METAFISIKA

https://www.google.com/search?client=safari&rls=en&q=Metaphysics+is+the+branch+of+p
hilosophy+that+examines+the+fundamental+nature+of+reality,+including+the+relationship
+between+mind+and+matter,+between+substance+and+attribute,+and+between+possibilit
y+and+actuality.+The+word+%22metaphysics%22+comes+from+two+Greek+words+that,+t
ogether,+literally+mean+%22after+or+behind+or+among+the++the+natural%22.+It+has+be
en+suggested+that+the+term+might+have+been+coined+by+a+first+century+CE+editor+w
ho+assembled+various+small+selections+of+Aristotle%E2%80%99s+works+into+the+treatis
e+we+now+know+by+the+name+Metaphysics+.%0AMetaphysics+studies+questions+relate
d+to+what+it+is+for+something+to+exist+and+what+types+of+existence+there+are.+Meta
physics+seeks+to+answer,+in+an+abstract+and+fully+general+manner,+the+questions:%0A
%23+What+%3F%0A%23+What+is+it+%3F%0ATopics+of+metaphysical+investigation+includ
e+existence,+objects+and+their+properties,+space+and+time,+cause+and+effect,+and+pos
sibility.%0AEpistemological+foundation++%0AMetaphysics+study+which+is+conducted+usi
ng+deduction+from+that+which+is+known+a+priori.+Like+foundational+mathematics,+it+tr
ies+to+give+a+coherent+account+of+the+structure+of+the+world,+capable+of+explaining+
our+everyday+and+scientific+perception+of+the+world,+and+being+free+from+contradicti
ons.+In+mathematics,+there+are+many+different+ways+to+define+numbers;+similarly+in+
metaphysics+there+are+many+different+ways+to+define+objects,+properties,+concepts,+a
nd+other+entities+which+are+claimed+to+make+up+the+world.++While+metaphysics+may
,+as+a+special+case,+study+the+entities+postulated+by+fundamental+science+such+as+at
oms+and+superstrings,+its+core+topic+is+the+set+of+categories+such+as+object,+property
+and+causality+which+those+scientific+theories+assume.++For+example:+claiming+that+%
22electrons+have+charge%22+is+a+scientific+theory;+while+exploring+what+it+means+for
+electrons+to+be++%22objects%22,+charge+to+be+a+%22property%22,+and+for+both+to
+exist+in+a+topological+entity+called+%22space%22+is+the+task+of+metaphysics.%0ATher
e+are+two+broad+stances+about+what+is+%22the+world%22+studied+by+metaphysics.+T
he+strong,+classical+view+assumes+that+the+objects+studied+by+metaphysics+exist+inde
pendently+of+any+observer,+so+that+the+subject+is+the+most+fundamental+of+all+scien
ces.+The+weak,+modern+view+assumes+that+the+objects+studied+by+metaphysics+exist+
inside+the+mind+of+an+observer,+so+the+subject+becomes+a+form+of+introspection+an
d+conceptual+analysis.+Some+philosophers,+notably+Kant,+discuss+both+of+these+%22w
orlds%22+and+what+can+be+inferred+about+each+one.+Some+philosophers,+such+as+the
+logical+positivists,+and+many+scientists,+reject+the+strong+view+of+metaphysics+as+me
aningless+and+unverifiable.+Others+reply+that+this+criticism+also+applies+to+any+type+o
f+knowledge,+including+hard+science,+which+claims+to+describe+anything+other+than+th
e+contents+of+human+perception,+and+thus+that+the+world+of+perception+is+the+objec
tive+world+in+some+sense.+Metaphysics+itself+usually+assumes+that+some+stance+has+
been+taken+on+these+questions+and+that+it+may+proceed+independently+of+the+choic
e%E2%80%94the+question+of+which+stance+to+take+belongs+instead+to+another+branc
h+of+philosophy,+epistemology.%0ACentral+questions++%0AOntology++++%0AOntology+i
s+the+philosophical+study+of+the+nature+of+being,+becoming,+existence+or+reality,+as+
well+as+the+basic+categories+of+being+and+their+relations.+Traditionally+listed+as+the+c
ore+of+metaphysics,+ontology+often+deals+with+questions+concerning+what+entities+exi
st+or+may+be+said+to+exist+and+how+such+entities+may+be+grouped,+related+within+a
+hierarchy,+and+subdivided+according+to+similarities+and+differences.%0AIdentity+and+c
hange+++%0AIdentity+is+a+fundamental+metaphysical+issue.+Metaphysicians+investigatin
g+identity+are+tasked+with+the+question+of+what,+exactly,+it+means+for+something+to
+be+identical+to+itself,+or+%E2%80%94+more+controversially+%E2%80%94+to+somethin
g+else.+Issues+of+identity+arise+in+the+context+of+time:+what+does+it+mean+for+somet
hing+to+be+itself+across+two+moments+in+time%3F+How+do+we+account+for+this%3F+
Another+question+of+identity+arises+when+we+ask+what+our+criteria+ought+to+be+for+
determining+identity%3F+And+how+does+the+reality+of+identity+interface+with+linguistic
+expressions%3F%0AThe+metaphysical+positions+one+takes+on+identity+have+far-
reaching+implications+on+issues+such+as+the+mind-
body+problem,+personal+identity,+ethics,+and+law.%0AThe+ancient+Greeks+took+extrem
e+positions+on+the+nature+of+change.+Parmenides+denied+change+altogether,+while+H
eraclitus+argued+that+change+was+ubiquitous:+%22ou+cannot+step+into+the+same+river
+twice.%22%0AIdentity,+sometimes+called+Numerical+Identity,+is+the+relation+that+a+%
22thing%22+bears+to+itself,+and+which+no+%22thing%22+bears+to+anything+other+than
+itself+.%0AA+modern+philosopher+who+made+a+lasting+impact+on+the+philosophy+of+
identity+was+Leibniz,+whose+Law+of+the+Indiscernibility+of+Identicals+is+still+in+wide+us
e+today.+It+states+that+if+some+object+x+is+identical+to+some+object+y,+then+any+pro
perty+that+x+has,+y+will+have+as+well.%0APut+formally,+it+states%0A%0AHowever,+it+s
eems,+too,+that+objects+can+change+over+time.+If+one+were+to+look+at+a+tree+one+d
ay,+and+the+tree+later+lost+a+leaf,+it+would+seem+that+one+could+still+be+looking+at+
