Office Building Issuu PDF

FALL 2008
OFFICE BUILDING
Northeastern University School of Architecture
ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio
FALL 2008
OFFICE BUILDING
ARCH G691 Graduate Degree Project Studio
BRENDAN CROSBY STEVEN ORLANDO

BRIAN ELY JASON NEVES
JASON HICKEY JAMES SAUNDERS
LISA HOANG SALVATORE VALENTE
MATTHEW JOHNSTON EDGAR VELIZ
Published by
360 Huntington Ave
Boston, Massachusetts 02115
Copyright © 2008 by Northeastern University School of Architecture

All rights reserved
First printing November 2008
Studio Research Team

Brendan Crosby - Mechanical Systems
Brian Ely - Vertical Circulation
Jason Hickey - Office Layout
Lisa Hoang - Exterior Wall Systems
Matthew Johnston - Common Programing, Back of House
Steven Orlando - Lighting and Book Design No part of this publication may be used, reproduced,
Jason Neves - Introduction and Graphic Standards stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
James Saunders - Common Programming, Lobbies form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
Salvatore Valente - Structural Systems photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as
Edgar Veliz - Office Sociology permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976
United States Copyright Act, without the prior
Studio Lead written permission from the authors.
John Backman
Unless specifically stated otherwise all content is

Special thanks to property of the authors. Every reasonable attempt
Yanni Tsipis of Colliers Meredith & Grew real Estate Consultants has been made to identify owners of copyright,
photographs, diagrams and images. Errors or
omissions will be corrected in subsequent editions.
This publication has been prepared as part of a five
week graduate thesis studio assignment in the
Northeastern University School of Architecture for
the Fall 2008 Architecture G691 course. Other
publications in this series include urban retail, hotel,
and parking garage typologies, all produced by
graduate students in the Northeastern University
architecture program.
0. Introduction 6
1. Structure 22
2. Vertical Circulation 34
3. Mechanical Systems 46
4. Common Programming 56
5. Exterior Wall Systems 76
6. Lighting 96
7. Floorplan Configuration 114
8. Sociology 134
0. Introduction
Overview Chapter Contents
Office buildings host many intricate systems and design strategies that become staggering 0.1 Office Types
Type Definitions
when trying to incorporate them all at the same time in the design process. This book breaks Floor Plans
down the components of the office building and presents them in a comprehensive manner in 0.2 Definitions
Typical Plan Components
order to give the young professional a foothold in the understanding of such a complex build- Area Calculations
ing. In order to expedite the learning process of office buildings, this book uses generic office 0.3 Site Considerations
Suburban
floorplates and layouts to straightforwardly give the fundamental knowledge that can inform Urban
any office building design.

10 0.1 Office Types
0.1 Office Types 50+
Office buildings can be categorized by the

following types: low rise, mid rise, and high
rise. This page outlines the typical dimensional
characteristics and configurations of each,
providing a basis for preliminary planning 9-14’
decisions.
13
12
4
3
1
200’ 200’ 150’
45’ 40’ 30’ 40’ 45’ 60’ 60’

120’ 30’ 120’ 45’
60’ 150’
45’
Fig. 1
Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise

Gross Floor Area: 21,600sf Gross Floor Area: 24,000sf Gross Floor Area: 22,500sf
Net to Gross Ratio: 0.93 Net to Gross Ratio: 0.92 Net to Gross Ratio: 0.84
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 0.1 Office Types 11
Low Rise
Defined as one to three story structures mostly 1
found on large sites in low density suburban
developments. Quite often low-rise offices are
located adjacent to highways as single buildings or
grouped together into office parks or campuses.
Out of the three office types, low-rise are more
often built to suit a single tenant. This leads to
greater variation of size and configuration within Fig. 2
this type. However, a generic floor plan can be
distilled from these variations as shown in the
images to the right. This type allows for the
flexibility necessary for the building to operate as a
1
speculative development; easily adapting to single
or multi-tenant uses as needed. Most low-rise
office buildings are multi-core configurations with
centrally located elevator banks and restrooms.
Because the floorplate can often be quite large,
multiple cores and stairs are needed to meet
2
maximum travel requirements.
See 2.1 for more detail on travel distances Fig. 3
Figures 1 through 4 show single, double and

multiple tenant configurations.
1 2
3 4
Fig. 4
12 0.1 Office Types
Mid Rise
1 Mid rise office buildings are the most prevalent
type, found in suburban settings and also in higher
density urban areas. They are used in build-to-suit
development situations, but are more often built as
speculative developments with the flexibility to
accommodate a wider range of tenant types and
number of tenants. Because of their efficient use
Fig. 5 of area and their flexibility, floorplans do not vary
greatly from the floorplans shown to the left.
Vertical circulation, mechanical systems,
restrooms, and support spaces are centrally
located in a single core.
1

2
Fig. 6
1 2
3 4
Fig. 7
High Rise
Defined as thirteen to fifty or more story buildings 1
located in high density urban locations. Sites are
generally very small with extremely high property
value. The small site leaves little choice for
developers but to build vertically. The height is
also an economic function where developers try to
attain the most amount of rentable area to make a
profit and counter the cost of the property and
construction.
Fig. 8
As height increases there are greater demands put
on the mechanical systems and vertical circulation,
1
thereby increasing the core size. Aside from this,
the floorplan is very similar to that of the mid rise
type and allow the flexibility required in what is
most often speculative development. For
economic reasons and site-specific zoning high
rise office buildings are often mixed-use,
incorporating a hotel into the upper floors, for
instance, or including retail or restaurant amenities
2
in the lower and ground floors.
Fig. 9

1 2
3 4
Fig. 10
14 0.1 Office Types
0.2 Definitions
The following section includes definitions for

important terms used when designing office
buildings. These definitions cover a range
of general office building components as
well as guidelines for calculating the area.
An understanding of these terms and area
calculations, particularly rentable area will aid the
Lateral Bracing
dialogue between the architect and client, and see 1.5
allow the architect to accurately accommodate the
Restrooms see 4.4
clients needs early in the project.
Restroom Exhaust
Elevator Lobby Plumbing Chase
see 2.3 see 4.4
Service Elevator
see 2.2-4
Vertical Risers
Service Corridor
Electrical or A/V
see 2.3
Supply Air
see 3.2-3
Egress Stairs
Mechanical Room
Exhaust Air
see 3.2-3
see 3.2-3
Fig. 12
Core
The core is the heart of the office building,
especially for high and mid-rise offices. All support
systems are compactly situated in this centralized
location. The image above points out the major
components of the core that are discussed in more
Fig. 11 detail later in the book.
Exterior Wall System

Perimeter enclosure of the building. Comprised of
glazing, window apertures, insulation, waterproof-
ing, and other materials and systems.
See chapter 5 and 6 for more detail Fig. 13
Floorplate
Refers to the shape and size of an entire floor,
including vertical penetrations such as the core,
columns, or partition walls.
See chapters 7 and 8 for layout strategies Fig. 14
Lease Span
Generally the distance from the core to the exterior
wall. In cases where the depth is measured from
one exterior wall to another, or to a party wall, the
lease span is half the actual distance. Typical lease Fig. 15
spans in the United States range from 40’ to 45’.
Structural Bay
Distance from one vertical structural member to
the adjacent one. Spans typically range from 30’
to 45’.
See 1.2-4 for more detail Fig. 16
16 0.1 Office Types
Area Calculations: BOMA

Efficient use of area is an important aspect in
the design of office buildings and meeting the
client’s needs. However, there are many different
>50% dominant portion nuanced ways in which area is calculated where
certain parties use one method and others use
a different method. The method used by most
developers and owners is outlined by BOMA
(Building Owners and Managers Association) in
“Standard Method for Measuring Floor Area In
Office Buildings.” These methods are outlined
and clearly diagrammed in the following pages.
>50% However, the most current official BOMA
dominant portion
document should be used to ensure the most
accurate interpretation of their methods.
Dominant Portion
For the use of determining the usable or rentable
space of a single office or floor of an office
building, the dominant portion the exterior wall is
dominant portion the portion of that wall which constitutes more than
half of the vertical floor to ceiling dimension. The
usable area is measured to the interior finished
surface of the dominant portion of the exterior
walls as demonstrated in the diagrams to the right
and above.
dominant portion
Fig. 17
Gross Floor Area

Gross floor area is commonly used to discuss the
size of a project or floorplate but is not used for
renting or leasing purposes. The gross floor area
is the area with the exterior finished surface of the
exterior walls.
Fig. 20
Gross Measured Area

Gross Measured area is the area of a floor within
the interior finished surface of the dominant portion
of the exterior walls.
Fig. 19
18 0.1 Office Types
Usable Area
To interior finish surface of dominant portion of
exterior wall.
To interior finish surface of walls separating office

from common floor area.
To centerline of partition walls.
No deductions made for necessary columns and

projections.
Fig. 21
Floor Usable Area

Floor usable area is equal to the sum of all the us-
able areas of the same floor. It can also be mea-
sured as the gross measured area minus the floor
common area and major vertical penetrations.
Fig. 22
Floor Common Area

Floor common area is the area for use by all the
tenants on that floor. It is the gross measured area
minus the floor usable area and major vertical
penetrations. The floor common area may include
janitor closets, electrical closets, restrooms,
mechanical rooms, public corridors and elevator
lobbies.
Major Vertical Penetrations

Major vertical penetrations are the penetrations
between floors that are for the private use of a
tenant. These may include stairs, elevator shafts,
pipe shafts, mechanical shafts, and ducts and their
enclosing walls.
Fig. 25
Floor Rentable (Leasable) Area

Floor rentable area results from subtracting the
vertical penetrations from the gross measured
area. This area is also equal to the floor usable
area plus the floor common area. This is a very
important calculation as it allow the developer to
make estimates on how much rent he or she will be
receiving from the building.
Basic Rentable Area

Basic rentable area is the area which can be
charged to the rent of a single tenant. This calcu-
lation incorporated a portion of the common area
into the usable area for one tenant. The calcula-
tion has two steps:
1. Floor rentable area / Floor usable area = r/u ratio
2. Usable area x r/u ration = Basic rentable area Fig. 24
20 0.1 Office Types
0.3 Site Considerations Suburban Site

Low rise office buildings are most often the type
seen in suburban sites. These are generally much
larger then their urban counterparts ranging from
80,000 square feet to more than 400,000 square
feet. One of the main determinants of the size of
the site needed is parking requirements.
Parking Rules of Thumb

Although parking requirements vary from place
to place there are general rules of thumb that can
be used at the conceptual planning level. See the
diagrams on the left for these guidelines.
Structured Parking:
Parking Strategies
3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space
The most common strategy for handling parking
350-400sf per car*
Surface Parking: loads on suburban sites is the surface lot. This
3-4 cars per 1000sf of office space takes up an immense amount of space, often more
300sf per car* area then the actual gross office area. Surface
parking tends to take up an average of 75% of the
total site.
Another common strategy is the parking garage.

These are often two to three level structures adja-
cent or attached to the office building.
See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.
*Note that zoning codes typically govern the

minimum parking requirements. Numbers shown
here are based on accomodating average office
building occupant loads.
Fig. 27
Urban Site
Urban sites are generally much smaller than
suburban ones. They range from 20,000 square
feet to 60,000 square feet. Parking loads are
Embedded
also much smaller as site are often close to public
transit. Because urban land values are so high,
parking strategies try to minimize the amount of
site covered solely by parking.
Parking Strategies
Parking requirements in urban areas and cities
vary greatly from city to city, and even from district
to district within the same city. So it is hard to say
Adjacent
here in great detail any rules of thumb or specific
numbers pertaining to parking space require-
ments. However there are several strategies that
are useful to know in the conceptual planning
phases of office design. Three of the most preva-
lent strategies are illustrated on the right. The first
strategy embeds the parking garage in the middle
of a block an below the office tower. It is hidden
from street view and allows more active building
program to line the streets. The second strategy is
a simple attached parking structure adjacent to the
Below-grade
office building. The third and most inconspicuous
strategy for incorporating parking is below grade.
See “Parking: A Pattern Book” for more detail.
Fig. 28
1. Structure
Understanding the structural makeup of an office building is crucial to its efficient design. 1.1 Getting Started
Floor Layouts
While structural strategies have been refined over time to create the most efficient designs, Concrete vs. Steel
Selecting the Structural System
even with a conventional plan there remains a great number of variables that will affect the Tributary Area
Live Loads
cost and aesthetics of the building.
1.2 Steel Two Way Beam
Pros and Cons
Beam Sizing
This chapter intends to give a designer a basic understanding of the structural elements that Column Sizing
compose a typical modern office building. It is meant to be a starting point for selecting a 1.3 Open Web Joist
Pros and Cons
structural system, and obtaining structural member dimensions of that system for schematic or Beam Sizing
Column Sizing
preliminary design.
1.4 Two Way Concrete Flat Plate
Pros and Cons
Beam Sizing
Column Sizing
1.5 Lateral Loads

Types of Lateral Loads
Rigid Perimeter
Rigid Core
24 1.1 Getting Started
1.1 Getting Started Floor Layouts Concrete vs. Steel

When dealing with office buildings, especially Both steel and concrete can be ideal materials for
speculative office buildings, the building is the structure of office buildings. There are several
designed in order to provide tenants with large factors however, which may sway a designer to
portions of column free space. This offers flexibilty choose either material.
for any number of space-planning arraingemnts From an economical standpoint, it is important
& easy desk and cubical placement. With this to look at the specific local market when choos-
in mind, developers and architects have refined ing to build with either concrete or steel. In many
the design of office buildings over time, and have markets, steel can be cost effective because of
developed somewhat of a standard in what is the its easy fabrication and because there are usually
ideal office plan and column layout. numerous different contractors who are familiar
As in all structural configurations, a regularized, and able to provide steel framing services. On the
nearly square structural system is most efficient. other hand, in many markets, concrete costs less
When looking specifically at urban mid rises and than steel and there may be several well quali-
high rises office buildings, most floor plans have fied contractors able to build with concrete. When
columns spaced at 30’ intervals. A typical subur- choosing either, one must look at both the cost of
ban low rise has a 45’-30’-45’ column spacing con- obtaining the material in the area and the cost of
figuration. These column spacings have seemingly labor to actually build the structure using the given
struck a balance between economic structural material.
efficiency and the spatial qualities desired by the Looking at sustainability, each material has
building’s tenants. positives and negatives. Many raw materials
from which steel is manufactured are becoming
depleted. Also, it requires an embodied energy
of about 19,2000 BTU/pound to produce. On the
other hand, about 66 percent of all steel used in
construction is able to be recycled.
Concrete is the largest consumer of raw materials
in the world. It has an embodied energy of 2400
BTU/pound. Concrete however, may also be com-
posed of much recycled material. Buildings made
of concrete can be more energy efficient because
of its ability to serve as a thermal mass, stabilizing
temperature swings.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 1.1 Getting Started 25
Selecting the Structural System Member Dimensions

