
properties of fabrics and gain realistic draping simulation, while the garments are worn
over the human body flexed in different postures. Although the 3D scanners provide
accurate and detailed geometric data from real-world objects, they are restricted to
producing a discrete representation due to irregularity, discontinuity, huge data set size
and missing areas (Petrak et al., 2018). The 3D flattening method provides much needed
realistic approach in constructing and validating the 3D garment model. It involves the
construction of a garment model by creating pattern lines directly on the surface of a 3D
computer body model, separation of discrete 3D surfaces and transforming them into 2D
cutting parts. However, this method still accounts for much of the knowledge in preparing
the parametric 3D body model adapted according to the measures of the scanned human
subjects and according to the changes in body proportions with regard to different
dynamic postures (Mahnić Naglić et al., 2016; Mahnić Naglić and Petrak, 2019).
IJCST The process of creating a realistic 3D parametric body model is geometric pose-dependent and
32,6 identity shape dependent. One should always be careful when combining both requirements in a
unified model (Cheng et al., 2018). The development of CAD systems for virtual try-on, fitting
evaluation and style editing is strongly contingent on realistically prepared 3D parametric model
of the human body, garment parametric pattern development and garment simulation according
to the physical–mechanical properties of fabrics (Mahnić and Petrak, 2013).
898 3D scanners generate polygonal approximation to human model. The scanning
technology enables the polygonal mesh generation as the network of connected triangular
elements to wrap the object surface. Due to this ability, it reduces the point cloud data
without compromising the surface quality. In accordance to this benefit, the rendering and
determination of volume and surface area can be obtained. There are non-contact active and
whole-body 3D scanners. The non-contact active 3D scanners use a laser to illuminate the
object surface to measure the distances or to recognize surficial curves. The whole-body 3D
scanners are equipped with four wide-view, high-resolution scanners, which rotate around
the person to scan every angle. This high-powered precision scan is able to capture even the
smallest details, such as hair, wrinkles on clothes and buttons. The scanning process
generates millions of triangulated surfaces. Although 3D scanners provide detailed accurate
geometric data from objects, they are restricted to producing a discrete representation due to
irregularity, discontinuity, huge data set size and missing areas (Yoon and Lee, 2016).
The basic principle of the whole-body scanning employs a laser-scanning triangulation
method to acquire 3D images with a stripe of light being emitted from eight laser diodes
onto the scanning surface. It is viewed simultaneously from two locations using an
arrangement of mirrors and appears deformed by the object’s shape. These deformations
are recorded by a CCD camera, which are positioned within each of four scanning heads
and digitized. The cameras record the surface information. The separate data files from
each scanning head are combined in software to yield a complete integrated image of the
scanned object (Paquette, 1996). The procedure of the microclimatic volume
quantification, which are formed between the layers of garments, adopts the scanning
of the human subjects using the 3D laser body scanners. The 3D scanning technology
enables the polygonal mesh generation and thus reduces the point cloud data without
compromising the surface quality. In accordance to feature of the 3D scanning technology,
the rendering as well as the determination of volume and surface area can be obtained
(Yoon and Lee, 2016).
The scan reconstruction used to prepare 3D models from raw scan data, called the scan
post-processing, also poses a great challenge and involves time consuming and complex
methodology based on the complex computation methods, which is in great extent based on
the subjective evaluation of the person performing the scan reconstruction. The reverse
modelling procedure involves reconstruction of the missing areas of the scanned object
using the remaining polygons (Figure 1).
Currently, it is impossible to automatically re-mesh the complex geometry of the dressed
human body and has to be done manually in stages, which can last up to few days. The future
studies should try to overcome this inability of the 3D CAD tools for scan reconstruction. The
main disadvantage of performing time-consuming manual reconstruction should be improved
in order to create automatically restored scans based on the actual material properties and
body postures. The complex geometry of dressed human body makes the process lengthy
and complicated (Petrak et al., 2018).
The raw scans can be saved in obj. format and afterwards the multiple scanned obj.
formats can be imported by the CAD software, to be processed and reconstructed. The 3D
CAD tools, which are usually intended for design, engineering and preparation for the
manufacturing as well for the scan modelling, become a powerful tool for scan reconstruction
and analysing. The scans are aligned, combined into a single fused mesh and then
 (a) (b) (c) The current
status on 3D
scanning