that+same+tree.+Two+rival+theories+to+account+for+the+relationship+between+change+a
nd+identity+are+perdurantism,+which+treats+the+tree+as+a+series+of+tree-
stages,+and+endurantism,+which+maintains+that+the+organism%E2%80%94the+same+tre
e%E2%80%94is+present+at+every+stage+in+its+history.%0ASpace+and+time+++%0AObject
s+appear+to+us+in+space+and+time,+while+abstract+entities+such+as+classes,+properties,
+and+relations+do+not.+What+then+is+meant+by+space+and+time+such+that+it+can+serv
e+this+function+as+a+ground+for+objects%3F+Are+space+and+time+entities+themselves,+
of+some+form,+or+must+they+exist+prior+to+other+entities%3F+How+exactly+can+they+
be+defined%3F+For+example,+if+time+is+defined+as+a+%22rate+of+change%22+then+mu
st+there+always+be+something+changing+in+order+for+time+to+exist%3F%0ACausality+++
%0AClassical+philosophy+recognized+a+number+of+causes,+including+teleological+future+
causes.+In+special+relativity+and+quantum+field+theory+the+notions+of+space,+time+and
+causality+become+tangled+together,+with+temporal+orders+of+causations+becoming+de
pendent+on+who+is+observing+them.+The+laws+of+physics+are+symmetrical+in+time,+so
+could+equally+well+be+used+to+describe+time+as+running+backwards.+Why+then+do+w
e+perceive+it+as+flowing+in+one+direction,+the+arrow+of+time,+and+as+containing+caus
ation+flowing+in+the+same+direction%3F%0ACausality+is+linked+by+most+philosophers+t
o+the+concept+of+counterfactuals.+To+say+that+A+caused+B+means+that+if+A+had+not+
happened+then+B+would+not+have+happened.%0ACausality+is+usually+required+as+a+fo
undation+for+philosophy+of+science,+if+science+aims+to+understand+causes+and+effects
+and+make+predictions+about+them.%0ANecessity+and+possibility+++%0AMetaphysicians
+investigate+questions+about+the+ways+the+world+could+have+been.+David+Lewis,+in+O
n+the+Plurality+of+Worlds,+endorsed+a+view+called+Concrete+Modal+realism,+according
+to+which+facts+about+how+things+could+have+been+are+made+true+by+other+concret
e+worlds,+just+as+in+ours,+in+which+things+are+different.+Other+philosophers,+such+as+
Gottfried+Leibniz,+have+dealt+with+the+idea+of+possible+worlds+as+well.+The+idea+of+n
ecessity+is+that+any+necessary+fact+is+true+across+all+possible+worlds.+A+possible+fact+
is+true+in+some+possible+world,+even+if+not+in+the+actual+world.+For+example,+it+is+p
ossible+that+cats+could+have+had+two+tails,+or+that+any+particular+apple+could+have+
not+existed.+By+contrast,+certain+propositions+seem+necessarily+true,+such+as+analytic+
propositions,+e.g.,+%22All+bachelors+are+unmarried.%22+The+particular+example+of+ana
lytic+truth+being+necessary+is+not+universally+held+among+philosophers.+A+less+contro
versial+view+might+be+that+self-
identity+is+necessary,+as+it+seems+fundamentally+incoherent+to+claim+that+for+any+x,+i
t+is+not+identical+to+itself;+this+is+known+as+the+law+of+identity,+a+putative+%22first+
principle%22.+Aristotle+describes+the+principle+of+non-
contradiction,+%22It+is+impossible+that+the+same+quality+should+both+belong+and+not
+belong+to+the+same+thing+...+This+is+the+most+certain+of+all+principles+...+Wherefore
+they+who+demonstrate+refer+to+this+as+an+ultimate+opinion.+For+it+is+by+nature+the
+source+of+all+the+other+axioms.%22%0APeripheral+questions++%0AWhat+is+%22central
%22+and+%22peripheral%22+to+metaphysics+has+varied+over+time+and+schools;+howev
er+contemporary+analytic+philosophy+as+taught+in+USA+and+UK+universities+generally+
regards+the+above+as+%22central%22+and+the+following+as+%22applications%22+or+%2
2peripheral%22+topics;+or+in+some+cases+as+distinct+subjects+which+have+grown+out+
of+and+depend+upon+metaphysics:%0ACosmology+and+cosmogony+++%0AMetaphysical+
cosmology+is+the+branch+of+metaphysics+that+deals+with+the+world+as+the+totality+of
+all+phenomena+in+space+and+time.+Historically,+it+formed+a+major+part+of+the+subje
ct+alongside+Ontology,+though+its+role+is+more+peripheral+in+contemporary+philosophy
.+It+has+had+a+broad+scope,+and+in+many+cases+was+founded+in+religion.+The+ancient
+Greeks+drew+no+distinction+between+this+use+and+their+model+for+the+cosmos.+How
ever,+in+modern+times+it+addresses+questions+about+the+Universe+which+are+beyond+
the+scope+of+the+physical+sciences.+It+is+distinguished+from+religious+cosmology+in+th
at+it+approaches+these+questions+using+philosophical+methods+.%0ACosmogony+deals+
specifically+with+the+origin+of+the+universe.+Modern+metaphysical+cosmology+and+cos
mogony+try+to+address+questions+such+as:%0AWhat+is+the+origin+of+the+Universe%3F
+What+is+its+first+cause%3F+Is+its+existence+necessary%3F+%0AWhat+are+the+ultimate
+material+components+of+the+Universe%3F+%0AWhat+is+the+ultimate+reason+for+the+
existence+of+the+Universe%3F+Does+the+cosmos+have+a+purpose%3F+%0AMind+and+m
atter+++%0AAccounting+for+the+existence+of+mind+in+a+world+otherwise+composed+of
+matter+is+a+metaphysical+problem+which+is+so+large+and+important+as+to+have+beco
me+a+specialized+subject+of+study+in+its+own+right,+philosophy+of+mind.%0ASubstance
+dualism+is+a+classical+theory+in+which+mind+and+body+are+essentially+different,+with
+the+mind+having+some+of+the+attributes+traditionally+assigned+to+the+soul,+and+whic
h+creates+an+immediate+conceptual+puzzle+about+how+the+two+interact.++Idealism+po
stulates+that+material+objects+do+not+exist+unless+perceived+and+only+as+perceptions.