When selecting the structural system for an office There are several factors that determine the sizes
building, their are a number of things a designer of structural members. While not all of these have
must consider. First of all, the type of system will been considered, this chapter intends to give a
determine the floor assembly thickness. This will designer a good starting point by proving general
effect the floor to ceiling height, and the overall dimensions of structural members. All informa-
height of the building. The floor thickness will be tion in this chapter is roughly based on the criteria
highly visible in the facade (See chapter 5), and described below.
Fig. 1
effect how HVAC equipment will be located in the
building (see chapter 3). Also, certain systems al- Tributary Area
low for cantilevering while other systems are better The tributary area of a column is the floor area that
suited for very tall structures. Based on structural a column supports. Total tributary area is this num-
and economic efficiency, this chapter describes ber multiplied by the number of floors a column
three common structural systems including the supports including the roof. In a 30’x30’ grid, as
two way steel beam system, the open web steel in a typical office floor plan, a typical column will
joist system, and the two way concrete flat plate have a single floor tributary area of 900 sf The total
system. This chapter also describes lateral load tributary area is 900 sf multiplied by the number of
resistance techniques. building stories. Perimeter columns have a smaller
tributary area but generally receive greater loads
because of lateral loads
See Fig.1.
Live Loads
Live loads include all loads imposed after con-
struction including people and furniture. Office
buildings are considered to receive light to medium
loading at 30-100 psf. All of the information in this
chapter will be based on these loading conditions.
26 1.2 Steel Two Way Beam System
1.2 Steel Two Way Beam System Two Way Steel Beam System
The two way steel beam system is the most com-
monly used steel system for office buildings. It
provides cost efficiency and can be fabricated
column quickly. The two way steel beam system easily
spans required distances for office buildings and
beam
can achieve greater heights than any other system.
girder
Pros Cons
very long spans considerable structural

possible floor depth required
very strong for its fireproofing required

weight
easliy fabricated and inefficient for

assembled cantilevering
better suited to tall

structures
steel angle
steel decking
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 1.2 Steel Two Way Beam System 27
column
concrete slab
steel angle
steel decking
Building Stories
beam
Fig.2 Fig.3 girder
Fig.4
Column Sizing Span Beam Depth Girder Depth Decking Depth Total Slab Depth
Fig. 2 is for wide flange steel columns. Columns
10’ 6” 8” 3” 8”
are listed with their nominal dimensions. Many
sizes are available with the same nominal dimen- 15’ 8” 10” n/a 8”
sion. The taller the building is , the larger the 30’ 16” 20” n/a 8”
column dimensions will be.
45’ 27” 30” n/a 8”
Beam and Girder Sizing

Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most economical.
Fig. 4 lists dimensions for wide flange steel beams
Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .
and girders. The spans listed are the most com-
mon ones found in a typical office building.
28 1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System
Steel Open Web Joist System

1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System Using steel open web joists and joist girders is an
economical alternative to traditional steel fram-
ing. Its members are lighter in weight and produce
equivalent spans. Another notable benefit is the
ability to run HVAC equipment and ducts through
the joists.
Pros Cons
HVAC equipment can members are deeper
pass through than traditional steel
joists framing
costs less than tra- inefficient for short

ditional steel framing spans
light weight fireproofing required

and is more costly
than on conventional
wide flange beams
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 1.3 Steel Open Web Joist System 29
concrete slab
steel decking
Building Stories
open web joist
Fig.5 joist girder
Fig.6 tubular column

Column Sizing
Fig 5. Is for tubular steel columns. It should be
noted that most office buildings will use conven- Fig.7
tional wide flange columns and girders to sup- Joist Girder Decking Total Slab
Span Joist Depth
port the open web joists. This is because while Depth Depth Depth
tubular columns are much lighter than wide flange 10’ n/a n/a 3” 8”
columns, they are very limited in allowable height. 15’ n/a n/a n/a 8”
Tubular columns are better suited for low rise of-
30’ 20” 28” n/a 8”
fice buildings when cost and weight is a priority.
45’ 24” 42” n/a 8”
Joist and Girder Sizing Corrugated cellular steel decking sheets with spans up to 10’ are most
Open joist can rest on either Joist girders, a economical. Decking with a greater gauge may span up to 25’ .
heavier version of the joist, as shown, or conven-
tional wide flange girders.
30 1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System
1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System Flat Plate Concrete System

Concrete is unique because it can take the
shape of its form and all structural members
become a unified system. Though there are
many structural approaches using concrete, the
two-way flat plate system is ideal for office build-
ings. It provides the needed spans and allows for
a thin, attractive floor slab and minimal floor to
floor heights. This structural system is also very
easy to cantilever.
Pros Cons
attractive monolithic Costly post tensioning

appearance required for longer spans
large column sizes

thin structural slabs required for very tall
structures
easily allows for
cantilevers and ir-
regular floor plans
no fire proofing
required
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System 31
Building Stories
concrete slab
Fig.8
concrete column
Fig.10
Column Sizing
Fig. 8 shows square concrete column sizes at a
strength of 4000 psi for typical office building load-
ing. For round columns add 1/3 of the dimension
shown to the diameter. Rectangular column have
the same area as square columns and can have Fig.9
no dimension less than 10”. Significantly greater
Span Conventional Post-tensioned
heights (up to 100+ stories) may be achieved using Slab Depth Slab Depth
a higher strength of concrete. For a strength of
15’ 5.5” 5”
6000 psi, multiply the dimension by .8, for 8000psi
x .7, for 12000psi x .60 . 30’ 12” 8.5”
45’ n/a 12.5”
Slab Depth
Fig.9 provides general numbers for concrete slab
thickness. For longer spans, concrete can be post
tensioned, which will however add cost.
32 1.5 Lateral Loads
1.5 Lateral Loads Lateral Loads

The previous sections discussed systems for
resisting gravity loads. Unlike gravity loads, lateral
loads are forces that act upon a building horizon-
tally. These forces include wind and earthquake
loads. A tall building must have structural elements
that counter these forces.
Rigid Perimeter
One way of providing lateral resistance in tall
structures is by stiffening the perimeter of the
building. This can be done by using either diagonal
bracing as shown in Fig. 11, moment connections
or shear panels. While diagonal bracing and shear
panels will cause design limitations on the build-
ings facade, using moment connections on steel
members will add cost and time to the framing
process.
Rigid core
Typically, the core of an office building contains
the stairs, elevators and mechanical shafts and is
located in the center of the building. Because of
its centralized location, the core provides an ideal
location for resistance against lateral forces. The
Fig.11 Fig.12 core can also be stiffened with either shear panels,
Rigid perimeter Rigid core cross bracing or moment connections. In this con-
dition, the core must remain consistent throughout
the entire height of the building. Considerable de-
sign freedom with the building’s facade is allowed
using this technique of lateral resistance.
See Fig. 12.
2. Vertical Circulation
Vertical circulation is one of the first elements that is initially designed in high rise buildings. 2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines
Deciding number of elevators
The number of elevators needed is something that needs to be decided early on, as it’s very Code requirements for elevators and stairs
hard to change later. 2.2 Stairs

Critical Dimensions
Pressurization
Standpipe
This chapter takes a look into the elevator and all of the design strategies that go into selecting
2.3 Elevator Types
the right elevator configuration. It will also take a quick look at stair towers and all of the criti-
2.4 Elevator Layout
cal dimensions that go into designing stairs. Sectional overview
Elevator lobbies
2.5 Latest in Elevator Technology

Elevator Call Touch Pad
36 2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines
2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines Guidelines for Elevators

The first thing that should be done when design-
21 ing any building that will incorporate elevators is
20
19 to higher an elevator consultant. The systems
18
18 are so complex that it takes someone full time to
17
understand all the intricacies of elevators. With
16
Number of Elevators Needed
15 this said these next few sections will try to help

14 you understand enough about elevators to be able
13
to make educated choices on designing elevators
12
11 within your office building.
10
9
8 When determining the number of elevators for
7 your office building, the general rule of thumb is
6
6 that you need 1 elevator per 35,000 square feet
5
4
4 of office space that the elevator serves. Also
3 1 service elevator per 265,000 square feet is a
2
2 good starting point. The chart on the left is a
1
0 quick guide to the number of elevators in blue, and
105,000
35,000
175,000
245,000
315,000
385,000
455,000
525,000
595,000
665,000
1E+05
1E+05
2E+05
2E+05
2E+05
3E+05
3E+05
4E+05
4E+05
4E+05
5E+05
5E+05
5E+05
6E+05
6E+05
6E+05
7E+05
7E+05
35000
70000
service elevators in orange that are needed for any

given usable area. This rule of thumb falls apart
in the taller of the mid rise buildings and most
Area Above the First Floor That Elevators are Servicing
Elevators assuredly in high rise buildings. Otherwise your
Service Elevators Fig. 1 entire floorplate would quickly become covered in
elevators. Other systems come in to play to reduce
the overall number of elevators needed in these
instances. Express elevators and local elevators
is the most basic concept that is widely used in
order to increase the efficiency out of the number
of elevators used. Also two elevators sharing the
same shaft is common to reduce the number of
hoist ways needed while still having a high level of
service.
See 2.4 for more detail on elevator layouts
and 2.3 for more detail on types of elevators
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines 37
Code for Elevators and Stairs

The amount of code that governs elevators and
stairs is too much to get into for this book. Entire
books are devoted to the subject. We’ll take a look
at the general layout of elevators and stairs in lay-
300’ max
ing them out within an office space.
For elevators the general guideline for max travel

distance is 150 feet. However this isn’t a code
rule, it’s only a rule of thumb for designing an office
space that doesn’t create a condition that is un-
comfortable for the users. Also one elevator cab,
51 inches by 80 inches with a 42 inch clear open-
ing to accommodate a stretcher must be provided 150’ max
and identified.
See 2.3 for more on laying out elevators
Stairs are more stringently confined by code. 2007

IBC stipulates that the max travel distance from the Fig. 2
1/3 total diagonal dimension of floorplate
most remote location in the office floorplate to the
stair is 300 feet. Additionally a user can only travel
a max of 75 feet before they are given 2 choices
for exiting. Also stair doors can’t be closer than
1/3rd the overall diagonal dimension of the floor
plate. This is to ensure that if a fire is blocking one
stairway, it won’t be blocking both stairways at the
same time. There is also discussion right now that
a third stair be mandatory for high rise buildings,
this would be incorporated into IBC 2009.
See 2.2 for more detail on stair design
Fig. 3
38 2.2 Stairs
2.2 Stairs
Standpipe 2 Hour Rating
12”
Same width
Stair Pressur- Pressurized Stair
as stair
ization Shaft Vestibule
25% of stair
width
Tread
44” min*
Width + 12”
1 1/2”
Fig. 4
Stair Dimensions solute minimum width of any stair is 44 inches, so stair in plan are the handrails. In office buildings
The total width of all stairs is based of the oc- therefore in our example both stairs need to be a the handrails need to extend 12 inches beyond
cupancy of the largest floor of the building. Once minimum of 44 inches. The stair landing needs to the top tread and on the bottom tread they need
this occupancy number is figured out, a factor of .3 have the same clear width as the stairs themselves to slope for an extra tread width and then an ad-
inches per occupant is used to determine the total and any doors opening onto the landing can only ditional 12 inches horizontally.
minimum clear width of all stairs. For example if interfere with the clear width by 25%. So in our ex-
the largest floor in an office building is calculated ample of the stairs needing to be 44 inches clear, In high rise buildings there is also the need for
to have 200 max occupants, then the total width of then the door swing can overlap the clear path on stairs to be pressurized in order to keep the stairs
all stairs is 60 inches. In a typical 2 stair building, the landing by 11 inches. smoke free in case of fire. There is a dedicated
the width of each stair would be a minimum of 30 shaft connected to the stair for this purpose.
inches based on this calculation, however the ab- The other critical dimensions when laying out a
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 2.2 Stairs 39
Head Height
Standpipe
2 Hour Rating
80” min
Continuous
11” min
Handrail
12’ Max
4-7”
Spaced to 42” 34-38”
not allow a 4”
sphere to pass
through
Stair Dimensions in Section to be continuous and also in-between 34 and marshal on wether they prefer the access to the
Code limits the height and width of each individual 38 inches. There needs to be a guardrail on the Fig.
standpipe to be on the 5
intermediate landings or on
tread on a stair. The tread can only be 4-7 inches interior portion of the stair that is 42 inches high the floor levels instead.
in height and a minimum of 11 inches in depth. and also with intermediate bars so that a sphere of
Also the treads need to be of uniform dimension 4 inches can not pass through. Other requirements for stairways in high rise build-
throughout a flight of stairs. Also a single run can’t ings are: telephones or other two-way communica-
go higher than 12 feet total before a landing is Another requirement in high rise buildings is a tion systems must be provided at every fifth floor
needed. Throughout the design of stairs it’s also standpipe that is located either in the stairway or inside the stairwell, and one stair must continue to
necessary to keep in mind that a minimum head in a shaft next to the stairway with horizontal pipes the roof and must be marked.
height of 80 inches is mandatory. penetrating into the stairway itself. Discussions
The inner handrail of a typical stair tower needs should happen between the architect with the fire
40 2.3 Elevator Types
2.3 Elevator Types
Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8
Traction Machine-Roomless Roped Hydraulic

The standard in high rise elevators. Operates at The Machine for the elevator actually fits inside No need for a well and can reach 60’.
speeds over 500 feet per minute. the hoist way itself, eliminating the need for a large
room on the roof.
Holed Hydraulic Telescoping Holeless Hydraulic Holeless Hydraulic

Need for a well but allows a vertical height of 60’. Same benefits of the holeless hydraulic with the Hydraulic elevator without the need for a well or
added benefit of being able to reach 44’-1” buried piping. Max height: 14’.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 2.3 Elevator Types 41
450 1400
400’+ 1200
400
400 1200
1200
350
350
1000
1000
Max Speed in Feet Per Minute

300’
300
300
Max Height in Feet
800
800
250
250
200
200 600
600
150
150
400
400 350
100
100
60’ 60’ 200 150 150
44’-1” 200 125 125
50
50
14’
00 00
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Holeless
Holeless
Hydraulic
Telescoping
Holeless
Hydraulic
Holed
Hydraulic
Roped
Hydraulic
Machine
Roomless
Traction
Hydraulic
Telescoping
Holeless
Hydraulic
Holed
Hydraulic
Roped
Hydraulic
Machine
Roomless
Traction
Fig. 12 Fig. 13
Deciding Which Elevator to Use Your elevator consultant can also help with com-
When trying to decide which type of elevator to plex elevator systems that are used in high rise
use, there’s a lot of factors that go into the deci- buildings such as stacked cabs, where to elevator
sion. How high the elevator needs to reach is cabs are physically attached and serve 2 floors
usually the first factor that goes into deciding what at a time, or elevator systems where 2 elevators
type of elevator and it’s the easiest way to elimi- share the same shaft with the gears of the lower
nate many of the options. Other things to consider elevator mounted to the underside of the upper
are the environmental impacts of certain elevators cab.
(mainly for low and mid rise hydraulic applications)
the speed of the elevator, and of course, the cost.
Ultimately you should consult an elevator consul-
tant when deciding what elevator to go with, but
these quick descriptions on the left and the chart
on your right should help you get on your way.
42 2.4 Elevator Layout
2.4 Elevator Layout
Diagramming Elevators in Section

The diagram on the right is one of the first dia-
grams that should be drawn up when designing the
vertical circulation of any high rise office building.
Figuring out how to get the right amount of service
to every floor is a hard task and looking at that in
section is the best way to understand it. The blue
areas indicate the levels that the elevators stop at
whereas the dotted gray lines are the levels that
aren’t served by that elevator, the solid gray boxes
represent the elevator overrides and pits. This
diagram will become very useful when convers-
ing with your elevator consultant and figuring out
the best ways to design your vertical circulation
system as efficient as possible.
Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise
The elevators are grouped in the center of the A large central elevator lobby is the most typical Elevators are staggered vertically with intermedi-
building in the main lobby area. and efficient layout. In the larger of the mid rises, ate transition floor or ‘sky lobbies’ denoted with the
elevators that are just used for freight become dashed red line. There are several different strate-
common. gies for the type of elevators used, from stacked
elevators, to two elevators sharing the same shaft.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 2.4 Elevator Layout 43
Elevator Lobbies
When laying out your elevators you want to group
them together so they can share the same shaft.
For the user, having all of the elevators in a row is
the easiest for them to be able to see all of them 8’ min Bank of 4 elevators
at the same time when waiting for an elevator. 4 in a single line.
elevators is considered the largest amount that you

want to have in a line with 3 being the optimum.
When designing the elevator lobby, keep in mind
that if you have all of your elevators in a single line,
then your minimum lobby width is 8 feet, however
if the elevators are opposite of each other across Fig. 19
the lobby, then the minimum width becomes 10

feet instead.
Fig. 17
10’ min Bank of 4 elevators
High Rise Upper Level Lobbies with 2 facing each
The top middle image is an elevator lobby at a
other.
typical upper level lobby and the bottom image is
a typical ground floor lobby. In addition to elevator
shafts needing to be 2 hour rated, elevator lobbies Fig. 20
above the first floor need to be 1-hour rated. Also
doors into these lobbies need to be 20 minute
rated.
8’ min Bank of 2 elevators
in a single line.
Fig. 21
10’ min
Fig. 18 Bank of 2 elevators
with 1 facing each
other.
Fig. 22
44 2.5 Latest Technology
2.5 Latest Technology
Fig. 24
Latest in Elevator Technology
Having an elevator call touch pad instead of an
1 2 3
elevator button allows a computer system to de-
4 5 6
cide the most efficient elevator that the passenger
7 8 9
should use. It groups passengers that are going
- 0
to floors located near each other to provide a trip
Fig. 25 with the fewest stops. The diagram above shows
people upon entering the lobby and proceeding to
the call touch pad to enter in what floor they are
going to. The computer system determines the
most efficient elevator to get you there and a letter
that is associated to an elevator is displayed on the
screen. The diagram to the left shows the way that
the system tries to group people going to similar
floors to reduce the number of stops each elevator
is making. They also try to reduce elevator over-
crowding by trying to limit the number of passen-
gers to 5. After 5 people have been assigned to an
elevator, anymore passengers going to the same
floor are assigned the next most efficient eleva-
tor. They also have a system that integrates the
call touch pad with the security gate, so when you
slide your security card through it knows what floor
Fig. 23
you’re going to and assigns you to an elevator.
3. Mechanical Systems
The functions of mechanical systems serve to create an indoor air environment free of pol- 3.1 General Design Info
Design Objectives
lutants and to provide its occupants with a thermal comfort level suitable for each to work in. Ventilation Requirements
System Components & Functions
In office buildings where the life of the structure typically outlives the lease life of the tenants
3.2 Mechanical Circulation
which occupy them, flexibility in design and approach to mechanical systems is important to Load Distributions
System Relationships
allow the building to adapt to changing technology and varied usability. Spacial Requirements
3.3 Localized Air Distribution