899
Figure 1.
The scan
reconstruction used to
prepare 3D models
from raw scan data
Notes: (a) Hole filling; (b) unsmoothed mesh; (c) mesh after reconstruction

reconstructed manually through stages to restore many of the surface features of the clothing
complicated geometry (Špelić et al., 2018).
The stages of the manual scan processing involve healing defects, reconstruction of the
mesh features using the remaining polygons, re-meshing and rewrapping and finally
smoothing over the surface of the scans. After the scans have been edited and processed
manually, they are a finished by the mesh build-up wizard option and exported to calculate
the volume and the area (Špelić et al., 2019).
The 3D CAD systems for 3D virtual garment simulation commonly use the parametric
models of the human body. In recent years, the new methods are developed, which try to use
the 3D body scanners to acquire a virtual clone (3D parametric body model) on the basis of
the original scanned model. However, this is still unresolved issue since the realistic
automatic human body model generated on the basis of the anthropometric measurements
was not created, as the clothing simulation and anatomical characteristic of the human body
are extremely complex and hard to achieve. In order to develop the parameterized body
model, the underlying template model should be created and segmented. MIRALab used 24
anthropometric measurement landmarks to deform the template model designed with 3D
Studio Max (Kasap and Magnenat-Thalmann, 2007). In the OptiTex CAD system, one can
work with parametric body model using 49 various adjustable body measurements (Petrak
et al., 2012). The automatic human body model generation, customized according to various
body measurements and direct implementation of computer model obtained by 3D body
scanning, is still developing. Interactive adjustment of the 3D parametric body model
(avatar) according to individual body measurements obtained by 3D scanning deals with a
problem of defining anthropometric measuring landmarks. The anthropometric
characteristics and automatic positioning of the individual body measurements between
scanned human body and parametric body models (avatars) are usually non-compliant. It
usually takes interactive manual adjustment to define positions and to resolve an existing
discrepancy of anthropometric landmarks on the 3D parametric body model. The
anthropometric measuring landmarks, girths and vertical distances on the 3D parametric
body model should be adjusted in relation to the posture and shape of the scanned body
model, taking into account the spine curvature, the shoulder position, muscle mass, etc. The
parametric body models also take into account a smaller number of measurements. Since the
interactive manual adjustment of the 3D parametric body models is the time-consuming
process, which involves a lot of knowledge on human anthropometry and afterwards the
clothing pattern construction, the automatic modification with respect to the pre-stored
database with body measurements could be more optimal solution. The daunting part of the
process accounts for database preparation since it involves a large quantity of scanned
IJCST human subjects. But once the measurements are stored and sorted, only partial adjustment
32,6 of the 3D parametric body model (avatar) can be performed with respect to a large number
of assigned measurements (Petrak et al., 2012).
There are several recently published studies, which strived to adopt the 3D scanning
technology and CAD systems in order to investigate the complex geometry of clothing.
Psikuta et al. (2012) presented the method for quantification of the microclimatic volume due
900 to 3D scanning. Since the 3D scanning is most accurate and reproducible method for the air
volume quantification under clothing according to Daanen et al. (2002), the volume
determination by 3D scanners and the reverse engineering CAD software is currently
developing (Daanen et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2007; Li et al., 2013; Mert, Psikuta, Bueno and
Rossi, 2015; Mert, Böhnisch, Psikuta and Bueno, 2015; Psikuta et al., 2012; Zhang and Li,
2010, 2011; Zhang et al., 2011, 2015).
The air volume quantification is of great significance when measuring the heat transfer
rate through the clothing, since the heat transfer rate is determined by both the fabric
selection and the microclimatic air layers formed under the clothing (Gulrajani, 2013; Lee
et al., 2007). The clothing factors affecting thermal exchange are sectionalized in two major
categories, one being the choice and properties of the fabrics and other being the garments
design and construction (ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals, 2005; Havenith et al., 2008).
The microclimatic air layers formed under the clothing impact the volume of the garments
and the ensembles. The determination of the air layers, which alter the heat transfer rate
from the body to the environment, is one of the crucial factors when deducing the overall
thermal properties of clothing. The first to acknowledge the impact of the clothing in
overall reduction of the conduction losses by trapping a still air within the fabric
structures and between the garment layers was seen in the studies by the E. A.
McCullough and associates (McCullough and Jones, 1984; McCullough and Hong, 1994).
They stated the clothing to resists the convective heat losses by preventing convection
currents forming next to the body and by providing a barrier against air currents in the
environment (McCullough and Jones, 1984). Since the nonhomogeneous air layers of a
different thickness are created under clothing, one has to take into account several
different factors (the type, the specific design and the fabric selection will determine the
clothing fit to the body, thus substantially help to create the air layers under clothing). The
clothing design and style severely affects the distribution and volume of the air spaces
within garments and ensembles and the number of layers, the fit and the drape, the
flexibility of the layers and the adequacy of closures, the surface area and the geometry
should be considered (Wilson et al., 2002; MacRea et al., 2011).