+Panpsychism+and+panexperientialism,+are+property+dualist+theories+in+which+everythi
ng+has+or+is+a+mind+rather+than+everything+exists+in+a+mind.+Neutral+monism+postul
ates+that+existence+consists+of+a+single+substance+that+in+itself+is+neither+mental+nor
+physical,+but+is+capable+of+mental+and+physical+aspects+or+attributesthus+it+implies+
a+dual-
aspect+theory.++For+the+last+century,+the+dominant+theories+have+been+science-
inspired+including+materialistic+monism,+Type+identity+theory,+token+identity+theory,+f
unctionalism,+reductive+physicalism,+nonreductive+physicalism,+eliminative+materialism,
+anomalous+monism,+property+dualism,+epiphenomenalism+and+emergence.%0ADeterm
inism+and+free+will+++%0ADeterminism+is+the+philosophical+proposition+that+every+ev
ent,+including+human+cognition,+decision+and+action,+is+causally+determined+by+an+un
broken+chain+of+prior+occurrences.+It+holds+that+nothing+happens+that+has+not+alrea
dy+been+determined.+The+principal+consequence+of+the+deterministic+claim+is+that+it+
poses+a+challenge+to+the+existence+of+free+will.%0AThe+problem+of+free+will+is+the+p
roblem+of+whether+rational+agents+exercise+control+over+their+own+actions+and+decisi
ons.+Addressing+this+problem+requires+understanding+the+relation+between+freedom+a
nd+causation,+and+determining+whether+the+laws+of+nature+are+causally+deterministic.
+Some+philosophers,+known+as+Incompatibilists,+view+determinism+and+free+will+as+m
utually+exclusive.+If+they+believe+in+determinism,+they+will+therefore+believe+free+will
+to+be+an+illusion,+a+position+known+as+Hard+Determinism.+Proponents+range+from+B
aruch+Spinoza+to+Ted+Honderich.+Henri+Bergson+defended+free+will+in+his+dissertation
+Time+and+Free+Will+from+1889.%0AOthers,+labeled+Compatibilists,+believe+that+the+t
wo+ideas+can+be+reconciled+coherently.+Adherents+of+this+view+include+Thomas+Hobb
es+and+many+modern+philosophers+such+as+John+Martin+Fischer.%0AIncompatibilists+
who+accept+free+will+but+reject+determinism+are+called+Libertarians,+a+term+not+to+b
e+confused+with+the+political+sense.+Robert+Kane+and+Alvin+Plantinga+are+modern+de
fenders+of+this+theory.%0ANatural+and+social+kinds+++%0AThe+earliest+type+of+classifi
cation+of+social+construction+traces+back+to+Plato+in+his+dialogue+Phaedrus+where+he
+claims+that+the+biological+classification+system+seems+to+%22carve+nature+at+the+joi
nts%22.+In+contrast,+later+philosophers+such+as+Michel+Foucault+and+Jorge+Luis+Borge
s+have+challenged+the+capacity+of+natural+and+social+classification.+In+his+essay+The+
Analytical+Language+of+John+Wilkins,+Borges+makes+us+imagine+a+certain+encyclopedia
+where+the+animals+are+divided+into++those+that+belong+to+the+emperor;++embalmed
+ones;++those+that+are+trained;...+and+so+forth,+in+order+to+bring+forward+the+ambig
uity+of+natural+and+social+kinds.+According+to+metaphysics+author+Alyssa+Ney:+%22th
e+reason+all+this+is+interesting+is+that+there+seems+to+be+a+metaphysical+difference+
between+the+Borgesian+system+and+Platos%22.+The+difference+is+not+obvious+but+on
e+classification+attempts+to+carve+entities+up+according+to+objective+distinction+while+
the+other+does+not.+According+to+Quine+this+notion+is+closely+related+to+the+notion+
of+similarity.%0ANumber+++%0AThere+are+different+ways+to+set+up+the+notion+of+nu
mber+in+metaphysics+theories.+Platonist+theories+postulate+number+as+a+fundamental
+category+itself.+Others+consider+it+to+be+a+property+of+an+entity+called+a+%22group
%22+comprising+other+entities;+or+to+be+a+relation+held+between+several+groups+of+e
ntities,+such+as+%22the+number+four+is+the+set+of+all+sets+of+four+things%22.+Many+
of+the+debates+around+universals+are+applied+to+the+study+of+number,+and+are+of+p
articular+importance+due+to+its+status+as+a+foundation+for+the+philosophy+of+mathem
atics+and+for+mathematics+itself.%0AApplied+metaphysics+++%0AAlthough+metaphysics
+as+a+philosophical+enterprise+is+highly+hypothetical,+it+also+has+practical+application+i
n+most+other+branches+of+philosophy,+science,+and+now+also+information+technology.