Variable Air Volume Systems
This chapter discusses general design criteria for low, mid and high rise office building ty- Raised Floor Systems
pologies in relation to flexibility, occupant comfort, and spatial requirements. It discusses its 3.4 Heat Gain / Loss
Building Envelope Overview
relevance to heat gain and loss, breaks down system components, their connections, and their
3.5 System Sustainability
individual functions to the system as a whole. The overall flexibility of a building relies largely Methods, Ideas, and Tips
on the application of air distribution. This chapter will break down the advantages and disad-
vantages of two typical air distribution systems: variable air volume distribution and raised
floor systems.
In today’s world design and building professionals are responsible for thinking more environ-
mentally aware, to build more sustainable, and to design “greener” systems. Lastly, this chap-
ter will offer methods, tips and general insight to improving the efficiency and sustainability of
office building mechanical systems.

48 3.1 General Design Information
3.1 General Design Information Design Objectives

The success of a mechanical system in an office building is directly related to its ability to meet certain
design objectives.
Maximization of Usable Space:

Mechanical systems require a certain amount of space in a building, strategically placed and require a
great deal of thought and communication between design teams especially early on in the design phases.
Typically the sizes of the mechanical spaces required are directly related to the sizes and space require-
ments of the components of the systems which are decided by the square footage and load requirements
individual for each project. See Section 3.2: Mechanical Service for typical space requirements for
system components and spaces.
Flexibility:
There must be the ability to accommodate the needs of a variety of tenants and occupants and their
changes in needs over the life of the building therefore it is strategically important to design mechanical
systems/spaces accordingly. A well designed office will provide excess space for future tenant build out
including extra mechanical room and shaft space.
Occupant Comfort:
The environment produced and regulated by your mechanical system must provide a very specific com-
Fig. 1
Temperature & Humidity Chart - The highlighted blue area’s repre- fort zone in relation to temperature and humidity needed for a building to be inhabited and to provide a
sent optimal operating temp.’s and humidity for winter and summer
months when mechanical systems are running most. gradient of change to suit individual preferences. In general a Class A office building should operate at 75
degrees DB and 50 percent RH in summer months and 72 degrees DB/25 percent RH in winter (Figure
Ventilation Rates for Office Buildings 3.1.1). Individual occupant comfort can be more efficiently achieved through the choice of your distribu-
Office areas/Public space 20cu ft/min per person tion systems See section 3.4.
Toilet areas 15 air changes/hour
Life saftey smoke exhaust 8 air changes/hr/floor Other Design Criteria to be considered:
Smoking room exhaust 20 air changes/hr
-Provide office lobbies with separate VAV AHU
Nightime purges 0.5 air changes/hr/flr
Enclosed parking 6 air changes/hour -Empty Shaft Space should be provided for future tenant exhaust requirements.
-Provide stair and elevator shafts with pressurization systems w/supply air fans located at penthouse
mechanical rooms.
-Parking structures to be naturally ventilated.
Fig. 2
-Ventilation Rates
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 3.1 General Design Information 49
Mechanical System Components

This section serves as a brief breakdown of Standby Generators: provide alternate power
system components and descriptions of their func- source that runs off fuel to power mechanical
tions. system components in the case of electrical power
outage
Chiller Plant: Produces chilled water as a cooling 30’ Fig. 3
medium, circulated by pumps throughout the build- Boilers: Heat domestic hot water through electri- 8’
ing. The water is used in various AHU systems cal coil system and pump to domestic water tanks
throughout the building to cool air. Water is re- for storage, as well as to AHU and fan coils.
turned at a warmer temperature to be cooled again
and recirculated. Typically housed in mechani- Fan Coil Units (FCU): provides localized, non
cal levels or basement levels as this component ducted heating and cooling.
requires spaces with head rooms of 16+ clear ft.
Cooling Towers: Heat generated by chillers is Fuel Storage Tanks: provide storage and supply
rejected to condenser water circuits and pumped of fuel oils needed for system components such as 38’
Fig. 4
to cooling towers where outdoor air enters the sys- generators, fans and air handling units to run.
tem, evaporates the water and carries it away from 15’
he building in an air stream via fans. Typically Fig. 3

located on all size office building at roof top levels Typical air handling unit (AHU) sized for mid to
or high-level setbacks. high rise office building.
See Section 3.2 for spacial req.’s
Air Handling Units (AHU): Centralized unit consist-
ing of a blower, heating and cooling elements, and Fig. 4
a humidifier. Receives cooled water from main Typical air cooled chiller assembly sized for mid to
chillers or hot water from boilers and cools/heats high rise office buildings
air and distributes it to different zones within the See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.
building.
Fig. 5
Stair Pressurization Fans: provide constant flow of Roof-top cooling tower unit for high rise office
air to egress stairwells to ensure, in the case of a buildings
25’ 40’ Fig. 5
fire, relatively smoke-free egress areas. See section 3.2 for spacial req’s.
50 3.2 Mechanical Circulation
3.2 Mechanical Circulation
Load Distribution
Mechanical equipment have stringent require- the vertical and horizontal trade-offs have greater
M48-49
ments for space which are critical to the efficiency consequences. Tall buildings exert large hydrostat-
of space utilization and system performance, ic pressures on water systems and must be broken
equal to the importance of programmatic require- down and organized into pressure zones so that
ments. Typically in office buildings, mechanical there is a pressure break in the circuit. This break
spaces and components are housed in mid-level requires mechanical space with-in the tower. Typi-
or penthouse level spaces, designated strictly for cally in high rise structures, mechanical levels can
mechanical use. For tall buildings there is more be found to serve 10-15 levels in each direction M34-35
intense competition for space at the base of the individually and require large clear heights, usually
structure because of demands of parking, lobbies, 16 + feet; therefore most mechanical levels will
loading docks and retail that is typically associ- encompass two full floor levels.
ated with an office project. In very tall buildings
space utilization becomes even more critical, as
M11-12
M10-11
L1-3
B1 L01 L01-02
B01-02
P01-03
In typical Low Rise office buildings one small roof-top Air Handling In a Mid Rise office building, depending on design preferences, In High Rise offices, mechanical loads are broken down into zones
Unit (AHU) is sufficient to supply the entire building space with either all mechanical components can be placed on the roof-top with intermediate mechanical spaces throughout the building. As
conditioned air. or a single penthouse level will be designated to house all system a rule of thumb, each mechanical level typically serves from 10-12
components serving the entire building. floors in each direction.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 3.2 Mechanical Circulation 51
Typical Mech. Space Req. for High Rise Office Typical Mech. Space Req. for Mid Rise Office
Penthouse Levels Penthouse Levels

Air-cooled chillers 3,200 Sq. Ft. Air-cooled chillers 2,500 Sq. Ft.
Air Handlers
Cooling towers 7,000 Sq. Ft. Cooling towers 3,000 Sq. Ft.
Back-up Generator
Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft. Tenant standby generators 1,000 Sq. Ft.
House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft. House domestic water tanks 600 Sq. Ft. Fuel oil piping
Stair Pressurization Fans 800 Sq. Ft. Stair Pressurization Fans 400 Sq. Ft. Supply Ducts
Typical Floor Levels Typical Floor Levels

Return Ducts
Mechanical fan room 500 Sq. Ft. Mechanical fan room 400 Sq. Ft.
Basement Levels Basement Levels
Life saftey & tenant generators 800 Sq. Ft. Life saftey & tenant generators 500 Sq. Ft. Chiller
Stair Pres. Fans
Fuel oil storage 1,000 Sq. Ft. Fuel oil storage 300 Sq. Ft. Exhaust Chases
Boiler & chiller plant 15,000 Sq. Ft. Boiler Room 1,500 Sq. Ft.
Fuel Oil Piping

System Components
Return Air
Supply Air
Exhaust
Boilers
Fuel oil storage

Diagrammatic section of a typical low rise office building showing Diagrammatic section of a typical mid rise office building showing Diagrammatic section of a typical high rise office building showing
mechanical components and connections mechanical components and connections mechanical components and connections
52 3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems
3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems Variable Air Volume System (VAV)
Typically in office building settings, the most efficient
45’
and cost effective way to distribute air is a VAV system
(Variable Air Volume). These systems use an air
3’ handling unit (supply fans w/filters and cooling coils) to
distribute conditioned air at pre-determined tempera-
2’ tures in sufficient quantity to offset heat gains See sec-
tion 3.3. The space temperatures would be controlled
14’ by varying the volume flow rate of supply air by the use
of VAV control dampers above the ceiling. The on-floor
9’
VAV system is a re-circulating system in which the air
from the space is returned above the hung ceiling acting
as a plenum. The air is then returned to the fan room
at the core and back to chiller plants to be re-cooled.
Fig. 12 Cooling loads distributed vary along with occupancy
Typical VAV system air distribution showing above ceiling supply levels and solar gain through the exterior skin. See sec-
and return ducts and overhead diffusers to cool office spaces.
tion 6.2
45’
Raised Floor Distribution System
In response to the demand for flexibility and change
3’ in an office building, raised floors for distribution of air
and cabling are another design choice that provides
4”
easy modification and relocation options after they are
installed. Typically raised above the slab 12-18 inches,
14’
raised floors utilize lift-out floor modules that allow for
easy cable and outlet modification. In this case owner-
9’2
occupied buildings use this system more frequent be-
cause the occupant derives most of the benefit through
the buildings life. Air is supplied to the space from floor
18”
diffusers instead of overhead, while on floor handlers
Fig. 13 blow air into the floor cavities via supply ducts. Warm air
Typical raised floor air distribution diagram showing under floor air
supply ducts fed by a local AHU and plenum return duct back to
is returned to the air handlers by way of open plenum
the core. Floor swirl diffusers allow for a cleaner striation of cool air above the hung ceiling as the cool air, diffused low,
below to warmer air above.
begins to heat and rise.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 3.3 Localized Air Distribution Systems 53
Advantages and Disadvantages of VAV 45’
vs Raised Floor
VAV Advantages
Centralized maintenance, quick, easy construction
timeline, up front cost is cheaper than installing a
raised floor.
VAV Disadvantages
Less opportunity for personalized comfort zones
with dampers, requires local mechanical room,
even air distribution is sometimes compromised
due to operating at high turn down; tends to mix
supply air with return air at a higher percentage, 2’-6”
resulting in less efficiency.
Raised Floor Advantages

Raised floors allow for lower life cycle costs 1’ 1’
because of their flexibility of re-configuring, re-

wiring and re-arranging office configurations. The 3’ 3’
absence of overhead ducting in this system can 2’ 2’
allow for an increase in floor to floor height or a

reduction in overall building height by close to 10
percent. Comfort for occupants is increased by 4”
14’ 1’-8 14’
creating more personalized zoning options. This
FL.- FL.-
system also allows for a more efficient use of air as FL. FL.
cooler air is distributed low and gradually makes
9’4 -
its way to the plenum as it becomes warmer. The F.F.
overall result is improved indoor air quality.
9’ to
F.F.
Raised Floor Disadvantages
Larger up front construction costs. Fig. 15 - Raised Floor
Fig. 14 - VAV
54 3.4 Heat Gain/Loss
3.4 Heat Gain/Loss Building Envelope Overview

Depending on the choice of building skin and the
45’ exterior envelopes design approach, structures
experience various levels of heat gain and loss
that influence the design of distribution systems as
well as the efficiency of the system. The great-
est contributor of heat gain in an office building
is usual sunlight. Solar heat gain is the percent-
age of heat gained through both direct sunlight
and absorbed heat. The larger the percentage of
heat gain in a building the more the mechanical
systems will work to counter-balance, therefore
engineers use a heat load calculation to determine
the mechanical needs of these areas. Determining
Fig. 16 the specific heat gain for a design with an engineer
Raised Floor perimeter diffusers distribute air up across
window walls
is pertinent to maximizing efficiency of mechani-
cal system. Curtain wall systems (a typical choice
for office skins) and other envelopes with large
45’ surface areas of glass require additional mechani-
cal design attention to counteract heat loss or gain.
See chapter 5
Perimeter Diffuser Air Distribution

To counteract heat gain at curtain walls or window
walls, areas with high solar exposure, perimeter
diffusers are used. Usually supplied by extra
perimeter VAV boxes, they produce cooler and
higher volumes of air typically to offset the heat
being gained through the skin. This strategy is
typically used in all distribution schemes including
Fig. 17 raised floor.
Overhead VAV systems use seperate perimeter diffusers in
the ceiling to distribute air down across windows.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 3.5 System Sustainability 55
Tips for Building “Greener” The use of humidifiers in outside air streams keeps 3.5 System Sustainability
When designing a building, base system size and AHU coils wet. This condensate typically tends to
equipment on a long-term plan, one which has a absorb pollutants in the ventilation air.
significant amount of flexibility, not just focusing on
the current building occupant’s needs and require- Use daylight responsive lighting to reduce heat
ments. gain from electric lights
Research systems that provide larger number of In appropriate area, consider the use of mixed
control zones than conventional systems. Applica- HVAC systems that can operate in tandem with
tions such as raised floors provide air distribution natural ventilation. In certain weather conditions
on a wider and more individual basis which allows the system can be de-activated and operable win-
more occupants to have control over their spaces dows can perform the cooling and drying functions
environment. of the mechanical systems.
Consider carefully factors that influence comfort Energy Recovery Ventilation

see section 3.1. Consider operating spaces at To reduce the load on primary air handling sys-
lower relative humidity during the cooling season tems that take on the task of conditioning various
to widen the dry bulb temperature comfort band levels of outdoor ventilation air, outdoor units that
See operating temperature chart in section 3.1. employ pre-conditioning strategies are an efficient
consideration. These recovery units moderate
Greater comfort can result from improved wall temperature and humidity content of outdoor air
insulation or high performance glass systems (See coming into the building and pre-condition it so to
chapter 6 for information on wall system options for allow for the zone AHU’s to concentrate on trim
office buildings). The building envelope alone can control rather than having to take on the much
have huge effects on how well or how sustainable larger load variations that are imposed by outdoor
your mechanical systems can operate. Also using ventilation air. These units will reduce demands
solar screening or shades can drastically ease the on heating & cooling equipment and result in cost
strain on a systems typical load requirements. savings with a short payback period.
- Provide heat exchangers within the toilet exhaust
air to reduce ventilation air pre-heating require-
Fig. 18
ments. Building energy disbursement breakdown highlighting the large
percentage (39% of total buiding energy) used on mechanical
systems
4. Common Program
Common programming and back of house spaces provide the lifeblood of any office build- 4.1 Front of House
Lobby Information
ing. Some of them tend to be forgotten in the initial design process which can become very Vestibule Requirements
Security types
detrimental to the design of the building later on. Having a firm grasp of all of the common
4.2 Cafeteria
programs early on in the design process can be very beneficial to the overall design of the Types of Spaces
Location Suggestions
building. Requirements
4.3 Back of House