5. The future trends

The first commercial CAD systems were driven forward by the automotive and aircraft
industries in the 1970s and did not have any 3D functionalities. They were developed to
replace traditional transparencies, ink pens and drawing boards. Nowadays, CAD systems
have evolved from 2D to 3D modellers through wireframe, surfaces and solid modelling
systems (Figure 2).
The generation of 3D curved shapes has always been a driving force in the development
of CAD systems and non-uniform rational B-spline (NURBS) curves and Bezier curves were
created to represent the mathematical description of a 3D curved line and subsequent
surface. All of the surfaces in CAD systems are described by the NURBs method and simple
geometries such as flat planes or even cylinders. However, approximating a cylinder with a
non-uniform B-spline requires quite a considerable amount of control points and the
optimization of the B-spline was needed. This optimization can be visualized by putting
more or less pressure on the elastic band of each Bezier curve independently. Most of the
CAD systems internally use triangulation (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
 (a) (b) (c) The current
status on 3D
scanning

901

Figure 2.
3D models of the
human body
Notes: (a) Point cloud; (b) polygonal mesh; (c) surface model

The main disability of the current CAD systems is their inflexibility at making changes and
the time needed for regenerating a complex parametric model is excessive. The 3D scanning
allows point cloud data importing to other CAD softwares, where it can be merged and
refined before being used to create NURB surfaces. Using the freeform virtual sculpting
system allows the basis for building a solid CAD model (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
In order to obtain the 3D mesh surface, a planar and surface parameterization is usually
performed by the CAD systems. The application of parameterization is seen through the
scattered data fitting, re-parameterization of spline surfaces and repair of CAD models. One
of the most important steps while performing parameterization is the texture mapping,
which is commonly used to increase the visual complexity of computer generated images
while maintaining simplicity in the underlying geometric models (Meng et al., 2012).
As Porterfield and Lamar stated, the 3D visualization technology revolutionised other
industries, enabling automotive and engineering product (Porterfield and Lamar, 2017).
But what about the textile and the apparel industry? The apparel CAD systems are
different from other forms of the CAD systems used by other industries. The apparel CAD
systems process the flat garment patterns following the explicit complex rules to form the
desired 3D shape. Due to the complexity and subjectivity of pattern design in tight connection
to the expertise of the skilled pattern designers, it is hard to define an optimum pattern for a
specific garment. The apparel CAD systems require a series of a repeated programming for
every new clothing pattern. The CAD softwares are also hard to modify to meet the individual
specifications of individual garment manufacturing companies. The basic geometry of
current CAD systems does not fully provide the customization for a specific type of garment.
Kang and Kim pointed to several specific functions to be modified in the current CAD systems
for the apparel industry. First of them is the implementation of special elements, to further the
simplicity and specific of the pattern making such as darts, notches and grain lines.
Those special design elements are used during the transformation of the 2D pattern into the
3D garment in order for them to be relocated, distributed or merged. The complexity of
IJCST this problem lies in the geometrical and topological changes occurring during this process
32,6 (Kang and Kim, 2000).
The CAD systems have the application for creating the anthropometric databases,
databases for posture and movement predictions, databases to be used in workplace design
and ergonomic analysis (Istook and Hwang, 2001). Another know application of the CAD
systems is in the textile industry applied for the development for the fabric production
902 (Bruce et al., 2004).
The apparel and textile industry is yet much skilled-labour dependent in nature. This is
the main reason for not largely deploying the automation and the usage of the software
programs. There are several 2D CAD systems on the market for pattern drafting, sizing,
nesting and marker making. Together with CAM modules for cutting and sewing, most of
the clothing manufacturing companies still resent the lack of effective garment-oriented
CAD packages to design directly in 3D. The designers lack the tools for shape modelling and
cloth behaviour simulation. Most of the existing commercial CAD systems still rely on mere
geometrical modelling and do not provide virtual simulation tools. Although there are
commercial 2D CAD systems and automated cutting/sewing devices, the human knowledge,
the skills, the creativity and the technical skills of dressmakers for made-to-measure
clothing still continue to play a fundamental role, making it difficult to completely automate
all of the stages of the whole apparel design process. The future work in improving the CAD
system functionalities should evolve around the functional and aesthetic cloth design
details, e.g. parametric sewing algorithms, multi-layered fabric modelling and virtual
emulation of manufacturing processes inducing fabric deformations (Fontana et al., 2005).
In order to maximize the potential of rapid manufacturing processes, a new CAD
environment is to be created and main directions for improvements are needed in the form of the
free feature modelling, development of the product specific CAD systems, repeating features
development and designing the CAD system for graded materials (Hopkinson et al., 2006).
In the future, the fifth-generation innovation process, which encompasses strategically
directed integration, the adoption of a sophisticated electronic design toolkit and
development of activities to enhance developmental flexibility, speed and efficiency by the
manufacturing companies, relies on the 3D CAD systems and simulation modelling.
The link between the CAD and other systems will enhance product development flexibility
and product manufacturability in order to comply with intensifying competition and a
turbulent economic environment (Rothwell, 1994).
Newly developing technical areas such as 4D scanning methods still cope with disability to
be fully applied to the textile/apparel industry since 3D body processing, modelling,
visualization and 3D body printing methods lack highly needed customization to somewhat
complex fabric properties, garment geometrical complexity and human body anatomical
features, especially when dealing with dynamic body measurements deformations. 3D
technology is still more adaptable to solid materials rather than fabrics and their unique
mechanical properties. Another needed adjustment is seen in alternating the scan quality and
post-processing procedures, which can decrease the ability to model or virtually present
garments worn over the human body. Although the shell geometry of the human body is fully
visualized through the scanning technology, the unseen structures such as skeleton still need
to be more accurately specified in order to realistically present the dynamic deformations on
both the human body and the over-the-surface garments. Loading the 3D scans into any
processing software still involves many preparatory procedures such as the alignment,
adding anatomical landmarks, calculating and scaling in order to define and adjust the
template model, pose correction, etc. The absence of the solution for automated processing of
3D full body scans (3D human modelling) or realistic automated garment modelling forces
rather a low applicability of CAD modelling systems for customized and mass-produced
apparel. The currently known and commercially available 3D CAD tools for design,
engineering and manufacturing preparation (Sayem et al., 2010) such as the Geomagic Design The current
X, RAMSIS, VstitcherTM, Accumark VstistcherTM, Haute Couture 3D, Lectra’s Modaris 3D status on 3D
FIT and DesignConcept, OptiTex, Virtualfashion, etc., still lack the ability to automatically scanning
produce computerized model without any preparation and a great deal of knowledge on fabric
properties, human body anatomy and the nature of plastic deformations.