+Such+areas+generally+assume+some+basic+ontology++as+well+as+other+metaphysical+st
ances+on+topics+such+as+causality+and+agency,+then+build+their+own+particular+theori
es+upon+these.%0AIn+science,+for+example,+some+theories+are+based+on+the+ontologi
cal+assumption+of+objects+with+properties++while+others+may+reject+objects+completel
y+.%0A%22Social%22+branches+of+philosophy+such+as+philosophy+of+morality,+aestheti
cs+and+philosophy+of+religion++all+require+metaphysical+foundations,+which+may+be+c
onsidered+as+branches+or+applications+of+metaphysics.+For+example,+they+may+postul
ate+the+existence+of+basic+entities+such+as+value,+beauty,+and+God.++Then+they+use+
these+postulates+to+make+their+own+arguments+about+consequences+resulting+from+t
hem.+When+philosophers+in+these+subjects+make+their+foundations+they+are+doing+ap
plied+metaphysics,+and+may+draw+upon+its+core+topics+and+methods+to+guide+them,+
including+ontology+and+other+core+and+peripheral+topics.+As+in+science,+the+foundatio
ns+chosen+will+in+turn+depend+on+the+underlying+ontology+used,+so+philosophers+in+t
hese+subjects+may+have+to+dig+right+down+to+the+ontological+layer+of+metaphysics+t
o+find+what+is+possible+for+their+theories.+For+example,+a+contradiction+obtained+in+
a+theory+of+God+or+Beauty+might+be+due+to+an+assumption+that+it+is+an+object+rath
er+than+some+other+kind+of+ontological+entity.%0ARelationship+of+metaphysics+and+sc
ience++%0APrior+to+the+modern+history+of+science,+scientific+questions+were+addresse
d+as+a+part+of+natural+philosophy.+Originally,+the+term+%22science%22++simply+mean
t+%22knowledge%22.+The+scientific+method,+however,+transformed+natural+philosophy
+into+an+empirical+activity+deriving+from+experiment,+unlike+the+rest+of+philosophy.+B
y+the+end+of+the+18th+century,+it+had+begun+to+be+called+%22science%22+to+disting
uish+it+from+other+branches+of+philosophy.+Science+and+philosophy+have+been+consid
ered+separated+disciplines+ever+since.+Thereafter,+metaphysics+denoted+philosophical+
enquiry+of+a+non-
empirical+character+into+the+nature+of+existence.%0AMetaphysics+continues+asking+%2
2why%22+where+science+leaves+off.+For+example,+any+theory+of+fundamental+physics
+is+based+on+some+set+of+axioms,+which+may+postulate+the+existence+of+entities+suc
h+as+atoms,+particles,+forces,+charges,+mass,+or+fields.+Stating+such+postulates+is+cons
idered+to+be+the+%22end%22+of+a+science+theory.+Metaphysics+takes+these+postulate
s+and+explores+what+they+mean+as+human+concepts.+For+example,+do+all+theories+of
+physics+require+the+existence+of+space+and+time,+objects,+and+properties%3F+Or+can
+they+be+expressed+using+only+objects,+or+only+properties%3F+Do+the+objects+have+t
o+retain+their+identity+over+time+or+can+they+change%3F+If+they+change,+then+are+th
ey+still+the+same+object%3F+Can+theories+be+reformulated+by+converting+properties+o
r+predicates++into+entities++or+processes+.+Is+the+distinction+between+objects+and+pr
operties+fundamental+to+the+physical+world+or+to+our+perception+of+it%3F%0AMuch+r
ecent+work+has+been+devoted+to+analyzing+the+role+of+metaphysics+in+scientific+theo
rizing.+Alexandre+Koyr%C3%A9+led+this+movement,+declaring+in+his+book+Metaphysics
+and+Measurement,+%22It+is+not+by+following+experiment,+but+by+outstripping+experi
ment,+that+the+scientific+mind+makes+progress.%22+That+metaphysical+propositions+ca
n+influence+scientific+theorizing+is+John+Watkins%27+most+lasting+contribution+to+phil
osophy.+Since+1957+%22he+showed+the+ways+in+which+some+un-
testable+and+hence,+according+to+Popperian+ideas,+non-
empirical+propositions+can+nevertheless+be+influential+in+the+development+of+properly
+testable+and+hence+scientific+theories.+These+profound+results+in+applied+elementary
+logic...represented+an+important+corrective+to+positivist+teachings+about+the+meaning
lessness+of+metaphysics+and+of+normative+claims%22.+Imre+Lakatos+maintained+that+a
ll+scientific+theories+have+a+metaphysical+%22hard+core%22+essential+for+the+generati
on+of+hypotheses+and+theoretical+assumptions.+Thus,+according+to+Lakatos,+%22scienti
fic+changes+are+connected+with+vast+cataclysmic+metaphysical+revolutions.%22%0AAn+
example+from+biology+of+Lakatos%27+thesis:+David+Hull+has+argued+that+changes+in+t
he+ontological+status+of+the+species+concept+have+been+central+in+the+development+
of+biological+thought+from+Aristotle+through+Cuvier,+Lamarck,+and+Darwin.+Darwin%27
s+ignorance+of+metaphysics+made+it+more+difficult+for+him+to+respond+to+his+critics+
because+he+could+not+readily+grasp+the+ways+in+which+their+underlying+metaphysical
+views+differed+from+his+own.%0AIn+physics,+new+metaphysical+ideas+have+arisen+in+
connection+with+quantum+mechanics,+where+subatomic+particles+arguably+do+not+hav
e+the+same+sort+of+individuality+as+the+particulars+with+which+philosophy+has+traditio
nally+been+concerned.+Also,+adherence+to+a+deterministic+metaphysics+in+the+face+of
+the+challenge+posed+by+the+quantum-
mechanical+uncertainty+principle+led+physicists+such+as+Albert+Einstein+to+propose+alt
ernative+theories+that+retained+determinism.+A.N.+Whitehead+is+famous+for+creating+
a+process+philosophy+metaphysics+inspired+by+electromagnetism+and+special+relativity.
%0AIn+chemistry,+Gilbert+Newton+Lewis+addressed+the+nature+of+motion,+arguing+tha
t+an+electron+should+not+be+said+to+move+when+it+has+none+of+the+properties+of+m
otion.%0AKatherine+Hawley+notes+that+the+metaphysics+even+of+a+widely+accepted+sc
ientific+theory+may+be+challenged+if+it+can+be+argued+that+the+metaphysical+presupp
ositions+of+the+theory+make+no+contribution+to+its+predictive+success.%0ARejections+o
f+metaphysics++%0AA+number+of+individuals+have+suggested+that+much+or+all+of+met
aphysics+should+be+rejected.+In+the+16th+century,+Francis+Bacon+rejected+scholastic+
metaphysics,+and+argued+strongly+for+what+is+now+called+empiricism,+being+seen+late
r+as+the+father+of+modern+empirical+science.+In+the+eighteenth+century,+David+Hume
+took+a+strong+position,+arguing+that+all+genuine+knowledge+involves+either+mathema
tics+or+matters+of+fact+and+that+metaphysics,+which+goes+beyond+these,+is+worthless.