Waste Removal
This chapter examines the different types of spaces that are typically associated with all office Ramp Requirements
buildings. We will gain an insight of these spaces through a better understanding of the code 4.4 Restrooms
Requirements
requirements and minimum space requirements. Diagrams and equations will be shown to
4.5 Ground Level Leasable
illustrate the main points and also additional possibilities. Types of Leasors
Requirements / Considerations
58 4.1 Front of House
4.1 Front of House Door types can be adjusted to allow for higher rates of traffic,
Single doors are perfect for slower pedestrian traf- open/close responses and verification setting. The
Lobbies fic. There is the option to use an automatic single gate can be left open to allow maximum flow and
The lobby is the first point of which individuals will door which would allow the door to remain open only close when an individual can not be identified
interact with the building. The lobby has multiple longer, allowing for a slightly higher flow of traffic. or set to open at a certain speed to increase or
functions; to advertise for the offices of the build- Double doors; allow for varying traffic levels of me- decrease traffic flow
ing, create an identity, serve as a security check- dium to high. The option of automatic doors would
point. The lobby is the home for the Concierge, increase the rate of traffic allowing for a higher
Guards, Speed gates, and seating area. The density of individuals as well as any individual not
Concierge is there to provide information about able to use their hands.
the building, what floors office or individuals can Revolving doors are able to control the climate and
be found on and as a check in point. The guards also the individual flow of traffic in places where
are there to verify those that have passes visually. security is an issue. These doors will slow a
Speed gates are used to verify an individual’s ID higher flow of traffic so that guards or speed gates
quickly and accurately. They are typically used or not overwhelmed. Operation during emergen-
more in Urban High rises and some Urban Mid ris- cies needs to be considered due to this slower
es due to the larger volumes of individuals. Sub- flow. Solutions vary from double doors located
urban may utilize them if there is a large enough near the revolving doors or collapsible doors with
number of employees. The security level can be in the revolving door assembly.
adjusted to allow for differing rates of traffic.
Security
Vestibule A concierge and a guard are similar in purpose
A vestibule, the space separating the exterior but different in use. Guards are serve as a visual
of the building and the lobby, is an efficient way security check point by verifying an individuals
to control the climate with in the office and also identity. Concierges serve not only as security
control traffic flow. A vestibule has to adhere to but also information. They can inform individuals
specific ADA requirements. The minimum size in the offices of a clients arrival or direct a client
that a vestibule can be is 44” wide x 72”, in the a specified location. The number of occupants
direction of travel, and the ceiling must be 20” or should determine the use of one or both of these.
more above the doors. Speed gates are a more efficient and accurate way
to verify the identity of individual. Varying settings
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.1 Front of House 59
Elevators to offices above
Ground level Offices
Security/Concierge
Visual Security Verification
Figure 1 Suburban Office Lobby ents with information and check in. Offices are
This is a partial plan diagram showing the basic typically located on the ground floor and may have
implementation of requirements in a Suburban little separation from the lobby space.
office building lobby. The use of Speed gates may
not be necessary depending on the size of the
office and number of employee’s. A concierge
would serve as the security barrier and provide cli-
60 4.1 Front of House
Elevators to offices above
Speed Gates
Security/Concierge
Visual Security Verification
Fig. 2 Urban Mid Rise Office Lobby Fig. 3 Urban High Rise Office Lobby
Depicted above is a partial plan of a Urban Mid rise Depicted above is a partial plan diagram of a
office lobby. The need for security is greater Urban High rise office lobby. The need for security
because of the number of employee’s and the abil- is greater because of the volume of employee’s
ity of anyone to enter the building. The use of and the use of more security guards and speed
speed gates may be necessary based on the num- gates is necessary to verify employee’s quickly and
ber of employee’s and level of security required. accurately. Rest rooms or Locker rooms maybe
Locker rooms or rest rooms may be required for required for guards or by leasable occupants.
guards or by the occupants of possible leasable
space.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.1 Front of House 61
Possible locations for sensors.
Typical elevation of a speed gate. The doors slide
48” 36”
into the base allowing individuals access.
7’
Elevation of Revolving door.
11” 20” 11”

Fig. 4 Elevation of Speed Gate Fig. 6 Elevation of Revolving Door
Interior
11”
Diagram of a revolving door in a regular use.
Inside
Dimension
6’ min
Typical plan diagram showing the possible loca-
tions of sensors and the movement of the gates
60”
into the consoles.
Exterior
Possible locations for sensors.

Interior
Emergency Situation
Diagram of a collapsed revolving door during a fire
alarm emergency. Two of the doors will fold
Fig. 5 Plan of Speed Gate towards the exterior of the building.
Exterior
Fig. 7 & 8
Revolving Door/Emergency Revolving
62 4.2 Cafeteria
4.2 Cafeteria terfering with anyone else entering. The first thing Locker Rooms and Cleaning
to determine is the number of individuals that will The locker rooms are required for the staff to
Cafeteria’s may be required in low rise offices utilize the cafeteria. Once determined, divided the change and prepare for their shifts. The clean-
and Urban High rises. Low rise office buildings total number of individuals by the number of shifts ing station should be located close to the kitchen
may not be located close to other food services, for serving and then multiple by ten. Ten is the av- and dining area so that clean plates and utensils
which would mean that employee’s might have to erage square foot of space that an individual takes can be transferred efficiently. These should fit in
drive during their lunch breaks to get food, if they up. All of the other spaces will be determined from the same amount of space as the storage and the
do not bring their own. Their use in Urban high this space. same equation can be used.
rise offices is based on the time it would take for
an employee to leave and return. A second factor SA = Total to be served x 10 These spaces are just to give a preliminary starting
is the volume of employee’s that leave during the Shifts point and may need to be adjusted to accommo-
same time, as this would affect all employee’s that date specified appliances, or ADA requirements.
leave during that time. Cafeteria’s allow for a more Kitchen
efficient use of the employers and employee’s The kitchen serves as a transition space as well
time. as food preparation. An individual should have to
pass through the kitchen to and from the loading
Cafeteria’s have a large range of spaces that need dock. In this way, food can be easily accessible,
to be accounted for. Spaces include; Kitchen, Din- as well as removed from the kitchen and cleaning
ing area, Service Area, Storage and Locker room stations efficiently. The kitchen is should be ap-
for staff. Each category has their own set required proximately one half the size of the dining space.
spaces with in them. The Kitchen requires cold K = SA
food preparation, range/grill, vegetable station, 2
bakeshop, meat station and cleaning. Storage,
both cold and dry, should be close to the kitchen Storage
and loading dock for quick storing and preparing The storage should be approximately one fourth of
of food. The Service area is the space between the space of the seating area. This is total space
the Kitchen and the Dining or Seating Area where for storage, so dry and cold split this space.
individuals arrive and get food. The flow of traffic S = SA
through the cafeteria should not be hindered. An 4
individual should be able to enter, get food, seat
and eat, return tray and plates and exit without in-
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.2 Cafeteria 63
Locker rooms
Kitchen: allow for meat prep, vegetable prep, cold
prep, range/grill, bakeshop and service line
Exit to loading dock
Storage areas: Cold and dry.
Cleaning Station and Office
Dining Area
Arrows represent the flow of traffic. Traffic should

move in one general direction and should not
impede any other traffic.
Trash collection
Fig. 9 Required Cafeteria spaces and relative sizes Kitchen
Dining Area
Storage
cleaning
Lockers
Fig.10 Relative comparison of Space

Requirements
64 4.3 Back of House
4.3 Back of House
Several different aspects occur as a part of the

back of house or support system within an office
environment. The loading dock, and surrounding Criteria for Office Loading Docks
functions, account for most of this category, Sev- Low Rise Mid-Rise High-Rise
eral different layers are included when addressing Dock Master's Office x x x
the design of back of house programming. From Central Mail Room
an organizational standpoint, the juxtaposition of Receiving Room x x x
other back of house elements to the loading dock Mail Room Storage x x x
Sorting Room x x x
is the most logical. All of these features of an
Screening Room x x
office building are not what the typical employee
Explosive Anti-Room \ x
or visitor wants to have noticeable, so often times,
Tenant Pick-up x x x
these elements are shifted to the back or base- Security
ment levels of the building. All of these aspects Truck Checkpoint at entrance \ x
may have some involvement with large truck Security offices x x
access, for delivery or shipping purposes, waste Maintenance
pick-up, or building and employee safety and Offices x
security. Therefore it makes sense that all of these Machine Shops and Storages x x x
elements are located within the vicinity of the load- Building Engineers x x x
Waste Management
ing dock.
Recycling Dumpsters 1 1 1
Trash Dumpsters 1 1+ 1+
Compactors x x
1 cu. Yd. of waste per 10,000 sq. ft. of office space
Additional dumpsters may be required for leasable
space on first floor. Restaurants and/or retail.
Restrooms Occupancy of a loading dock is 1 person for every 300
square feet
1 toilet per sex will be required for anything less
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.3 Back of House 65
60° Turn
30° Turn
The Loading Dock 24’6” Wide Road
16’6” Wide Road
Loading docks can be tricky when deciding on
114”
dimensions and locations. There is a lot to think 96”-108”
about, and more often then not is approached as a
case by case basis. There is no industry standard 90° Turn
for how many bays are required for a buildings 27’ Wide Road
loading dock, there are only guidelines that should varies 48”-52”
be explored when approached with the task of
120° Turn
implementing one, and a lot of this has to do with Outside Turn-
27’ Wide Road
the types of trucks that will be visiting the dock. ing Radius
Low rise, suburban, office buildings are the easiest
to accommodate as there is not much in the way
96”-102” Inside Turning
of space requirements. As long as it’s taken into
Radius
account the maneuverability and size of a full 18
wheel tractor trailer, externally, there is not much 150° Turn
180° Turn
more to cover. What does have to be considered 35’ Wide Road
33’ Wide Road
though is a landing zone for the trailer. This zone 96”-108” Minimum Road Width Requirements for truck
should be made of a harder substance, so that the
For the mid rise and the high rise office building turning purposes
trailer does not sink into asphalt on a hot summer’s
the design may get a little more challenging. With
day. This zone can be calculated by taking the
these two options the loading dock may have to be
longest truck accessing the yard and subtracting
located within the foot print of the building as there
7’ from that. As well, an apron space is required,
may not be enough space around the building to
which is twice the size of a truck plus 10’ to ac-
accommodate truck access. When the loading
count for the turning and reversing capabilities that
dock is brought within the building, more has to
these large vehicles lack.
be identified in the terms of security. First, the
Commonalities can begin to be shown between
area has to be blast proofed and second is how
low, mid and high rise offices at the actual dock.
the dock is accessed, through ramps and security.
Docks should be designed to align with the height
Depending on extraneous services may depict
of the bed of a delivery truck. However, there are
how many docking bays there are in general. The
several different types of truck that vary in height. Landing Strip
offices alone may need a couple, but an extra ser-
Commonly average dock heights are from 48” to Truck Length - 7’
vice such as retail, or restaurant may want there
52”, and other variations can be accommodated by
own docking bay to accept their own deliveries.
the use of dock levelers.
Apron space = truck lengthx2 + 10’
66 4.3 Back of House
Approaching a Loading Dock Approach

Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise Loading docks are used several times everyday.
Access Road How these area are accessed and kept secure is
At grade X / the main consideration. Low rise office buildings,
Ramped access below grade \ X generally don’t require strict security checkpoints
Land Usage X on the approach to the building, and in most cases
they are accessed by a solitary access road that
Within Building Footprint \ X
brings the vehicles around to the back of the build-
Waiting Area X
ing to keep them out of site of the building’s daily
Security Checkpoint at entrance \ X
users.
Mid rise and high rise office buildings approach
the concept of the loading dock very differently
where they bring the traffic into and beneath the
building. This accomplishes the same task of
getting the trucks out of the sight of the buildings
daily users, while throwing in other design chal-
Inspection Pullover Area lenges. With the dock within the building footprint,
considerations of possible threats have to be taken
into account. At building entrances often times, a
pull off area will be designed into the access road
to allow for safety and security officials to inspect
vehicles going to the loading dock. Other factors
in accessing mid and high rise office loading docks
include the grade of the ramp getting down to the
loading dock. A dock ramp cannot be too steep for
20% 8’ the fear of the runaway truck. It is recommended
that a ramp should be between 10 and 15 % grade.
15% 6’
10% 4’
5% 2’
40’
Recommended slope of an access ramp to prevent runaway trucks.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.3 Back of House 67
Waste Removal Relative Programming

Other uses for the loading dock are also found in Around the loading dock other integral office sup-
the waste collection and removal services. An port programming resides. For the dock itself, a
office typically creates a total of 1 cubic yard of dock master needs an office where the schedules
waste for every 10,000 square feet of usable can be organized to attempt to avoid an over-
space. Therefore, the larger the building, options crowded dock. Also, as the dock is where the
arise in using up more space with more dumpsters, daily mail generally passes through, a central mail
or using the means of compactors which can room is required in this area. Here we may see
reduce the volume in a ratio of 4 or 5 to 1. a difference from low rise offices to mid and high
Low rise offices will generally contain two dump- rise offices where security doesn’t matter so much.
sters on site. Like the loading dock they would In low rise, all that may exist is the receiving and
generally be pushed to the back of the building ac- shipping room and the sorting room, along with
cessed by the same road that accesses the load- a tenant pick up space. In the mid and high rise
ing dock. If the lot does not allow for this, masking typologies, this space may also include a screen-
the appearance of the dumpsters is another option ing room for potential life threatening packages,
by providing an enclosed dumpster cage dressed explosive and chemical based. This is added se-
with excessive landscaping. Providing two 10 yard curity program that otherwise may not be deemed
dumpsters, at 12’x8’x4’, unless otherwise speci- necessary. As well, the mail room, and the bay
fied, is the most logical explanation for this type, itself need storage capacity to hold shipments that
where one dumpster would be used for waste and are being processed for acceptance or for delivery,
the other for recycling. the mail room especially
In mid and high rise, once again, the dumpsters Along with these issues, there is also a building
are brought into the building generally at the same maintenance crew that needs space to complete
level as the loading dock. Space may begin to get their work, that doesn’t interfere with the general
a little bit more tricky as the building gets larger. function of the offices.
In the mid rise an additional dumpster for more
waste could be acceptable, but it may also be time
to start looking at compactors, especially for the
high rise, This minimizes the amount of space
that the waste takes up and as well minimizes the
amount of floor space that the dumpsters occupy.
Similar to the amount of docking bays required,
extra dumpsters may be required if extra program
is included in the building design.
68 4.4 Restrooms
4.4 Restrooms Overview

All office environments require the functions of
rest rooms within the design of the building. Low,
mid and high rise office buildings all require ad-
equate rest room functions. This means that the
design has to comply with state and local codes
and the American’s with Disabilities Act (ADA)
requirements, as well as expressing interest in
aesthetic quality and functionality. Knowing these
requirements and having a basic knowledge of
installation requirements can prevent redesign-
ing a layout or having casework that cannot be
installed properly due to a disregard for fixture
layout. Redesigns can become costly and unless
the architect pays particular attention to wall types
and chase dimensions to accommodate piping
and supports the architect will need to readjust
the spaces to meet certain code requirements in
space allocation.
In general, the rest rooms shall be located towards
the center of the building, within the boundaries
of what is the core. This is the nearest point of ac-
cess for all tenants single or multi. In the case of
multi tenancy the rest rooms become a public facil-
ity, unless a tenant to occupy the space requests
a private facility of, which is between the architect,
developer and tenants discretion.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.4 Restrooms 69
Rest Room Fixtures

