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1. The word physics comes from the Latin word, ‘physikos’ meaning the science of natural things.
2. Physics is the branch of science concerned with the study of __________________and properties
of matter and energy.
3. The study was divided into separated fields; heat, the properties of matter, light, sound, wave,
electricity, magnetism, mechanics, nuclear physics etc.
4. In physics, there is the need to make careful observations, precise and accurate measurements.
5. Understanding natural phenomena and observing everyday objects such as a table, a mirror etc
and discuss how they are related to physics concepts has always been a central aim of physics.
6. The roots of all science are firmly based in experiment. Of course, mastering scientific skills
applying scientific knowledge must be the important thing to learn physics.
Importance of physics
1. There is a close relationship between the study of physics and other sciences, including
astronomy, biology, chemistry and geology.
2. There is a close connection between physics and the practical developments in engineering,
medicine and technology.
3. The application of fundamental laws and theories has enabled engineers and scientists to put
satellites into orbit, receive information from space probes, and improve telecommunications.
4. Physics improves the quality of life, i.e. many home appliances function through the operation of
principles of physics.
7. In 1960, an international conference in Paris had agreed to fix an international system of base units
for base quantities throughout the world. It is called the SI unit (Le Systeme International d’Unites).
8. Table below shows five base units and their corresponding physical quantities.
displacement m
Velocity v = m s-1 -
time taken s
change in velocity ms 1
Acceleration a = m s-2 -
time taken s
mass kg
Density ρ = kgm-3 -
volume m3
kg x m s-2 = kg m s-
Force F Mass x acceleration 2 Newton
kg x m s-1 = kg m s-
momentum p Mass x velocity 1 -
kg m s-2 x m = kg
Work W Force x displacement -
m2 s-2
work J
Power P = J s-1 Watt, W
time taken s
1.2.3 Prefixes
1. A prefix is a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. The SI allows
other units to be created from standard or base units by using prefixes, which act as multipliers.
2. We use prefixes _________________ the expression of ____________________l numerical values
of physical quantities. Prefixes are usually used to express some physical quantities that are either
very big or very small.
Prefix Symbol Power/factor
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12
Note A prefix is written in front of the symbol for the unit without a space. For example, kilowatt is
written kW.
A space is used between symbols in derived units. For example, Newton meter is written N m.
1. Scientific notation/standard form is a method of expressing very large or very small numbers.
2. Standard form is written in the form of A x 10n where 1 ≤ A < 10 and n is an integer.
3. Example 1:
Value Value in standard form
234 000 000 2.34 x 108
500 5 x 102
0.000 000 03478 3.478 x 10-8
4. Example 2:
A yellow light of wavelength 0.000 000 58 m travels at a speed of 300 000 000 m s-1. Express the
value in scientific notation.
0.000 000 58 m = 5.8 x 10-7
300 000 000 m s-1 = 3.0 x 108 m s-1
1.2.6 Expressing Derived Quantities and Their Units in Terms of Base Quantities
and Base Units.
1. Derived quantities and their units can be separated into their respective base quantities and base
units. Sometimes, the derived unit shows the relationship between the derived quantity and the base
quantity. For example;
(a) the unit of speed is meter per second or m s-1, which is in terms of the base units meter and
second.
(b) the unit of area is square meter or m2, which is a multiple of the base unit meter.
Example
Derive the units for the following physical quantities.
(a) Velocity
(b) Acceleration
(c) Density
Solution
Unit [Displacement]
(a) Unit [Velocity] =
Unit [Time]
m
=
s
= m s-1 (derived unit of velocity)
72km
4. 72 km h-1 =
1h
72x10 3 m
=
1x60x60s
= 20 ms-1
5. Complete the table below with standard form and convert the unit
Standard form
Quantity Convert to unit
Scientific notation
1) 0.000 000 18 Ts
(µs)
2) 0.2341 mg
(Mg)
3) 3 854 000 Gm
(km)
4) 7 530 nA (mA)
5) 5 K (pK)
Measurement of length
Metre rule
1. To measure length from a few cm up to 1 m.
2. Precautions to be taken when using a ruler:
(a) ensure that the object is in contact with the ruler to avoid inaccurate readings.