+He+concludes+his+Enquiry+Concerning+Human+Understanding+with+the+statement:%0A
If+we+take+in+our+hand+any+volume;+of+divinity+or+school+metaphysics,+for+instance;+
let+us+ask,+Does+it+contain+any+abstract+reasoning+concerning+quantity+or+number%3
F+No.+Does+it+contain+any+experimental+reasoning+concerning+matter+of+fact+and+exi
stence%3F+No.+Commit+it+then+to+the+flames:+for+it+can+contain+nothing+but+sophist
ry+and+illusion.%0AThirty-
three+years+after+Hume%27s+Enquiry+appeared,+Immanuel+Kant+published+his+Critique
+of+Pure+Reason.+Although+he+followed+Hume+in+rejecting+much+of+previous+metaph
ysics,+he+argued+that+there+was+still+room+for+some+synthetic+a+priori+knowledge,+co
ncerned+with+matters+of+fact+yet+obtainable+independent+of+experience.+These+includ
ed+fundamental+structures+of+space,+time,+and+causality.+He+also+argued+for+the+free
dom+of+the+will+and+the+existence+of+%22things+in+themselves%22,+the+ultimate++ob
jects+of+experience.%0AWittgenstein+introduced+the+concept+that+metaphysics+could+b
e+influenced+by+theories+of+aesthetics,+via+logic,+vis.+a+world+composed+of+%22atomi
cal+facts%22.%0AIn+the+1930s,+A.J.+Ayer+and+Rudolf+Carnap+endorsed+Hume%27s+posi
tion;+Carnap+quoted+the+passage+above.+They+argued+that+metaphysical+statements+a
re+neither+true+nor+false+but+meaningless+since,+according+to+their+verifiability+theory
+of+meaning,+a+statement+is+meaningful+only+if+there+can+be+empirical+evidence+for+
or+against+it.+Thus,+while+Ayer+rejected+the+monism+of+Spinoza,+he+avoided+a+commi
tment+to+pluralism,+the+contrary+position,+by+holding+both+views+to+be+without+mea
ning.+Carnap+took+a+similar+line+with+the+controversy+over+the+reality+of+the+externa
l+world.+While+the+logical+positivism+movement+is+now+considered+dead,++it+has+con
tinued+to+influence+philosophy+development.%0AArguing+against+such+rejections,+the+
Scholastic+philosopher+Edward+Feser+has+observed+that+Hume%27s+critique+of+metap
hysics,+and+specifically+Hume%27s+fork,+is+%22notoriously+self-
refuting%22.+Feser+argues+that+Hume%27s+fork+itself+is+not+a+conceptual+truth+and+i
s+not+empirically+testable.%0ASome+living+philosophers,+such+as+Amie+Thomasson,+ha
ve+argued+that+many+metaphysical+questions+can+be+dissolved+just+by+looking+at+the
+way+we+use+words;+others,+such+as+Ted+Sider,+have+argued+that+metaphysical+quest
ions+are+substantive,+and+that+we+can+make+progress+toward+answering+them+by+co
mparing+theories+according+to+a+range+of+theoretical+virtues+inspired+by+the+sciences
,+such+as+simplicity+and+explanatory+power.%0AEtymology++%0AThe+word+%22metaph
ysics%22+derives+from+the+Greek+words+%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%AC++and+%CF%
86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC+.+It+was+first+used+as+the+title+for+several
+of+Aristotle%27s+works,+because+they+were+usually+anthologized+after+the+works+on
+physics+in+complete+editions.+The+prefix+meta-
++indicates+that+these+works+come+%22after%22+the+chapters+on+physics.+However,+
Aristotle+himself+did+not+call+the+subject+of+these+books+metaphysics:+he+referred+to
+it+as+%22first+philosophy.%22+The+editor+of+Aristotle%27s+works,+Andronicus+of+Rho
des,+is+thought+to+have+placed+the+books+on+first+philosophy+right+after+another+wo
rk,+Physics,+and+called+them++or+%22the+books++after+the++physics%22.%0AHowever,
+once+the+name+was+given,+the+commentators+sought+to+find+other+reasons+for+its+
appropriateness.+For+instance,+Thomas+Aquinas+understood+it+to+refer+to+the+chronol
ogical+or+pedagogical+order+among+our+philosophical+studies,+so+that+the+%22metaph
ysical+sciences%22+would+mean+%22those+that+we+study+after+having+mastered+the+s
ciences+that+deal+with+the+physical+world%22.%0AThe+term+was+misread+by+other+m
edieval+commentators,+who+thought+it+meant+%22the+science+of+what+is+beyond+the
+physical%22.+Following+this+tradition,+the+prefix+meta-
+has+more+recently+been+prefixed+to+the+names+of+sciences+to+designate+higher+scie
nces+dealing+with+ulterior+and+more+fundamental+problems:+hence+metamathematics,
+metaphysiology,+etc.%0AA+person+who+creates+or+develops+metaphysical+theories+is+
called+a+metaphysician.%0ACommon+parlance+also+uses+the+word+%22metaphysics%22
+for+a+different+referent+from+that+of+the+present+article,+namely+for+beliefs+in+arbit
rary+non-
physical+or+magical+entities.+For+example,+%22Metaphysical+healing%22+to+refer+to+h
ealing+by+means+of+remedies+that+are+magical+rather+than+scientific.++This+usage+ste