6. Conclusion 903
The initial development of the CAD/CAM systems strived to completely eliminate any
manual and time-consuming operations in the textile and apparel industry. Although
Collier and Collier assumed that the CAD/CAM technology would eliminate the need for
manufacturing multiple prototypes, this scenario has not been completely accepted in
practice accept during garment construction and design. The 3D scanning and modelling,
as well as the CAD systems have, however, alleviated the comprehensive development of
patterns across all phases of construction preparation. This technology also made it
possible to customize the design process according to individual needs. The apparel
industry has moved from mass production to MC to personalization. With the current
trends of production customization, the reduction in numbers of models made for each
clothing line and each clothing collection, the increase in the diversity of fabric and
construction patterns and due to global changes in fashion market trends, the use of the
CAD/CAM systems will inevitably broaden in terms of applicability to new production
stages. Nowadays, a lot of effort is placed in designing the CAD systems, which could be
easily modified to meet individual specifications of individual garment manufacturing
companies. The industrial apparel CAD systems should be improved to provide the
modification in pattern design in order to facilitate the quick changing responses to
market change and MC.
The computer simulation of garments based on the physical-mechanical properties of
fabrics and the intention to achieve the best possible realistic simulations of garments is
somewhat easier by applying the 3D body scanners and linking those data to CAD
systems for construction and simulation of clothing. The process itself faces many
challenges. The first issue involves above mentioned customization of 3D CAD garment
simulation according to the physical-mechanical properties of fabrics. The second
challenge deals with classifying various human body types and adjusting the
computerized human body model according to various body measurements obtained by
scanning. Poorly prepared 3D parametric model of the human body can entail a risk of
further unrealistic simulation of clothing, especially if adjustment according to individual
anthropometric measurements is needed. The parametric modelling of 3D body shape still
combines few underlying problems. As seen from the current summary of the CAD/CAM
applications in the textile/apparel research, there are still few unresolved issues, which
disable the easer production flow in the 3D environment when dealing with the specific
nature of the human body, the complexity of fabric/garment/human body modelling and
virtual representations.
The new CAD environment for the textile/apparel industry should account for much
needed improvements in the form of the free feature modelling, easier scan reconstruction
used to prepare 3D models from raw scan data, automatic 3D parametric human body model
adaptation, 3D parametric garment model adaptation and development of the apparel
specific CAD systems in order to enhance developmental flexibility, speed and efficiency
during the apparel manufacturing process. This will lower the setup costs, minimize
the need for high user expertise, reduce technology limitations and raise the accuracy of the
fabric/garment/body simulation. The secondary benefit is presumed in the form of the time
and cost reduction as the virtual prototyping and virtual try-on processes can drastically
reduce product-development.
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Corresponding author
Ivana Špelic can be contacted at: ispelic@ttf.hr

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