(b) avoid parallax errors
(c) avoid zero error and end error.
3. For example: A ruler is to determine the diameter of the wire.
Solution
Vernier Calipers
1. A vernier caliper is used to measure an object with dimensions up to 120 mm/12 cm.
2. Vernier calipers can be used to measure thickness, diameter of a wire and depth of
o a liquid.
3. Figure 1.1 shows the vernier calipers
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1
8. How to read the vernier calipers.
(a) to measure with a vernier caliper, slide the vernier scale along the main scale until the object is
held firmly between the jaws of the caliper.
Figure 1.2
(b) read the main scale before ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale.
(c) take the vernier scale reading that lines up with any main scale reading.
(d) figure 1.2 shows,
The main scale reading = 34.0 mm
The vernier scale reading = 0.6 mm
Therefore the reading is = 34.0 mm + 0.6 mm
= 34.6 mm.
(a)
(b)
(c)
10. Before we used the vernier calipers, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain accurate
readings.
11. When the jaws are closed and the ‘0’ mark on the main scale is exactly in line with the ‘0’ mark
on the vernier scale there is no zero error as shown in figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3
12. Positive zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the right of the ‘0’ mark on the
main scale as shown in figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4
The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.4 is +0.4 mm/ +0.04 cm.
To eliminate the zero error;
Correct reading = (Caliper reading) – (+zero error)
The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting +0.04 cm to the reading.
Correct reading = 34.6 mm – (+0.4 mm)
= 34.2 mm
13. Negative zero error occurs if the ‘0’ mark on the vernier scale is to the left of the ‘0’ mark on the
main scale as shown in figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5
The negative zero error as shown in figure 1.5 is – 0.2 mm/ - 0.02 cm.
To eliminate the negative zero error;
Physics Department SSIJB 13
PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO PHYS
PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
(b) Read the main scale marking just before the thimble.
(c) Find the vernier scale marking where the horizontal reference line of the main scale is in
line with the graduation mark on the thimble scale.
(d) Figure 1.2 shows,
The main scale reading = 7.5 mm
The vernier scale reading = 0.38 mm
Therefore the reading is = 7.5 mm + 0.38 mm
= 7.88 mm
Figure 1.3
7.5 mm + 0.22 = 7.72 mm
(b)
Figure 1.4
3.5 mm + 0.46 mm = 3.96 mm/0.396 cm
(c)
Figure 1.5
5.5 mm + 0.30 mm = 5.80 mm
7. Before we used the micrometer screw gauge, we need to check for zero error in order to obtain
accurate readings.
8. When the jaws are fully closed and the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale is exactly in line with the
horizontal reference line there is no zero error.
Figure 1.6
9. Positif zero error occurs (figure 1.6), when the horizontal reference line is in the positive side of
the ‘0’ mark on the thimble scale.
The positive zero error as shown in figure 1.6 is + 0.04 mm.
To eliminate the positive zero error;
Correct reading = (Micrometer reading) – (+zero error)
The reading in figure 1.2 above must be corrected by subtracting +0.04 cm to the reading.
Figure 1.7
10. Negative zero error occurs if the horizontal reference line on the main scale is below the ‘0’ mark
of the thimble scale.
Figure 1.7
(a) (b)
Figure 1.11
4. The drawings in figure 1.11, which show the distribution of gunshots fired at a target board.
5. The shots in figure 1.11
1 (a) are clustered together and hence the distribution of the shots is
consistent.
6. The consistency of a measuring instrument is its
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
7. The shot in figure 1.11 (b) is the most accurate
accurate shot. The bulls eye in the centre of the target
represent the actual value.
8. Accuracy of a measurement is
___________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ _____________________
_____________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________ _________________
9. An accurate instrumentt is able to give readings ______
_____________
___ to or ______________ to the actual
value of a quantity.
PHYSICS FORM 4 [INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS-CHAPTER 1]
Sensitivity
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Errors in Measurements
1. An error is a __________________ between the __________________ of a quantity and the
__________________ in measurement.
2. In scientific research, a measurement which is 100% accurate is impossible. All measurements are
value of approximation only. In other words, it is a matter of how close the measurement is to
actual value. This is because errors exist in all measurements.