mmed+from+the+various+historical+schools+of+speculative+metaphysics+which+operated
+by+postulating+all+manner+of+physical,+mental+and+spiritual+entities+as+bases+for+par
ticular+metaphysical+systems.+Metaphysics+as+a+subject+does+not+preclude+beliefs+in+s
uch+magical+entities+but+neither+does+it+promote+them.+Rather,+it+is+the+subject+whi
ch+provides+the+vocabulary+and+logic+with+which+such+beliefs+might+be+analyzed+and
+studied,+for+example+to+search+for+inconsistencies+both+within+themselves+and+with
+other+accepted+systems+such+as+Science.%0AHistory+and+schools+of+metaphysics++%0
APre-
history+++%0ACognitive+archeology+such+as+analysis+of+cave+paintings+and+other+pre-
historic+art+and+customs+suggests+that+a+form+of+perennial+philosophy+or+Shamanism
+metaphysics+may+stretch+back+to+the+birth+of+behavioral+modernity,+all+around+the+
world.++Similar+beliefs+are+found+in+present-
day+%22stone+age%22+cultures+such+as+Australian+aboriginals.+Perennial+philosophy+p
ostulates+the+existence+of+a+spirit+or+concept+world+alongside+the+day-to-
day+world,+and+interactions+between+these+worlds+during+dreaming+and+ritual,+or+on
+special+days+or+at+special+places.+It+has+been+argued+that+perennial+philosophy+for
med+the+basis+for+Platonism,+with+Plato+articulating,+rather+than+creating,+much+olde
r+widespread+beliefs.%0ABronze+age+++%0ABronze+Age+cultures+such+as+ancient+Meso
potamia+and+ancient+Egypt++developed+belief+systems+based+on+mythology,+anthropo
morphic+gods,+mind-
body+dualism,+and+a+spirit+world,+to+explain+causes+and+cosmology.+These+cultures+a
ppear+to+have+been+interested+in+astronomy+and+may+have+associated+or+identified+
the+stars+with+some+of+these+entities.+In+ancient+Egypt,+the+ontological+distinction+b
etween+order++and+chaos++seems+to+have+been+important.%0APre-
Socratic+Greece+++%0AThe+first+named+Greek+philosopher,+according+to+Aristotle,+is+T
hales+of+Miletus,+early+6th+century+BCE.+He+made+use+of+purely+physical+explanation
s+to+explain+the+phenomena+of+the+world+rather+than+the+mythological+and+divine+e
xplanations+of+tradition.+He+is+thought+to+have+posited+water+as+the+single+underlyin
g+principle++of+the+material+world.+His+fellow,+but+younger+Miletians,+Anaximander+a
nd+Anaximenes,+also+posited+monistic+underlying+principles,+namely+apeiron++and+air+
respectively.%0AAnother+school+was+the+Eleatics,+in+southern+Italy.+The+group+was+fo
unded+in+the+early+fifth+century+BCE+by+Parmenides,+and+included+Zeno+of+Elea+and
+Melissus+of+Samos.+Methodologically,+the+Eleatics+were+broadly+rationalist,+and+took
+logical+standards+of+clarity+and+necessity+to+be+the+criteria+of+truth.+Parmenides%27
+chief+doctrine+was+that+reality+is+a+single+unchanging+and+universal+Being.+Zeno+use
d+reductio+ad+absurdum,+to+demonstrate+the+illusory+nature+of+change+and+time+in+
his+paradoxes.%0AHeraclitus+of+Ephesus,+in+contrast,+made+change+central,+teaching+t
hat+%22all+things+flow%22.+His+philosophy,+expressed+in+brief+aphorisms,+is+quite+cry
ptic.+For+instance,+he+also+taught+the+unity+of+opposites.%0ADemocritus+and+his+teac
her+Leucippus,+are+known+for+formulating+an+atomic+theory+for+the+cosmos.+They+ar
e+considered+forerunners+of+the+scientific+method.%0AClassical+China+++%0AMetaphys
ics+in+Chinese+philosophy+can+be+traced+back+to+the+earliest+Chinese+philosophical+c
oncepts+from+the+Zhou+Dynasty+such+as+Tian++and+Yin+and+Yang.+The+fourth+century
+BCE+saw+a+turn+towards+cosmogony+with+the+rise+of+Taoism++and+sees+the+natural
+world+as+dynamic+and+constantly+changing+processes+which+spontaneously+arise+fro
m+a+single+immanent+metaphysical+source+or+principle+.+Another+philosophical+school
+which+arose+around+this+time+was+the+School+of+Naturalists+which+saw+the+ultimate
+metaphysical+principle+as+the+Taiji,+the+%22supreme+polarity%22+composed+of+the+f
orces+of+Ying+and+Yang+which+were+always+in+a+state+of+change+seeking+balance.+An
other+concern+of+Chinese+metaphysics,+especially+Taoism,+is+the+relationship+and+nat
ure+of+Being+and+non-
Being+.+The+Taoists+held+that+the+ultimate,+the+Tao,+was+also+non-being+or+no-
presence.+is+considered+to+be+a+solution+to+the+problem+of+universals;+i.e.,+what+par
ticular+objects+have+in+common+is+that+they+share+a+specific+Form+which+is+universal
+to+all+others+of+their+respective+kind.%0AThe+theory+has+a+number+of+other+aspects
:%0AEpistemological:+knowledge+of+the+Forms+is+more+certain+than+mere+sensory+dat
a.%0AEthical:+The+Form+of+the+Good+sets+an+objective+standard+for+morality.%0ATim