Rest room design for an office environment
requires several different acknowledgments by the
6” min
architect. One needs to know the basic principles
12” min*
behind the plumbing and bracket supports for the
various fixtures involved in a rest room layout.
There are many different types of fixtures from wall
mounted toilets and urinals to the floor mounted
version of the same. As well, sinks come in vari-
ous shapes, sizes and materials from wall mounted
to counter-tops; porcelain to stainless steel. The
major factors that the architect has to worry about
are aesthetics, functionality, and the product instal-
lation process.
Aesthetically there are a number of choices that
the architect can choose. Products are so varied 6” min
14” min*
that architects have innumerous possibilities, when
it comes to colors, finishes, and shapes, even as
far as themes for fixtures, faucets and trim.
Functionality of the fixtures goes to how the facili-
ties are used, and how the fixtures can be selected
to accommodate the users more efficiently, includ-
ing handicapped access.
Installation and fixture types are the most impor-
tant aspect of the plumbing design. In multi-story
office buildings, wall hung fixtures are more logical 12” min
16” min*
as they provide better sanitation. This also means
that space has to be accounted for within the
chase wall for a bracket system that will support
the fixtures. As there are many products available,
the chase dimension cannot be assumed. This
dimension will have to be determined after prod-
ucts have been selected, based on the manufactur-
* Note: Add 2” for 5”-6” waste stacks
ers recommendation. To the right are the minimum
requirements for chase wall depths.
70 4.4 Restrooms
Rest Room Layout

A lot has to be considered when designing and
18” min laying out a rest room within an office environment.
7’ min 5’ After the design of the building is determined, then
5’ min
the core layouts can be deciphered. Rest rooms
2’-8”
generally are considered part of the core as this is
the central location easily accessible by all. The
5’
5’ size of the rest room is to be determined by the
overall square footage of the building, and the
16” min 14” min occupancy rating of the building. For an office the
occupancy rating is 1 person for every 100 square
feet. Of the result number this is divided in half
for men and women. For every 25 males and 20
females a separate water closet is required. The
men’s rest room, has the exception with that 33
% of the water closets are required to be urinals.
Lavatories, are also required at 1 for every 50
people, male and female.
These are considered minimum requirements,
so having more is not necessarily bad. Cost and
space ultimately limit this number to the minimum,
but this should not be held as a design restraint.
Minimum Toilet Facilities Other functions incorporated with the rest room
Water Closets Lavatories core include a water fountain, and a janitor’s closet
Female Male Urinals each sex with mop sink.
1/20 1/25 33% 1/50 As well, as the dimensions discussed in the previ-
ous section, other dimensions have to be consid-
Example ered for comfort purposes as well as handicapped
30000 sq. ft. floor plate accessibility. A double entry door is recommended
1 person/100 sq. ft. = 300 people for privacy with minimum dimensions as noted in
150 Male @ 1/25 = 4 toilets and 2 urinals the drawing on the left, along with the minimum
150 Female @ 1/20 = 8 toilets dimensions of a single stall, that allow for comfort
Lavatories = 3 each entering and using the facilities. Along with this
can be addressed the handicapped accessibility
requirements.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.4 Restrooms 71
ADA Compliance
In accordance with the American’s with Disabilities
Act, an office environment requires that at least
one stall, male and female, be handicapped acces-
32” min 4” max
sible. At least one lavatory will need to meet these
18” 40” max
requirements, too. The code is regulated so that a
56” min 42” min 34” max
person in a wheel chair can be granted the same
amenities as everyone else.
Handicapped citizens deserve the same rights as 29” min 27” min
everyone else. To not include them would be dis- 12” max

9” min
criminatory, and illegal, for that matter. The images max 6”
min 8” 6” max
to the right give a brief overview of what is required 17” min
for ADA design in a typical office setting.
17”-19”
36” min 6” max

36” max
33”-36” 27” min
9” min
min 8” 6” max
48” min
12” max 40” min
17”-19”
toilet paper
36” max
33”-36” 30” min
17”-19” 19” min
24” max
72 4.5 Leasable
4.5 Ground Level Leasable
Urban Mid-rise and Urban High rise have the

ability to have leasable space on the ground floor
level. This is not an easy thing to plan for due to
High Fire Proection

Ventilation/Cooling
Access to Loading
Kitchen Exhaust
the large number of groups that can occupy these
Street Visibility
Direct Daylight
Noise Barrier
spaces and the different requirements that they
each require. The common uses that can occupy
Kitchen
these spaces can range from: Retail, Light food,
Dock
Restaurant, and Health Club. Each will require
a unique set of design and code requirements Restaurant x x x x x x x
that will need to be addressed. Spaces that
Light Food x x x x x
require exhaust systems and HVAC systems can
be problematic because of the need for venting.
Retail x x x x
One solution is to place these spaces close to the Health Club x x x x x
core. This will allow you to combine the mechani-
cal spaces for the building and run the shafts up
through the whole building. Issues may arise be-
cause of the need for separate ventilation systems
and therefore more space occupied on the above
floors. The second solution is to vent through the
side of the building. This will require the use of
separate fans and may take up leasable space
at ground level if they can not be mounted on the
ceiling. Another issue of this method is where it is
venting, as it may affect the surrounding buildings
or spaces. Each of these consideration require
careful planning and you may need to consult with
a consultant about specific issues.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 4.5 Leasable 73
There are usually multiple spaces that can be Urban High rise also have the possibility of Leas-
gained in an Urban Mid-Rise building. The high- able space on the ground floor. The highlight
lighted section show two spaces; the left space space is approximately 10,600 sq ft.
is approximately 9,000 sq ft and the space on the
right is approximately 11,000 sq ft.
74 4.5 Leasable
The restaurant will require access to the loading

dock for shipments and waste removal. The kitch-
en should be located near the core of the building
so that any kitchen exhausts can go up through the
core without needing to be re-routed or interrupt
any office layouts above. The same equations for
sizes for cafeteria still relates to these spaces.
Retail Space
Storage
Kitchen
Access to Loading area and Dumpsters
Cleaning Area
Office
Employee Lockers / Rest rooms
Dining Area
Public Rest rooms
Restaurant and Retail setup

5. Exterior Wall System
There are many available systems to choose from for a building’s exterior walls. In this 5.1 Exterior Wall Systems
Curtain Wall System
chapter, we will be looking at typical exterior wall systems that are used in office building. Stud Backed Wall System
Precast Concrete Wall System
Each has implications in areas such as cost, time of erection, field work, efficiency, quality of
5.2 Curtain Wall System Design
work, or the complexity of assembly. This chapter will survey the different types of exterior
5.3 Stud Backed Wall System
wall systems and provide information on which is the most efficient system to use for low, mid,
5.4 Precast Concrete Panel System
and high-rise office buildings. It will also provide a fundamental understanding of the process
5.5 Window Systems
of exterior wall construction as a basis for design decisions. Below is a organizational chart Window Wall System
Curtain Wall System
outlining the chapter and the relationships between these various wall systems. Storefront System
5.6 Window Appearance

Ribbon Window
Stick-Built Unitized Stud-Backed Precast
Storefront Window
Exterior Wall Systems
Curtain Wall Curtain Wall Wall System Concrete Panel
5.7 Double Skin Facade
Window Systems Curtain Wall Window Wall Storefront

System System System
Window Appearance Punched Ribbon Storefront

Window Window Window
78 5.1 Exterior Wall Systems
5.1 Exterior Wall System
Window Wall System Window Wall System
Metal Stud Backed System Precast Concrete Wall

Curtain Wall System
(may also be cmu wall) Spray Insulation
Rigid Insulation
Exterior sheathing Light Gauge Metal
Light Gauge Metal
Air/Moisture Barrier
Membrane
Rigid insulation
2” Min. Air Space

Exterior Finish
Curtain Wall System Stick-Built Stud-Backed Wall System Precast Concrete Panel Wall System
A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum- with Punched or Ribbon Windows A precast concrete panels are durable and
framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal (may also be cmu wall) structurally adequate to resist lateral forces while
panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached to A stick built stud backed wall system can have spanning between floors to between columns.
the building structure and does not carry the floor many exterior cladding. It is erected on site by mul- It resistance to tornado/hurricane damage; fire,
or roof loads of the building. The wind and gravity tiple specialized teams. Studs are framed between termite, and dry-rot.
loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the building structure. It requires minimal hoisting time.
building structure, typically at the floor line. Minor imperfection can be made, and transporta-
tion costs are minimized. Stick built construction is
the most affected by weather conditions at the site
and requires scaffolding to apply the finish.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.1 Exterior Wall Systems 79
Stick Curtain Wall Unitized Curtain Wall Stud-Backed Wall Precast Concrete Panel
Cost Cost effective for smaller size or More cost effective for larger Costs are lowest for low-rise Costs depends on number of
low and mid-rise building. size or high-rise building. building. picks for low and mid-rise building
Time of Long time to assemble on-site. Short time to assemble on-site. Long time to assemble on-site. Short time to assemble on-site.
Erection
Single specialized team for in- Single specialized team for in- Multiple specialized team for Two specialized team for instal-
Field Work stallation. they are erected piece stallation. Each unit is connected installation. One team needs to lation. Only the precaster and
by piece on-site. to form the façade. finish until the next team installs. insulator.
Efficiency Single system controls thermal Single system controls thermal Multiple system controls the Requires less insulation for
expansion and contraction; seis- expansion and contraction; seis- efficiency of the building. Effi- energy.
mic motion; building sway and mic motion; building sway and ciency depends on the quality of
movement; water diversion; and movement; water diversion; and the material chosen and details
thermal efficiency. thermal efficiency. done by the architect.
Quality Control Presents some quality control is- Quality control can be strictly Corrode when exposed to Quality control are strictly moni-
sues. because components are monitored in the factory. continuous moisture, deflect tored by fabricators specializing
erected piece by piece. more than masonry, and act as a in this type of construction.
thermal bridges conducting heat
to or from the exterior.
Assembly
1. Anchors 1. Anchor 1. Metal Stud 1. Anchor
2. Mullion 2. Pre-Assembled 2. Exterior Sheathing 2. Precast Concrete
3. Horizontal rail Frame Unit 3. Rigid Insulation 3. Sprayed Insulation
4. Spandrel Panel 3. Insulation as required 4. Adhered Membrane 4. Light Gauge Metal Interior
5. Horizontal Rail 4. Light Gauge Metal Interior 5. Air Space Finish
6. Vision Glass Finish 6. Flashing
7. Interior Mullion Trim 7. Exterior Wall
8. Insulation as required 8. Window
9. Light Gauge Metal Interior 9. Interior Finish
Finish
80 5.2 Curtain Wall System Design
5.2 Curtain Wall System Design
Spandrel Glass Shadow Box Vision Glass
Cost: Lowest Cost: Medium Cost: Most

Aesthetic: Strong Aesthetic: Less Strong Aesthetic: Flexible
Horizontal Band Horizontal Band Efficiency: Require
Efficiency: Good Thermal Efficiency: Bad Moisture Lower U-Value glass for
Insulation Control better insulation
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.2 Curtain Wall System Design 81
What can go wrong

Curtain wall systems range from manufacturer’s
standard catalog systems to specialized custom
walls. Custom walls become cost competitive with
standard systems as the wall area increases. This
single system controls thermal expansion and
contraction; seismic motion; building sway and
movement; water diversion; and thermal efficiency.
Subject to failures are extremely rare as it is de-
signed in a very controlled environment.
A curtain wall is defined as thin, usually aluminum-

framed wall, containing in-fills of glass, metal
panels, or thin stone. The framing is attached
to the building structure and does not carry the
floor or roof loads of the building. The wind and
gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to
the building structure, typically at the floor line.
Aluminum framed wall systems date back to the
1930’s, and developed rapidly after World War II
when the supply of aluminum became available for
non-military use.
Vision Glass with Steel Construction Vision Glass with Concrete Construction
On a steel construction, even with a cantilever, On a concrete construction, the distance between
there still needs to be a girder at the end. So the the curtain wall to the soffit can span a great
distance between the curtain wall to the soffit are distance which gives a thin slab aesthetic from the
very close so the soffit can be viewed from the exterior.
exterior.
82 5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System
5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System

(May also be CMU)
Window Wall System

This type of backup wall represents a large
percentage of modern wall construction for
several types of cladding. The reason is that steel
studs are lightweight, fast to erect, economical, Metal Stud Backed System
noncombustible, and are not susceptible to rot (May also be CMU Wall)
or infestation. They do, however, have their Exterior Sheathing
shortcomings. They corrode when exposed to Air/Moisture Barrier
continuous moisture, they deflect more than Membrane
masonry, and they act as thermal bridges Rigid Insulation
conducting heat to or from the exterior. 2” Min. Air Space
Exterior Finish
(Shown on Right)
Note:
It is important that no insulation is inside the stud
cavity and have the insulation outside the stud cav-
ity regardless of the climate condition.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.3 Stud-Backed Wall System 83
Masonry What can go wrong

Efflorescence and cracking are the major problem Studs systems are subject to more flexural move-
for masonry. Efflorescence is caused by moisture ment than masonry or concrete wall systems. They
migrating through the mortar, dissolving salt with it, are more prone to damage caused by water or
and leaching to the surface. moisture penetrating behind the sheathing or inte-
rior finish. This incipient deterioration can continue
for a relatively long time before detection. By that
Wood Siding time, the structural stability of the stud system may
It requires periodic maintenance. Wood stain lasts have reached a point where the whole system has
longer than paint. Using wood that has a natural to be replaced at a cost that could reach as much
resistance to the effects of heat, wind, and rain is as three times the original cost of construction. For
advisable to the applications. Redwood, cedar, and this reason, it is imperative that the details be
cypress are recommended is the budget permits. developed with full understanding of the various
defenses against water penetrations. Head, jamb,
Stucco
and sill details at window and door opening must
It is hardy and durable finish if executed properly. It
be drawn at a large enough scale to show the ter-
has a tendency to develop cracks if the supporting
mination and sealing of the edges of the adhered
studs are not stiff enough, have wider spacing than
membrane, damp-proofing or waterproofing mem-
usual, or lack frequent control joints.
branes, as well as air barriers. Although the work
does not guarantee it will be executed correctly,
frequent site visits to spot check execution and pro-
EIFS
vide guidance are also very important to prevent
Delamination and moisture accumulation behind
bad execution.
the insulation board is the bane of their system.
Gypsum sheathing is not suitable. A masonry wall,
cement board, or fiberglass faced GWB sheathing
fastened to metal studs should be used instead.
Tile Veneer
Tile is impervious to water, so it provides one of
the better defenses against water penetration from
the exterior. However, it is susceptible to attach
by water vapor migrating from the interior of the
building. This vapor can accumulate behind the
tile, freeze and cause it to spall.
84 5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System
5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall

System window wall system
Precast concrete panels are shop-fabricated by 1” min. window

placement from
experienced technicians under controlled condi- edge of panel
tions. The choice of finishes can be predetermined
by sample selection. A full size mock-up can be precast concrete wall
panel thickness
constructed and tested for leakage or appear-
spray insulation
ance problems. Each panel is completed in one
light gauge metal
pour, thus avoiding the need for concealment of
construction joints, and, in many cases, the panels
are prestressed to minimize hairline cracks, resist
bowing, and reduce deflection.
In addition to these advantages, precast panels

are durable and structurally adequate to resist
lateral forces while spanning between floors to
between columns. Panels may be used as a load-
bearing wall element to combine both appearance
and functions.
Guidelines for panel thickness for overall flat panel stiffness consistent with suggested normal panel bow-
ing and warping tolerances. Note: It should not be used for panel thickness selection.
Panel
dimensions 8’ 10’ 12’ 16’ 20’ 24’ 28’ 32’
4’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7”
6’ 3” 4” 4” 5” 6” 6” 6” 7”
8’ 4” 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8”
10’ 5” 5” 6” 6” 7” 7” 8” 8”
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.4 Precast Concrete Panel Wall System 85
What can go wrong