3. There are two main type of error in measurements;
(i) ___________________
(ii) ___________________
4. Systematic errors may be due to;
(a) _____________________ of instrument which makes the instrument defective.
(b) _________________ of the instrument, which means the pointer of the instrument does not
return to zero when not in use.
(c) A problem which persists throughout the experiment such as repeated error in reaction time
and wrong assumption.
(d) Systematic errors will lead to decrease in accuracy
5. Random errors occur due to;
(a) _______________________ of the observer when making a measurement
(b) _______________________ when reading a scale
(c) _______________________ such as the temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, refraction,
magnetic field or gravity.
(d) __________________ ( instrument does not respond / indicate insignificant or small
change )
(e) __________________ ( applying excessive pressure when turning a micrometer screw
gauge )
6. Figure 1.14 shows the observer’s eye at three different positions. Parallax errors will be giving
inaccurate readings.
Figure 1.14
(f) Apparatus / Materials needed to be listed according its specification example measuring
instrument to ensure the success the experiment.
(g) Procedure is the sequence of action or operation in order to carry out the experiment
according to the instructions given.
(h) Observation is the listing and tabulation of all data obtained in the experiment.
(i) Analysing of data can be carried out by plotting the graph, followed by the interpretation of
graph or calculation to obtain the required value.
(j) Discussion needs to be stated to find out whether the result obtained support the stated
hypothesis. Precautions of the experiment can be suggested to overcome the weakness, to
reduce the experimental error or to improve the result of the experiment.
(k) A conclusion is stated concerning the result of the experiment (is written in accordance with
the aim of the experiment and based on graph). By comparing with the aim stated, this will
determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.
thread
Retort
stand
bob
(g) Procedure :
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure above.// A small brass or bob was attached to
the thread. The thread was held by a clamp of a the retort stand.
(ii) The length of the thread , l was measured by a metre rule, starting with 90.0 cm. The
bob of the pendulum was displaced and released.
(iii) The time for 20 complete oscillations, t was taken using the stop watch. Calculate the
t
period of oscillation by using, T = .
20
(iv) The experiment was repeated using different lengths such as 80.0 cm, 70.0 cm, 60.0
cm, 50.0 cm and 40.0 cm.
Notes :
- Symbols and their respective units should be written in the table
- A readings of length of string should be written in one decimal place. This is because the
metre rule used to measure the length of string can measure accuracy to 0.1 cm
- All sets of readings recorded must be consistent. For example, all reading
time taken, t are recorded in one decimal place.
Average values for t are taken to minimize errors
• If the time taken for 20 oscillations is 38.1 s,
t 38.1
• Then the period of oscillation, T = = = 1.91 s
20 20
T2 = (1.91)2 = 3.65 s2
T2
T2 (s2) against l (cm)
(s2 )
x
x
x
x
x
l (cm)
Notes :
(i) Plotting the graph - The graph should be labeled by a heading.
(ii) All axes should be labeled with quantities and their respective units.
(iii) The manipulated variable (l) should be plotted on the x-axis while the responding
variable (T2 ) should be plotted on the y-axis
(iv) Odd scales such as 1:3, 1:7 , 1:9 0r 1 :11should avoided in plotting graph.
(v) Make sure that the transference of data from the table to the graph is accurate.
(vi) Draw the best straight line - the line that passes through most of the points plotted
such that is balanced by the number of points above and below the straight line.
(vii) make sure that the size of the graph is large enough, which is, not less than half the
size of the graph paper or (> 8 cm x 10 cm).
(viii) The triangle drawn to calculate the gradient of the graph should not be less than half
size of the graph drawn or ( .> 6 cm x 8 cm )
(ix) Calculate the gradient using the formula
(x) Put the unit
(k) Conclusion
The length of simple pendulum is directly proportional to the
square of the period of oscillation // T2 is directly proportional to l (the straight line graph
passing through the origin)
Prepared by:
En Adnan Shamsudin
Dip Sc (UiTM), BSc (UTM), Dip Edu (UTM)