e+and+Change:+The+world+of+the+Forms+is+eternal+and+unchanging.+Time+and+change
+belong+only+to+the+lower+sensory+world.+%22Time+is+a+moving+image+of+Eternity%2
2.%0AAbstract+objects+and+mathematics:+Numbers,+geometrical+figures,+etc.,+exist+min
d-
independently+in+the+World+of+Forms.%0APlatonism+developed+into+Neoplatonism,+a+
philosophy+with+a+monotheistic+and+mystical+flavour+that+survived+well+into+the+early
+Christian+era.%0AAristotle+++%0APlato%27s+pupil+Aristotle+wrote+widely+on+almost+e
very+subject,+including+metaphysics.+His+solution+to+the+problem+of+universals+contras
ts+with+Plato%27s.+Whereas+Platonic+Forms+are+existentially+apparent+in+the+visible+
world,+Aristotelian+essences+dwell+in+particulars.%0APotentiality+and+Actuality+are+prin
ciples+of+a+dichotomy+which+Aristotle+used+throughout+his+philosophical+works+to+an
alyze+motion,+causality+and+other+issues.%0AThe+Aristotelian+theory+of+change+and+c
ausality+stretches+to+four+causes:+the+material,+formal,+efficient+and+final.+The+efficie
nt+cause+corresponds+to+what+is+now+known+as+a+cause+simplicity.+Final+causes+are+
explicitly+teleological,+a+concept+now+regarded+as+controversial+in+science.+The+Matte
r/Form+dichotomy+was+to+become+highly+influential+in+later+philosophy+as+the+substa
nce/essence+distinction.%0AThe+opening+arguments+in+Aristotle%27s+Metaphysics,+Boo
k+I,+revolve+around+the+senses,+knowledge,+experience,+theory,+and+wisdom.+The+firs
t+main+focus+in+the+Metaphysics+is+attempting+to+determine+how+intellect+%22advan
ces+from+sensation+through+memory,+experience,+and+art,+to+theoretical+knowledge%
22.+Aristotle+claims+that+eyesight+provides+us+with+the+capability+to+recognize+and+re
member+experiences,+while+sound+allows+us+to+learn.%0AClassical+India+++%0AMore+
on+Indian+philosophy:+Hindu+philosophy%0AS%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya++++%0AS%C4%8
1%E1%B9%83khya+is+an+ancient+system+of+Indian+philosophy+based+on+a+dualism+inv
olving+the+ultimate+principles+of+consciousness+and+matter.+It+is+described+as+the+rat
ionalist+school+of+Indian+philosophy.+It+is+most+related+to+the+Yoga+school+of+Hinduis
m,+and+its+method+was+most+influential+on+the+development+of+Early+Buddhism.%0A
The+S%C4%81mkhya+is+an+enumerationist+philosophy+whose+epistemology+accepts+thr
ee+of+six+pramanas++as+the+only+reliable+means+of+gaining+knowledge.+These+include
+pratyak%E1%B9%A3a,+anum%C4%81%E1%B9%87a++and+%C5%9Babda+.%0ASamkhya+is
+strongly+dualist.+S%C4%81mkhya+philosophy+regards+the+universe+as+consisting+of+tw
o+realities;+puru%E1%B9%A3a++and+prak%E1%B9%9Bti+.+Jiva++is+that+state+in+which+
puru%E1%B9%A3a+is+bonded+to+prak%E1%B9%9Bti+in+some+form.+During+the+state+of
+imbalance,+one+of+more+constituents+overwhelm+the+others,+creating+a+form+of+bon
dage,+particularly+of+the+mind.+The+end+of+this+imbalance,+bondage+is+called+liberati
on,+or+moksha,+by+the+Samkhya+school.%0AThe+existence+of+God+or+supreme+being+i
s+not+directly+asserted,+nor+considered+relevant+by+the+Samkhya+philosophers.+S%C4
%81%E1%B9%83khya+denies+the+final+cause+of+Ishvara+.+While+the+Samkhya+school+c
onsiders+the+Vedas+as+a+reliable+source+of+knowledge,+it+is+an+atheistic+philosophy+a
ccording+to+Paul+Deussen+and+other+scholars.+A+key+difference+between+Samkhya+an
d+Yoga+schools,+state+scholars,+is+that+Yoga+school+accepts+a+%22personal,+yet+essen
tially+inactive,+deity%22+or+%22personal+god%22.%0ASamkhya+is+known+for+its+theory
+of+gu%E1%B9%87as+.+Gu%E1%B9%87a,+it+states,+are+of+three+types:+sattva+being+go
od,+compassionate,+illuminating,+positive,+and+constructive;+rajas+is+one+of+activity,+ch
aotic,+passion,+impulsive,+potentially+good+or+bad;+and+tamas+being+the+quality+of+da
rkness,+ignorance,+destructive,+lethargic,+negative.+Everything,+all+life+forms+and+huma
n+beings,+state+Samkhya+scholars,+have+these+three+gu%E1%B9%87as,+but+in+different
+proportions.+The+interplay+of+these+gu%E1%B9%87as+defines+the+character+of+some
one+or+something,+of+nature+and+determines+the+progress+of+life.+The+Samkhya+theo
ry+of+gu%E1%B9%87as+was+widely+discussed,+developed+and+refined+by+various+scho
ols+of+Indian+philosophies,+including+Buddhism.+Samkhya%27s+philosophical+treatises+a
lso+influenced+the+development+of+various+theories+of+Hindu+ethics.+and+also+not+th
e+self-consciousness+which+as+a+kind+of+desire+is+satisfied+by+another+self-
consciousness.+It+is+Self-
 realisation;+the+realisation+of+the+Self+consisting+of+consciousness+that+leads+all+else.