Architectural precast concrete is produced under
strict quality control by fabricators specializing in
that type of construction. Examples of failure are
extremely rare. A properly constructed precast
panel with support points designed to accomodate
Horizontal Spanning Vertical Spanning thermal movements, deflection, and supporting
structure deformation due to lateral loads is one of
the most dependable wall systems. There are,
however, a few design decisions that can affect the
optimal performance of the system.
Avoid Deflection:
- Support the panels directly on the column
Avoid Bowing:
Closed Shape Open-ended Shape
- Increase panel thickness
- Stiffening ribs may be added to the back
- Double layer of reinforcing steel may be used
Avoid staining and streaking:

- Use rough textured surface and darker colors
- Cant the panels either upward or outward
- include drips in the soffits to reduce streaking
- Break up large blank surfaces with horizontal
projections
Column and Spandrel Multi-Story - Create vertical grooves below mullions and fins to
Beam Cover channel the stain
- Use rounded or splayed corners to reduce the
concentration of rain at these locations
Panel Types
This is a schematic representation of different ways in which panels may be configured.
86 5.5 Window Systems
5.5 Window Systems
Window systems come in three major framing

and glazing types: window wall, curtain wall and
storefront. Each window systems create different
facade expression, it can be combined to form any
type of office building.
Window Wall System Curtain Wall System Storefront Systems

“Window wall” is a term that can be used to Typically used to glaze large areas of build- Storefront systems are used for larger areas
describe various applications of glazing sys- ings and is identified by the fact that it is of glazing than standard windows; they typi-
tems that install between floor slabs and are suspended outside of the building structure, cally span from the floor to structure in the
set within a wall. This term can be used for spanning past floor levels. Curtain wall gener- ceiling above. Frequently, storefront systems
punched windows, ribbon windows, store- ally is glazed from scaffolding erected on the include entrance doors and vestibules, typi-
fronts, or other glazed openings that form a outside of the building. cally in the ground floor. Glass in storefront
wall of glass in a single story application. systems is generally field installed, with con-
tractors working from the floor of the building.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.5 Window Systems 87
Vision Glass Height Consideration Window Wall System Curtain Wall System Storefront System
As a general rule of thumb, for moderate to cold (stud-backed or (stick-built or (stud-backed or
precast concrete panel) unitized) precast concrete panel)
climate, using standard e-glazing window, the 5’-0” 5’-0”
maximum vision glass height is 7’-0” to avoid
energy loss. If the vision glass is greater than
7’-0”, a baseline heating needs to be provided in
7’-0”
the interior to accommodate for the cold transfer
into the building. Shading device, reflective glass,
or higher u-value glass (refer to chapter 7) are
needed as part of the design decision to control
the amount of heat transfer into the building. 5’-0”
Structural Glass Height Consideration

Also as a general rule of thumb, for a standard
size window wall system, the maximum window
height span is 9’-0”. Higher window height, such
as 10’-0” may need other means to support the 9’-0”
span such as thicker window mullion or using
high-spanning steel reinforcement which can
increase structural costs.
Mullion Spacing
5-ft module is chosen because it allows for a
minimum room dimension of 10-ft as well as
larger offices and conference rooms.
Note: On the right, a schematic illustration of the

different window system is shown to understand 10’-0”
the achievable facade aesthetic but with the

acknowledgement of the factor stated above to
help you better evaluate your design decision.
88 5.6 Window Types
5.6 Window Appearance
Window Sizes 60’-0”

Punched Window
Can Vary
“Punched” window gets its application term by the 30’-0”
concept that a cookie-cutter type hole is punched 5’-0”
in the exterior wall of the building and filled with Stud-Backed or
13’-0”
5’-6” 7’-0”
Precast
10’-0”
a window. Like storefronts, punched windows Concrete Panel
can vary greatly in cost due to their size and
configuration. They require the most field work Punched Window
because of individual window framing. (Any Height)
Ribbon Window
“Ribbon” window gets its application term
by simulating the look of a ribbon wrapped
horizontally. It can be any height between typical
Stud-Backed or
13’-0”
floor slabs. Ribbon windows are typically most
5’-6” 7’-0”
precast
10’-0”
cost-effective, so long as opening heights are Concrete panel
modest and modules are kept repetitive. These
types of systems can be designed to install in a Ribbon Window
(Any Height)
variety of ways including shop-glazed (unitized) or
field-glazed (stick-built).
Storefront Windows
“Storefront” applications can sometimes be the
heaviest and most costly glazed wall system on a
Stud-Backed or
13’-0”
2’-6” 10’-0”
building. It normally span from floor to ceiling, at Precast

10’-0”
a typical 10 ft height. It requires a high-spanning Concrete Panel

steel-reinforced glass wall. Storefronts can be
Storefront Window
very simple in nature or highly complex due to
(Floor to Ceiling
their various applications and design presence Height)
statement.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.6 Window Types 89
Full Bay Expression Split Bay Expression Double Window Expression
60’-0” 60’-0” 60’-0”

30’-0” 30’-0” 30’-0”
5’-0” 5’-0” 5’-0”
PUNCHED OPENING
EXPRESSION
EXPRESSION
HORIZONTAL
EXPRESSION
VERTICAL
Facade Expression: Schematic representation of possible design.

Design Variable: Exterior Wall System, Window Types, Window Heightm Column Width, and Detail
90 5.7 Double-Skin Façade
5.7 Double-Skin Façades Types of Construction
Generally speaking, double-skin facades are Comparison of single-skin and

appropriate when buildings are subject to great ex- double-skin facade onstruction.
ternal noise and wind loads. This can apply both to
high-rise and low-rise structures. If buildings are to
be naturally ventilated via the windows for as great
a part of the year as possible, the double-skin con-
struction offers distinct advantages in practice.
Double-skin facades have a special aesthetic of

their own, and this can be exploited architectur-
ally to great advantage. The visual impression of
transparency and depth, often in conjunction with
a frameless form of construction in the outer skin,
opens up new design paths.
Double-skin facades are based on a multilayer Up to now, the external skins of this type of facade
principle. They consist of an external facade, an have generally been constructed as a layer of sin-
intermediate space and an inner facade. The gle glazing in toughened safety glass or laminated
outer facade layer provides protection against the safety glass. An adjustable sunshading device
weather and improved acoustic insulation against is usually installed in the intermediate space to
external noise. It also contains opening that allow protect the internal rooms from high cooling loads
the ventilation of the intermediate space and the caused by insolation. As a rule, the inner facade
internal rooms. The flow of air through the interme- will consist of a supporting framework with a layer
diate space is activated by solar-induced thermal of double glazing, which provides the necessary
buoyancy and by effects of the wind. To achieve protection against thermal losses in winter. In
greater adaptability in reacting to environmental almost all cases, the inner facade can be open to
conditions, it may be possible to close the open- permit natural ventilation.
ings in the outer facade layer.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 5.7 Double-Skin Façade 91
Box Windows Elevation of box-window facade. The

division between each bay mean that
Solid wall
The box window is probably the oldest form of a an opening light is also required for
two-layered facade. Box windows consist of a each bay,
frame with inward-opening casements. The single
glazed external skin contains openings that allow
the ingress of fresh air and the egress of vitiated
air, thus serving to ventilate both the intermediate
space and the internal rooms.
The cavity between the two facade layers is

divided horizontally along the constructional axes,
or on a room-for-room basis. Vertically, the divi- Section through typical box-window
sions occur either between stories or between indi- facade with separate ventilation for
vidual window elements. Continuous divisions help each bay.
to avoid the transmission of sounds and smells
Inner and outer
from bay to bay and from room to room. facade layer
Solid wall
Box-type windows are commonly used in situations
where there are high external noise levels and
where special requirements are made in respect of
the sound insulation between adjoining rooms.
This is also the only form of construction that pro-
Plan of box-window facade. The divi-
vides these functions in facades with conventional
sions of the facade intermediate space
rectangular openings. Each box window element
are set on the construction area.
requires its own intake and extract openings, which
have to be considered when designing the outer Room 1 Room 2 Room 3
facade.
Shaft-Box Facades Elevation of a shaft-box facade. The

arrows indicate the route of the
The shaft-box facade is a special form of box win- airstream.
dow construction. It is based on the “twin-face”
concept developed by the Alco company in
Munster and consists of a system of box windows
with continuous vertical shafts that extend over a
number of stories to create a stack effect. The
facade layout consists of an alternation of box win-
dows and vertical shafts segments. On every story,
the vertical shafts are linked with the adjoining box
windows by means of a bypass opening. The stack
effect draws the air from the box windows into the Section through a shaft-box facade.
vertical shafts and from there up to the top, where The arrows indicate the route of the air-
Ventilation opening
it is emitted. As a means of supporting the thermal to shaft stream flowing through the box windows
uplift, air can also be sucked out mechanically via Inner facade layer into the common ventilation shaft.
the vertical shafts. Outer facade layer
Horizontal division
Shaft-box facades require fewer openings in the
external skin, since it is possible to exploit the
stronger thermal uplift within the stack. This also
has a positive effect in terms of insulation against
external noise. Since, in practice, the height of the
Plan of a shaft-box facade. There are
stacks is necessarily low-rise and mid-rise build-
side openings in the shaft divisions in
ings. An aerodynamic adjustment will be neces-
the facade intermediate space.
sary if all the box windows connected to a
particular shaft are to be ventilated to an equal Room 1 Room 2 Room 3
degree.
shaft shaft
Shaft-box facades are suited where particularly

high levels of sound insulation are required. be-
cause of the smaller size of the external openings.
Diagram of ventilation principle in the 8-story high

Exhaust air Exhaust air
opening shaft facade sections.
opening Services
Ventilation
stack
Casement
7th floor
Opening to
shaft
6th floor
5th floor
4th floor
3rd floor
Air-intake Air-intake
opening opening View along intermediate space between
2nd floor facade layers in mock-up facade con-

struction. In every third bay, there is an
extract shaft, which is open at the top.
1st floor
Room Depth Bay width

Corridor Facades Elevation of corridor facade. Air flows

on the diagonal to prevent vitiated air
In corridor facades, the intermediate space from the lower story being sucked in
between the two skins is closed at the level of each with the air supply of the floor above
floor. Divisions are foreseen along the horizontal (recontamination).
length of the corridor only where this is necessary
for acoustic, fire protection or ventilation reasons.
In the context of ventilation, this will usually be nec-
essary at the corners of buildings where great dif-
ferences in air pressure occur, and where openings
in the inner facade layer would result in uncomfort-
able drafts from cross-currents. This problem can
generally be avoided by closing off the corner Section through a corridor facade.
spaces at the sides. In the rest of the corridor, Separate circulation for each story.
there are likely to be only relatively small differ-
ences of air pressure, and these can be used to Inner facade layer
support the natural ventilation. Outer facade layer
Horizontal division
The air-intake can extract openings in the external
facade layer should be situated near the floor and
the ceiling. They are usually laid out in staggered
form from bay to bay to prevent vitiated air
extracted on one floor entering the space on the
Plan of corridor facade. The intermedi-
floor immediately above. Where a corridor-facade
ate space is not divided at regular inter-
construction is used, the individual spatial seg-
vals along its horizontal length.
ments between the skins will almost always be
adjoined by a number of rooms. Special care Room 1 Room 2 Room 3
should, therefore, be taken to avoid sound trans-
mission from room to room.
Multistory Facades Elevation of part of a multistory facade.

The arrangement of the casement
In multistory faces, the intermediate space opening lights depends on the ventila-
between the inner and outer layers is adjoined ver- tion and cleaning concept chosen for
tically and horizontally by a number of rooms. In the facade.
extreme cases, the space may extend around the
entire building without any intermediate divisions.
The ventilation (air-intake and extract) of the inter-
mediate space occurs via large openings near the
ground floor and the roof. During the heating
period, the facade space can be closed at the top
and bottom to exploit the conservatory effect and
optimize solar-energy gains. Section through a multistory facade.
The external skin is set independently
Multistory facades are especially suitable where in front of the inner facade. The inter-
external noise levels are very high, since this type Inner facade layer mediate space can be ventilated in all
of construction does not necessarily require open- Outer facade layer directions.
ings distributed over its height. As a rule, the rooms
behind multistory facades have to be mechanically
ventilated, and the facade can be used as a joint
air duct for this purpose. As with corridor facades,
attention should be paid to the problem of sound
transmission within the intermediate space.
Plan of a multistory facade. The inter-
mediate space is undivided and can be
freely ventilated.
Room 1 Room 2 Room 3

6. Lighting
OVERVIEW Chapter Contents
Lighting is one of the most important factors affecting the interior spaces of an office and 6.1 Critical Dimensions
Distance to Daylight
the psyches of those who work there. The quality of a space’s lighting will affect the way Typical Layout & Variations
that space feels and is perceived by its occupants. An effective architect must realize the 6.2 Glazing
Properties of Glazing
influential and evocative power of lighting and understand the numerous factors that affect Common Types & Attributes
Single, Double & Triple Pane
a space’s quality of light. In addition to providing a more pleasant working environment, an
effective daylighting strategy can reduce an office’s electricity and heating costs, and thus 6.3 Quality of Daylight
Window Size
should play a key role in any environmentally responsible design. Effective Aperture
Depth of Daylight Penetration
Window Height
This chapter will discuss general strategies for using daylighting to achieving a favorable level 6.5 Shading Systems
Applications
of lighting in an office building. It will describe the many factors that affect daylight quality and Integrated Shading
Depth of Shading
methods for controlling it. It will also discuss ways to supplement daylighting with artificial light Light Shelves
Seasonal Strategies
to achieve ideal lighting levels for various spaces within an office.
6.4 Atria
Geometry & Ratios
Roof Type
Reflectivity of Materials
Drawbacks
6.6 Lighting & Office Layout

Ideal Lighting Levels
Direct & Indirect Lighting
Effect on Furniture Arrangement
98 6.1 Critical Dimensions
6.1 Critical Dimensions Distance to Daylight

The floorplate of a typical office building has been
refined throughout history based on several key
factors affecting office use and construction. One
of the most important such factors is the access
of the office’s occupants to natural light. Most
office buildings maintain a critical dimension of
45’ between the inside of the building’s exterior
walls and the central core (Fig. 1). This is typically
considered to be the farthest distance that any
45’ occupant can be from a window while still enjoying
the benefits of the natural light and views that the
window provides. Any spaces beyond this 45’
dimension are typically reserved for functions such
as mechanical rooms, rest rooms, and vertical
circulation. These are areas that people do not
inhabit continuously for extended period of time
and where access to daylight are not a priority.
45’
It is important to note that, while these dimensions
are a good rule of thumb to use in American of-
fice buildings, daylighting requirements are much
more stringent in other countries. In Europe, for
example, every worker is required to have access
to natural light. This requirement effectively limits
typical European floorplates to 25’ deep or less.
Fig. 1
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.1 Critical Dimensions 99
45’ 85’
45’
Fig. 2 Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Typical High Rise Floorplan Atrium High Rise Floorplan Articulated High Rise Floorplan
Daylit Wall Length: 600’ Daylit Wall Length: 720’ Daylit Wall Length: 760’
Maximum Floorplate Depth: 45’ Maximum Floorplate Depth: 45’ Maximum Floorplate Depth: 85’
Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’ Maximum Distance To Daylight: 22’-6” Maximum Distance To Daylight: 45’
In a high rise floorplan of typical dimensions, the An atrium scheme can effectively cut an occu- Increasing the building perimeter allows for a
building perimeter will equal approximately 10 to pant’s maximum distance to daylight in half, allow- deeper floor plate and a greater overall floor area
15 times the depth of the floorplate. Increasing ing for better working conditions and a more even while keeping the daylighting level and maximum
the perimeter will provide more area for daylight to quality of natural light throughout the building. See distance to daylight constant.
enter and thus increase the building’s daylighting chapter 6.5 for more information.
performance.
100 6.2 Galzing
6.2 Glazing The type of glazing used in a building’s windows

Daylight Transmission vs. Heat Gain will have a profound effect on the quality of light in
its interior. There are several important factors to
consider when selecting a glazing system:
1
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC)

0.9 Measures the amount of solar energy that is
transmitted through the glass. Windows with a low
SHGC will transmit less heat to the interior, leading
0.8
to greater occupant comfort and reduced cooling
costs. See Chapter 3.x for more information.
0.7
Visible Transmittance (VT)
Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
Heat Gain Coefficient
0.6 Measures the percentage of visible light that is

able to pass through a window. An increase in
VT generally means an increase in SHGC as well
0.5
(Fig. 5).
0.4 Luminous Efficacy Constant ( Ke)