%0AThe+word+Self-
consciousness+in+the+Upanishads+means+the+knowledge+about+the+existence+and+natu
re+of+Brahman.+It+means+the+consciousness+of+our+own+real+being,+the+primary+reali
ty.+Self-consciousness+means+Self-
knowledge,+the+knowledge+of+Prajna+i.e.+of+Prana+which+is+Brahman.+According+to+th
e+Upanishads+the+Atman+or+Paramatman+is+phenomenally+unknowable;+it+is+the+obje
ct+of+realisation.+The+Atman+is+unknowable+in+its+essential+nature;+it+is+unknowable+
in+its+essential+nature+because+it+is+the+eternal+subject+who+knows+about+everything
+including+itself.+The+Atman+is+the+knower+and+also+the+known.%0AMetaphysicians+r
egard+the+Self+either+to+be+distinct+from+the+Absolute+or+entirely+identical+with+the+
Absolute.+They+have+given+form+to+three+schools+of+thought+%E2%80%93+a)+the+Dua
listic+school,+b)+the+Quasi-
dualistic+school+and+c)+the+Monistic+school,+as+the+result+of+their+varying+mystical+ex
periences.+Prakrti+and+Atman,+when+treated+as+two+separate+and+distinct+aspects+for
m+the+basis+of+the+Dualism+of+the+Shvetashvatara+Upanishad.+Quasi-
dualism+is+reflected+in+the+Vaishnavite-
monotheism+of+Ramanuja+and+the+absolute+Monism,+in+the+teachings+of+Adi+Shankar
a.%0ASelf-
consciousness+is+the+Fourth+state+of+consciousness+or+Turiya,+the+first+three+being+V
aisvanara,+Taijasa+and+Prajna.+These+are+the+four+states+of+individual+consciousness.%
0AThere+are+three+distinct+stages+leading+to+Self-
realisation.+The+First+stage+is+in+mystically+apprehending+the+glory+of+the+Self+within
+us+as+though+we+were+distinct+from+it.+The+Second+stage+is+in+identifying+the+%22I
-
within%22+with+the+Self,+that+we+are+in+essential+nature+entirely+identical+with+the+
pure+Self.+The+Third+stage+is+in+realising+that+the+Atman+is+Brahman,+that+there+is+n
o+difference+between+the+Self+and+the+Absolute.+The+Fourth+stage+is+in+realising+%2
2I+am+the+Absolute%22+%E2%80%93+Aham+Brahman+Asmi.+The+Fifth+stage+is+in+reali
sing+that+Brahman+is+the+%22All%22+that+exists,+as+also+that+which+does+not+exist.%
0ABuddhist+metaphysics+++%0AIn+Buddhist+philosophy+there+are+various+metaphysical
+traditions+that+have+proposed+different+questions+about+the+nature+of+reality+based
+on+the+teachings+of+the+Buddha+in+the+early+Buddhist+texts.+The+Buddha+of+the+ea
rly+texts+does+not+focus+on+metaphysical+questions+but+on+ethical+and+spiritual+traini
ng+and+in+some+cases,+he+dismisses+certain+metaphysical+questions+as+unhelpful+and
+indeterminate+Avyakta,+which+he+recommends+should+be+set+aside.+The+developmen
t+of+systematic+metaphysics+arose+after+the+Buddha%27s+death+with+the+rise+of+the+
Abhidharma+traditions.+The+Buddhist+Abhidharma+schools+developed+their+analysis+of+
reality+based+on+the+concept+of+dharmas+which+are+the+ultimate+physical+and+menta
l+events+that+make+up+experience+and+their+relations+to+each+other.+Noa+Ronkin+has
+called+their+approach+%22phenomenological%22.%0ALater+philosophical+traditions+incl
ude+the+Madhyamika+school+of+Nagarjuna,+which+further+developed+the+theory+of+th
e+emptiness++of+all+phenomena+or+dharmas+which+rejects+any+kind+of+substance.+Thi
s+has+been+interpreted+as+a+form+of+anti-foundationalism+and+anti-
realism+which+sees+reality+has+having+no+ultimate+essence+or+ground.+The+Yogacara+
school+meanwhile+promoted+a+theory+called+%22awareness+only%22++which+has+bee
n+interpreted+as+a+form+of+Idealism+or+Phenomenology+and+denies+the+split+betwee
n+awareness+itself+and+the+objects+of+awareness.%0AIslamic+metaphysics+++%0AIslami
c+metaphysics+was+highly+active+during+Europe%27s+%27Dark+Ages%27,+beginning+wit
h+the+arrival+and+translation+of+Aristotle+into+Arabic.%0AScholasticism+and+the+Middl
e+Ages+++%0ABetween+about+1100+and+1500,+philosophy+as+a+discipline+took+place+
as+part+of+the+Catholic+church%27s+teaching+system,+known+as+scholasticism.+Scholas
tic+philosophy+took+place+within+an+established%0Aframework+blending+Christian+theo
logy+with+Aristotelian+teachings.+Although+fundamental+orthodoxies+were+not+commo
nly+challenged,+there+were+nonetheless+deep+metaphysical+disagreements,+particularly
+over+the+problem+of+universals,+which+engaged+Duns+Scotus+and+Pierre+Abelard.+Wi
lliam+of+Ockham+is+remembered+for+his+principle+of+ontological+parsimony.%0ARation
alism+and+Continental+Rationalism+++%0AIn+the+early+modern+period,+the+system-
building+scope+of+philosophy+is+often+linked+to+the+rationalist+method+of+philosophy,
+that+is+the+technique+of+deducing+the+nature+of+the+world+by+pure+reason.+The+sc
holastic+concepts+of+substance+and+accident+were+employed.%0ALeibniz+proposed+in+
his+Monadology+a+plurality+of+non-
interacting+substances.%0ADescartes+is+famous+for+his+Dualism+of+material+and+menta
l+substances.%0ASpinoza+believed+reality+was+a+single+substance+of+God-or-
nature.%0ABritish+empiricism+++%0ABritish+empiricism+marked+something+of+a+reactio
n+to+rationalist+and+system-
building+metaphysics,+or+speculative+metaphysics+as+it+was+pejoratively+termed.+The+s
keptic+David+Hume+famously+declared+that+most+metaphysics+should+be+consigned+to
+the+flames+.+Hume+was+notorious+among+his+contemporaries+as+one+of+the+first+ph
ilosophers+to+openly+doubt+religion,+but+is+better+known+now+for+his+critique+of+cau
sality.+John+Stuart+Mill,+Thomas+Reid+and+John+Locke+were+less+skeptical,+embracing+
a+more+cautious+style+of+metaphysics+based+on+realism,+common+sense+and+science.
+Other+philosophers,+notably+George+Berkeley+were+led+from+empiricism+to+idealistic
+metaphysics.%0AWolff+++%0AChristian+Wolff+had+theoretical+philosophy+divided+into+
an+ontology+or+philosophia+prima+as+a+general+metaphysics,+which+arises+as+a+prelim
inary+to+the+distinction+of+the+three+%22special+metaphysics%22+on+the+soul,+world+
and+God:+rational+psychology,+rational+cosmology+and+rational+theology.+The+three+di
sciplines+are+called+empirical+and+rational+because+they+are+ind&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8