Measures a window’s ability to simultaneously
transmit daylight and prevent heat gain. It is
0.3
expressed as the ratio of (VT) to (SHGC). The
higher the Ke Value, the greater the daylighting
0.2 performance of a glazing system.
Ke = VT
0.1 1.5 (SHGC)
U-Value & R-Value

0 U-Value & R-Value are inverse measurements.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
While U-Value measures a material’s ability to
Daylight Transmission (%)
Daylight Tranmission (%) conduct heat, R-Value measures its ability to resist
Fig. 5 - Daylight Transmission vs. Solar Heat Gain heat flow. Windows with a low U-Value (and thus
a high R-Value) will provide greater insulation and
moisture control, especially in cooler climates.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.2 Glazing 101
Single, Double & Triple Pane Glass

Double-pane glass is the standard for most office
applications but triple-pane may be used where
energy efficiency is a high priority. Single-Pane
glass is almost never used in offices due to its poor
thermal performance and relatively low strength.
There are many kinds of low-e coatings and films
that may be applied to the glass to further increase
its performance. In colder climates, where
the main goal is to retain heat, these coatings
are usually applied to the outer surface of the
innermost pane. In warmer climates, where the
goal is to prevent solar gain, these coatings are
applied to the inner surface of the outermost pane.
Another option for increasing thermal performance

is to fill the gaps between panes with an inert gas,
typically Argon. These gasses have a higher R-
Value than air, and thus provide better insulation.
Fig. 6 - Single, Double, and Triple-Pane Glass
Thickness Solar Heat Gain Light Transmittance Luminous Efficacy

Glazing Type U-Value R-Value
(inches) Coefficient (SHGC) (VT) (%) Constant (K e)
Standard Single-Pane Glass 0.25 0.81 0.89 1.09 0.92 0.73

Single-Pane Glass w/ Heat-Rejecting Laminate 0.25 0.46 0.73 1.06 0.94 1.06
Double-Pane Insulated Glass 1 0.70 0.79 0.48 2.08 0.75
Tripple-Pane Insulated Glass 2 0.67 0.74 0.36 2.78 0.74
Low-e Double-Pane Glass 1 0.71 0.75 0.33 3.03 0.70
High Efficiency Low-e Glass 0.25 0.37 0.7 0.29 3.45 1.26
Suspended Coated Firm Glass 0.25 0.35 0.55 0.25 4.00 1.05
Double Suspended Coated Film Glass 1 0.34 0.53 0.10 10.00 1.04
Fig. 7 - Properties of Common Glazing Types
102 6.3 Quality of Daylighting
6.3 Quality of Daylighting Window Size

In general, the larger the windows a space has,
the more daylight that space will receive. A
facade’s Window Wall Ratio (WWR) is the most
effective way to measure window size as it relates
to daylighting potential. WWR is defined as a
÷ = WWR Glazing Type VT EA
facade’s net glazing area to its total area.
Single Pane .89 .22
Double Pane .79 .20 Effective Aperture
Triple Pane .74 .18 As discussed in Chapter 6.2, the Visible
Glazing Area: 200 sf ÷ Total Area: 810 sf = .25
Transmittance (VT) of a window’s glazing has
Fig. 8 - Punched Windows
a great impact on the amount of light allowed to
enter a space. For this reason, WWR alone is not
an effective measure of daylighting performance.
A more accurate measurement is the glazing
system’s Effective Aperture (EA). Effective
÷ = WWR Glazing Type VT EA
Aperture is determined by multiplying a facade’s
Single Pane .89 .27 Window Wall Ratio by the Visible Transmittance of
Double Pane .79 .24 its glazing. A higher Effective Aperture will mean
Triple Pane .74 .22 more daylighting potential, however, it will also
mean more solar gain and glare. See Chapter 5.x
Fig. 9 - Ribbon Windows
for more information on facade composition.
WWR = Glazing Area

= Glazing Type VT EA
÷ WWR Total Facade Area
Single Pane .89 .60
Double Pane .79 .53
Triple Pane .74 .50 EA = WWA x VT
Fig. 10 - Curtain Wall
d = h x 2.5
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.3 Quality of Daylighting 103
Depth of Daylight Penetration

The distance that daylight will penetrate into a
space depends on several factors. The geometry
4’
of the space - its width and the angle of its walls 6’-6”’
- will effect how far light is able penetrate. The

reflectivity of a space’s materials is another 16’-3”
important factor; spaces containing many highly 45’
reflective surfaces will allow light to penetrate Fig. 11

much deeper that an identical space with matte
finishes. However, the most important and
easily quantified factor effecting the depth of 4’
daylight penetration is the positioning of a space’s 9’
windows.
22’-6”
Window Height 45’
The dimension from the finished floor to the top of Fig. 12
the window (h) is the single most important factor
in determining the distance that daylight from that
window will penetrate into the building (d). A good
rule of thumb to use when trying to determine the
depth of daylight penetration is that d = 2.5h. (Fig. 9’ 9’
11-14). Windows placed higher on the wall will

allow light entering the building to reflect off of the
22’-6”
ceiling and thus penetrate further into the room. 45’
Raising the ceiling height in a room is one way Fig. 13
to take advantage of this principle (Fig. 14). See
Chapter 1.x for more information.
The size of a window will affect the intensity of the

light emitted into a room, but will not alter the depth 9’-6” 9’-6”
of light penetration (Fig. 12 - 13).

23’-9”
45’
Fig. 14
104 6.4 Shading Systems
6.4 Shading Systems Applications

While effective natural lighting is important for the
success of an office building and for the health and
well-being of its occupants, it is also important for
that daylight be carefully controlled and regulated.
Direct daylight leads to solar heat gain which can
increase the demands on a building’s mechanical
systems (See Chapter 3.x for more information).
It also results in sharp contrast between areas
of light and shadow and an uneven lighting of
the building’s interior spaces. One of the best
ways to prevent these problems is through the
implementation of an exterior shading system.
Shading will provide a much more diffuse and even
quality of light (Fig 15).
Fig. 15 - Exterior Shading
The ideal strategy for shading a building will vary

greatly depending on the climate that it is located
in, its latitude, and its elevation. For this reason,
3D modeling, solar path analysis, and shading
studies are indispensable tools in the design of an
effective shading system.
Horizontal louvers are the most effective way to

deal with direct light. In the Northern Hemisphere,
where the strongest afternoon sun is in the
southern sky, these louvers are usually installed
on the southern and sometimes the northern
facade of a building. For a finer level of daylighting
control, vertical louvers, or fins, may be installed
on the east and west facades of a building to
Fig. 16 - Integrated Shading
regulate indirect light.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.4 Shading Systems 105
Integrated Shading
As an alternative or a supplement to exterior
shading, a wide variety of glazing options are
available to control direct light. Glazing that
incorporates reflective films or metallic particles
can be very effective at preventing solar gain.
Translucent glass can also be used to block direct
sunlight where exterior views are not a priority
(Fig. 16).
÷4
Depth of Shading
When assessing the effectiveness of a particular
shading system, it is important to remember that
the depth of individual shading elements is not as
significant as the combined depth of all elements in
the system. For example, ten feet of total shading
will provide the same amount of protection from
solar gain and glare whether its is arranged as one
ten-foot deep louver, five two-foot deep louvers,
or twenty six-inch deep louvers, as long as those
elements are evenly spaced on the building’s ÷6 ÷6 ÷6 ÷6
facade (Fig. 17-18).
Fig. 18 - Equivalent Options for Distribution of

Shading Elements
Fig. 17 - Depth of Horizontal Louvers

106 6.4 Shading Systems
Light Shelves
One specific type of exterior shading that is
particularly effective is the light shelf. A light shelf
is a horizontal louver that is located at near the
top of a wall of fenestration. In most applications,
light shelves are used both on the exterior and
on the interior of the building. The light shelf
blocks direct light from entering the window, thus
reducing solar gain and glare. At the same time,
it reflects light up onto the space’s ceiling, lighting
it and producing a more even quality of light that
penetrates deeper into the room (Fig. 18).
One particular advantage to light shelves is that,

even if the shades are drawn on the lower portion
Fig. 18 - Light Shelf
of the window, light will still enter the space
through the upper portion. This allows occupants
to close the shade to further decrease glare and
solar gain while still receiving the benefits of
natural light (Fig. 19).
Fig. 19 - Light Shelf with Shades Closed

arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.4 Shading Systems 107
Seasonal Shading
While preventing solar gain is an important
requirement of shading during the spring and
summer months, solar gain can often be beneficial
during the colder months of the year. Allowing
solar gain in winter can reduce the amount
of mechanical heating required to achieve a
comfortable working environment, thus reducing
a building’s total energy costs. For this reason,
some of the most effective shading systems are
those that take advantage of the difference in solar
angle between winter and summer. In addition to
the solar heat gain benefits, these strategies will
allow sunlight to penetrate deeper into the building
during the dimmer winter months.
One way to take advantage of this principle is to

size and position a building’s louvers so that they
block direct sunlight in the summer, when sun’s
azimuth is greater, and allow sunlight to enter
in the winter, when the angle is lower (Fig. 18).
Another effective strategy is to use strategically
placed trees as a form of natural shading. In the
summer, the trees will block sunlight and provide
the building with shade. In the winter, when their
branches are bare, they will allow sunlight to pass
through and enter the building. (Fig. 19)
Fig. 18 - Seasonal Shading, Summer Fig. 19 - Natural Shading, Summer

(above) and Winter (above) and Winter
108 6.5 Atria
6.5 Atria In buildings with deeper floorplates or where a high

quality of natural light is a design priority, an atrium
is an excellent way of increasing the amount of
daylight that enters a building. The implementation
of an atrium effectively cuts an occupants
maximum distance to daylight in half and allows
h l for a higher and more even level of daylighting
Attached throughout the space.
w The best way to quantify the daylighting

performance of an atrium is by measuring
Fig. 21 - Atrium Measurements its Daylight Factor (DF). The Daylight Factor
describes the ratio of outside illuminance over
inside illuminance, usually expressed as a
percentage. The higher the DF, the more natural
Linear
PAR = w light is available in the atrium. The Daylight Factor
l is affected by the geometry of the atrium, as well
as its roof form and the reflectivity of its materials.
SAR = h Plan Aspect Ratio (PAR)

The most efficient shape for the plan of an atrium
w
is a circle. In atria with non-circular plans, the
Enclosed PAR can be used to measure the effectiveness
of the space’s geometry. The PAR is equal to the
WI = h x (l + w) atrium’s width divided by its length. An atrium
2xlxw with a PAR closer to 1 (square) will have better
dayighting performance than one with a PAR
closer to 0 (linear).
Section Aspect Ratio (SAR)

Semi-Enclosed The SAR measures the ratio of an atrium’s height
Fig. 20 - Atrium Types
to its width. A low SAR indicates a shallow atrium
and a relatively high Daylight Factor.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.5 Atria 109
Well Index (WI)

The WI combines the PAR and SAR into one
comprehensive measurement that compares the
vertical surface area of the atrium’s walls to the
Daylight Factor
horizontal surface area of its plan. An atrium with
a low WI will be shallower and have a greater
Daylight Factor than one with a higher WI. As
Fig. 24 - Flat Roof
WI increases, Daylighting Factor decreases
exponentially (Fig. 22)
Roof Form Well Index
There roof of an atrium can take many shapes Fig. 22 - Well Index vs. Daylight Factor
depending on the atrium’s geometry, structure,
and design intent. An atrium with an open roof will
allow for the maximum Daylight Factor, however,
this is not always practical. Three common roof
forms are shown in Figures 24-26 and Figure 23
shows the effect that each of these forms have on 30
an atrium’s Daylight Factor.

Contribution to Daylight Factor (%)
25
Flat
Monitor Fig. 25 - Light Monitor
In a shallow atrium, a flat roof will provide the 20
Sawtooth
greatest DF, however it also allows for the Flat
15 Monitor
most Solar Heat Gain. A sawtooth roof will Sawtooth
decrease solar gain and is also more effective 10
at providing light to lower floors. In any atrium,

5
the performance of the roof structure will depend
largely on the building’s location and orientation 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
with respect to the sun. For example, light Depth of Atrium (Number of Floors)
monitors are very effective at admitting light
Fig. 23 - Effect of Roof Form on DF
entering at a low angle which make them very
useful at high latitudes or in winter months.
1 Because of this,
2 lighting studies
3 should be 4 5 6 7 Fig. 26 - Sawtooth
conducted before finalizing any atrium design.
110 6.5 Atria
Reflectivity
The reflectivity of an atrium’s materials will also
affect its Daylight Factor. Surfaces with a higher
reflectivity will allow light to penetrate farther into
an atrium and increase daylighting performance.
Because an atrium’s effectiveness is dependant

on so many varied factors, it is possible to
compensate for shortcomings in one area by
increasing performance in another. For example,
if building or site geometry prohibits the atrium
from having a low Well Index, a desirable Daylight
Factor could still be achieved by using more
reflective materials on its interior surfaces.
Drawbacks To Atrium Buildings

In spite of the daylighting benefits that atria
provide, there are several drawbacks which should
Fig. 27 - Daylighting in Typical Building and Atrium Building
be carefully considered before an atrium scheme
is implemented. First of all, the empty space taken
up by the atrium on each floor will reduce the
building’s Net to Gross Ratio and its Floor Area
Ratio with respect to its site. See Chapter 0.X for
more information.
In addition, any atrium that is three or more stories

tall must conform to strict smoke and fire control
regulations. See International Building Code (IBC)
Section 909 for specific requirements.
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 111
6.6 Lighting & Office Layout
An effective daylighting strategy supplemented Fig. 28

by intelligent use of artificial lighting is one of the Private Office:
most crucial factors contributing to the success 50 - 70 Foot-Candles
of an office space. The standard unit of measure
for light in a space is the foot-candle (FC), which
measures the amount of light that falls on a given
surface. Foot-candles can be measured with
a photometer or any camera with a built-in light
meter.
Fig. 29
The optimal level of illumination varies greatly
Conference Room:
depending upon the type of space in question and
30 - 50 Foot-Candles
the specific tasks being performed there. A private
office usually requires between 50 and 70 foot-
candles of illumination (Fig. 28). This can usually
be achieved with a combination of natural light and
one or two artificial light sources.
A conference room must be much more adaptable

due to the wide variety of uses they have, including
meetings and presentations (Fig. 29). Thus it will
usually have several independently controllable Fig. 30
light fixtures and either blinds or shades for Open Workspace:
daylight control. 60-80 Foot-Candles
Open workspaces require a higher level of

illumination (Fig. 30). A high level of daylighting is
very important in these spaces. Artificial lighting is
usually provided by indirect fixture mounted on the
ceiling, however individual fixtures can be provided
at each workstation to provide more flexibility and
reduce energy costs.
112 6.6 Lighting & Office Layout
Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting
Fig. 31 Fig. 32
Direct Lighting, or “downlighting”, is the most Indirect Lighting, or “uplighting”, uses a diffused
energy efficient method of lighting a space. light to illuminate a space. This is achieved by
Light from the fixture is allowed to directly enter bouncing light off of a reflective surface and
the space, allowing for the maximum amount of usually off of the space’s ceiling. Lighting the
illumination. However, this method of lighting ceiling provides a softer, more even light and Fig. 33 - Energy Consumption in a Typical Office
provides a higher level of contrast which can lead greatly reduces glare. The relative pros and
to uneven lighting and glare. cons of direct and indirect lighting are outlined in
Figure 34.
Pros Cons Suggested Applications
Most Energy Efficient Less Architectural Reception Areas

Wide Range of Manufacturers Hard to Avoid Glare on Computer Monitors Private Offices
Direct Lighting
Lower Initial & Maintenance Cost Requires more Wiring and Mounting Utility Spaces
Can be Integrated into HVAC System
Best for Glare Control Less Energy Efficient Open Workspaces

Indirect Lighting More Innovative & Architectural Higher Initial Cost Circulation Spaces
Conference Rooms
Fig. 34 - Direct Lighting vs. Indirect Lighting

arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 6.6 Lighting & Office Layout 113
Furniture Arrangement Direct View to Outside

The location and orientation of office furniture
with respect to sources of daylight will have a
great impact on the comfort and productivity of a Glare
building’s occupants. Studies have shown that

access to natural light and exterior views have
a beneficial effect on the health and psyche of
workers. A scheme such as the one shown in
Figure 35 will provide occupants with the greatest
amount of natural light and direct views to the
exterior; however, it also exposes the them to
direct glare which leads to eye strain and visual
discomfort.
Another option is to orient workstations as

Fig. 35
shown in Figure 36. This configuration reduces
the occupants’ visual contact with the outside;
however, it also greatly reduces the amount of Oblique View to Outside
direct glare that they have to deal with. In spite of

this they are still subject to indirect glare reflecting
off of their computer monitors and workstation
walls. In both schemes, the window’s shades must
be closed in order to avoid glare, thus negating any
natural light or views to the outside. See Chapter
7.x for more information on Layouts.
Glare
In a schemes such as these, the implementation
of an exterior shading system, such as those
discussed in Chapter 6.4, are ideal because they
will reduce glare while still giving occupants the
benefits of natural light and views.
Fig. 36
7. Floorplan
The geometry and constraints of the human body are the generator of the office environment 7.1 Human Scale + Constraint
Standing
at its finest grain, and all other component parts of the workspace must respond to that Seated
Plan
geometry. These elements are arranged in space to facilitate one of a variety of modes of
7.2 Planning Modules + Components
work, and to facilitate or segregate the interactions of the individual workers according to this 5’ Module
240°/120° Degree Module
collaborative philosophy. Modular Components/Workstations
7.3 Spaceplanning Patterns

The Farm
This chapter is a study, first, of the spatial generator of the human form. The chapter will then
Linear
Cubicles
outline the planning modules and physical components of the workplace in relation to that
The Organism
240°
form. Finally, the chapter will study the patterns in which these physical and human
120°
The Epicenter
components can be combined within a space to suit a given mode of work. The intent of this
Hard Walled Offices + Hierarchical Plans
chapter is to give the designer the means with which to generate office landscapes tailored to
the particular needs of the individual and the broader corporate entity, either by assembly of
pre-manufactured modular components, or through design of custom elements.

116 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints
7.1 Human Scale + Constraints

arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 7.1 Human Scale & Constraints 117
Fig. 1 Standing Figure Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Vitruvian Man, ca.1487 Le Modulor, 1948
Leonardo da Vinci Le Corbusier

Fig. 4 Seated Figure


Fig. 5 Figure In Plan

122 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents
7.2 Planning Modules/Components
Fig. 6 Linear Worksurface + 5’ Grid Fig. 7 Cubicle + 5’ Grid

arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 7.2 Planning Modules / Compoents 123
Fig. 8 240° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid Fig. 9 120° Workstation + Hexagonal Grid Fig. 10 Casework + Hardwall + Grid
124 7.3 Space Planning Patterns
7.3 Space Planning Patterns

The Farm
LINEAR
Program Precedents- Financial, Creative
-Maximum Density
-Maximum Acoustic Transmission
-High Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap

-High Project Team Mobility
-High Visibility
-Minimum Personal Identity

-Minimum Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Minimum Enclosure
Metrics
Workspaces- 84
SF Per Worker- 32 sf
LF worksurface- 420 lf
LF Per Worker- 5 ft
Floor Area- 2,700 sf
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 1,050 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12.5 sf
Floor Area : Worksurface Area- 2.57:1
Fig. 11
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 7.3 Space Planning Patterns 125
Low High Low High
Sound Intesity Visual Overlap
Plan Detail
Fig. 12

The Farm
Cube
Program Precedents- Call Center, Corporate
-High Density
-High Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Moderate-High Enclosure
-Moderate Personal Identity
-Low-Moderate Acoustic Transmission

-Low Potential Shared Worspace/Team Overlap
-Low Project Team Mobility
-Low-Moderate Visibility
Metrics
Workspaces- 30
LF Per Worker- 10 ft
Total Area of Worksurfaces- 705 sf
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 23.5 sf
Floor Area: Worksurface Area- 3.83:1
Fig. 13
Low High Low High
Plan Detail
Fig. 14

The Organism
240°
Program- Creative, Corporate
-High Density
-High Acoustic Transmission
-Moderate-High Visibility
-Moderate Personal Identity
-Moderate Project Team Mobility
-Low-Moderate Enclosure
Metrics
Workspaces- 32
LF Per Worker- 10 ft
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 24 sf
Fig. 15
Low High Low High
Plan Detail
Fig. 16

The Organism
120°
Program Precedents- Creative, Corporate, Real
Estate, Education
-High Density
-High Project Team Mobility
-High Acoustic Transmission
-Moderate-High Visibility
-Low Enclosure
-Low Net Workspace Within Primary Reach
-Low Personal Identity
Metrics
Workspaces- 44
LF Per Worker- 6 ft
Worksurface Area Per Worker- 12 sf
Fig. 17
High Low High
Plan Detail
Fig. 18

The Epicenter
Hardwall/Casework
Program- Creative, Corporate, Legal, Financial
-Maximum Enclosure
-High Personal Identity
-Moderate Potential Shared Worspace/Team

Overlap
-Low-Moderate Visibility
-Low Density
-Low Project Team Mobility
-Low Acoustic Transmission
Metrics
Workspaces- Executive 4
General 18
SF Per Worker- Executive 225 sf
General 100 sf
LF worksurface- Executive 60 lf
General 180 lf
LF Per Worker- Executive 15 lf
General 10 lf
Worksurface Area Per Worker-Exec. 45 sf
Gen. 23.5 sf
Fig. 19
High Low
Plan Detail
Fig. 20
8. Sociology
Office Buildings are usually constructed for one of two purposes. One is a more speculative 9.1 Hierarchical Plan
Professional Uses
approach, in which developers foresee a market need for a new office building. The second Basic Floor Layout
Typical Bay Section
is a privatized approach, in which large companies want to create a flagship office building or Office Infrastructure / Interaction
have the resources and need for an office building of their own. In the latter there is room for 9.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan
Professional Uses
innovation as well as a driving force which wishes to create a high-quality structure. Basic Floor Layout
Typical Bay Section
Office Infrastructure / Interaction
The layouts of office buildings; however, are driven by the users. This can result in one of
9.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan
three typical floor plans. One is the hierarchical layout, in which private offices and conference Professional Uses
Floor Layouts
rooms are located on the perimeter of a floor and the general employees and their cubicles Bay Section
Office Infrastructure / Interaction
are located at the center. The second one is an inverted-hierarchical layout. In this plan the
9.4 Multi-Tenants
workers and their workspace are located at the perimeter of the plan and the private offices Floor Configurations
Office Infrastructures / Interactions
and rooms are at the center. The third layout is the non-hierarchical layout. This is an open Floor Requirements
plan, in which workers have more interaction and are able to be more productive.
This chapter will explore all three of these types of layouts and how they are used in office
buildings. Multi-tenant plans will also be explored, in which a mix of these three plan layouts
can be applied to one floor.

136 8.1 Hierarchical Plan
8.1 Hierarchical Plan Private Outer Ring
Common Inner Ring

In this type of plan there is a private outer ring and
a communal inner ring. Located in the outer ring Core
are private offices and conference rooms. The
inner ring contains the lower ranked workers as 45’
Typical Bay
well as spaces for them to collaborate, eat, and
interact.
45’
Typical Upper Level Plan
This type of hierarchy was the typical office layout,

but more companies are moving towards an Private Outer Ring
inverted- hierarchical plan. In the hierarchical plan,
Common Inner Ring
the common worker aspires and strives to have his
or her own office. They can move up the ladder of Core
success, and it will be solidified and commended
by having their own personal space. Typical Bay 45’
45’
Typical Mid-Level Plan
In this flow of hierarchy the highest ranked workers
are on the outer ring and those at the lower ranks
are centralized and surround the core. This loca-
tion of rank allows for those in charge to open their
Private Outer Ring
doors and delegate to those below them. Such is
the scenario in law firms, corporate offices, and
Common Inner Ring
other companies with a ladder of success.
Core
Typical Bay 45’
45’
Typical Suburban Plan
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 8.1 Hierarchical Plan 137
Core
Common Inner Ring
Private Outer Ring
Typical Bay
In this perspective view, you can see the typical
bay of a hierarchical plan, and it becomes evident
of the aspiration that a lower ranked employee
could have. The conference rooms and private
offices on the perimeter of the building provide
both the clients and those in charge a sense of
importance. Sunlight and views are very important
as they make employees more productive. For this
reason companies are now using glass walls to
separate the private offices and conference rooms.
The glass allows more light to come into the office, Typical Hierarchical Bay
thus making everyone a more productive
employee. The glass also allows easier for those in
charge to interact with those below them. Making a
better work environment.
138 8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan
8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan Common Outer Ring
Private Inner Ring

The inverted-hierarchical plan is self explanatory.
The private offices and conference spaces that Core
crowded and blocked the outside world are moved
towards the core and the lower ranked employees 45’
Typical Bay
are given the perimeter. As a result of increase
productivity from natural light and fresh air, this
45’
model is more appealing to companies that are
Typical Upper Level Plan
driven by average employee. It still provides the
hierarchy required to evoke aspirations and com-
petitiveness amongst the employees who want to Common Outer Ring
climb the ladder of success, while making the work
Private Inner Ring
environment friendlier and more productive.
Core
These types of layouts are found in progressive Typical Bay 45’

law firms and corporate offices as well as in design
fields such as architecture firms, engineering firms, 45’
Typical Mid-Level Plan
advertising, and other such fields.
Inverted-hierarchical plans also allow workers to

interact and collaborate easier than the hierarchi- Common Outer Ring
cal plans. They force interaction within the open
Private Inner Ring
plan in the outer ring and the private offices in the
inner ring. Core
45’
Typical Bay
45’
Typical Suburban Plan
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 8.2 Inverted-Hierarchical Plan 139
Core
Private Inner Ring
Common Outer Ring
Typical Bay
In this perspective view, you can see how those in
charge can oversee more efficiently the employees
around them. It is also easier to see how the aver-
age workers would become more productive when
they have a better light and ventilated working envi-
ronment. This plan focuses those in charge to look Typical Inverted
and interact with those working for them, thus mak- Hierarchical Bay
ing office interaction and communication easier.
The workers are happy, those in charge still have
their private office, and hierarchy still exists.
140 8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan
8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan Scattered Private Spaces
Common Open Plan

As the office layout evolves the plans become
more worker oriented and open, with minimal
Core
privatization. In the non-hierarchical plan the
private ring is consumed by the open plan ring, 45’
and the necessary private offices and conference Bay
rooms are then brought back and scattered around
45’
the plan. Factors driving this type of office layout Upper Level Plan
are the increase in employee productivity, environ-
mental agendas, and economical planing.
Common Open Plan
In this open plan the employee interaction is facili- Scattered Private Spaces
tated through open plan. Collaboration is easier
Core
encountered and productivity increases. This is
why this layout is currently very popular in creative Bay 45’
professional environments. These fields include
architecture, engineering, planing, advertising, and
Mid-Level Plan
other such fields.
This type of plan also allows developers to create

more office buildings without being hindered by Common Open Plan
speculation of use and marketability. The layout
Scattered Private Spaces
can be manipulated and laid out to accommodate
the users more easily because of the nature of the Core
plan.
45’
Bay
45’
Suburban Plan
arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 8.3 Non-Hierarchical Plan 141
Core
Shared Open Plan
Bay
In this perspective view it is evident how an open
plan can facilitate office interaction while at the
same time keeping its necessary private spaces.
The conference room is on the outside of the plan,
while the office stays closer to the core, keeping
blurred the line of hierarchy. If hierarchy does need Non-Hierarchical Bay
to be established, this can be done more openly
and subtly through the assigned office furniture. It
puts those in command in direct contact with the
lower ranked employees.
142 8.4 Multi-Tenants
8.4 Multi-Tenants
1
Open Plan
When dealing with one tenant per floor, it is easier
Core
to locate a receptionist space. However, when
Open Plan
dealing with multi-tenants more careful planning is
required to keep the separate offices independent Reception Spaces
while allowing them to share common program, 2
such as rest rooms and means of egress.
Two Tenant Open Plans
If two or more tenants occupy a space, it becomes

necessary to create a dedicated reception space Private Spaces
for each tenant. This creates the need for a cor-
1 2
ridor connecting the different offices. In these Common Open Spaces
layouts you can find two of the same types of Core
layouts divided in one floor or two or more different
Corridor
office configurations in one floor. These office
Reception Spaces 3 4
floors are usually taken up by smaller firms who
don’t need an entire floor to themselves. This can
Four Tenant Mixed-Plans
create a bigger profit for developers, depending on
how they are charging the rented space. They can
charge the various offices for use on the common
space, making profit on what would normally be
charged once by charging it two, three or even four
Open Spaces
times.
Reception Spaces
Common Egress
1 2
Private Spaces
Two Tenant Mixed-Plans

arc G 6 9 1 ty polog y pattern b ook 8.4 Multi-Tenants 143
Multi-Tenants Perspective
In this perspective we see just one of many config-
urations in which a multi-tenant floor plan can be
laid out. It shows the approach that needs to be
considered when arriving to the offices. As well as
the very different atmospheres created within each
office as a result of the layout.
Private Spaces
Reception Spaces
Core
Open Plan
Tenant 4
Tenant 3
Multi-Tenant Perspective
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Standards : All the Details Architects Need to Know
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Environmental Control Systems. New York: Spon
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OFFICE BUILDING
ARCH G691 GRADUATE DEGREE
PROJECT STUDIO
FALL 2008
This publication has been prepared as

part of a five week graduate thesis studio
assignment in the Northeastern University
School of Architecture for the Fall 2008
Architecture G691 course. Other publications
in this series include urban retail, hotel, and
parking garage typologies, all produced
by graduate students in the Northeastern
University architecture program.

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FALL 2008

BRENDAN CROSBY STEVEN ORLANDO

Copyright © 2008 by Northeastern University School of Architecture

Studio Research Team

Unless speciﬁcally stated otherwise all content is

5. Exterior Wall Systems 76

7. Floorplan Configuration 114

any office building design.

0.1 Office Types 50+

Office buildings can be categorized by the

200’ 200’ 150’

45’ 40’ 30’ 40’ 45’ 60’ 60’

Low Rise Mid Rise High Rise

Figures 1 through 4 show single, double and

Figures 5 through 7 show single, double and

Figures 8 through 10 show single, double and

The following section includes definitions for

Exterior Wall System

Area Calculations: BOMA

Gross Floor Area

Gross Measured Area

To interior finish surface of walls separating office

To centerline of partition walls.

No deductions made for necessary columns and

Floor Usable Area

Floor Common Area

Major Vertical Penetrations

Floor Rentable (Leasable) Area

Basic Rentable Area

0.3 Site Considerations Suburban Site

Parking Rules of Thumb

Another common strategy is the parking garage.

*Note that zoning codes typically govern the

1.5 Lateral Loads

1.1 Getting Started Floor Layouts Concrete vs. Steel

Selecting the Structural System Member Dimensions

very long spans considerable structural

very strong for its fireproofing required

easliy fabricated and inefficient for

better suited to tall

Fig.2 Fig.3 girder

Beam and Girder Sizing

Steel Open Web Joist System

costs less than tra- inefficient for short

light weight fireproofing required

open web joist

Fig.5 joist girder

Fig.6 tubular column

1.4 Concrete Flat Plate System Flat Plate Concrete System

attractive monolithic Costly post tensioning

large column sizes

1.5 Lateral Loads Lateral Loads

hard to change later. 2.2 Stairs

2.5 Latest in Elevator Technology

2.1 Elevator Design Guidelines Guidelines for Elevators

15 this said these next few sections will try to help

service elevators in orange that are needed for any

Code for Elevators and Stairs

For elevators the general guideline for max travel

Stairs are more stringently confined by code. 2007

2.3 Elevator Types

Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Traction Machine-Roomless Roped Hydraulic