IN218-IN91-Paper Sobre Escasez de Agua en El Norte Del Perú PDF

Dry Season Runoff and Natural Water
Storage Capacity in the High Andean

Catchment of the River Ronquillo in
the Northern Sierra of Peru
Joachim Krois
Department of Earth Sdences, Institute of Geographical Sciences
Applied Geography - Environmental Hydrology and Resource Management
Freie Universität Berlin
Sven Abendroth
Department of Earth Sdences
Institute of Geological Sdences, Hydrogeology
Achim Schulte
Department of Earth Sdences, Institute of Geographical Sdences
Applied Geography - Environmental Hydrology and Resource Management
Michael Schneider
Department of Earth Sciences
Institute of Geological Sciences, Hydrogeology
Abstract
In the northern Sierra of Peru, water scarcity issues arise owing to the seasonal
rainfall distribudon and the lack of appropriate natural water storage capacity of
river basins. The present study assesses the base flow and water storage volume
of the Ronquillo watershed, an important rivulet for water abstraction for the
city of Cajamarca. Mean base flow is 184 Is', thus representing 44 percent of
total stream flow. Flow recession curve analysis yields a mean catchment water
storage volume of 3.57 x lO"^ m^ which corresponds to a runoff depth of 85
mm. The dischargeable water storage volume of Andosols, a sou type known
to be a very important water reservoir in the Andes, corresponds to a runoff
depth of 33 mm. Moreover, the study shows that the geological environment
journal of Latin American Geography, 12 (3), 2013 © Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers
60 Journal of Latin American Geography
is of major relevance. Springs (18 mm) and an effluent flow regime (20 mm)
contribute significantiy to dry seasonal runoff. The findings imply that water
conservation in the Ronquillo watershed should place emphasis not only on
the preservation of soils, but also on subsurface water flow paths, as water
availability is affected by processes operating beyond topographically derived
catchment boundaries.
Keywords: Sierra of Peru, water storage capacity, storage-discharge relation, hydrograph
recession curve analysis
Resumen
En el norte de la Sierra del Perú, surgen problemas de escasez de agua
debido a la distribución de la precipitación estacional y la falta de capacidad
de almacenamiento de agua natural adecuado de las cuencas hidrográficas. El
presente estudio evalúa el flujo base y el volumen de almacenamiento de agua de
la cuenca del Ronquillo, un arroyo importante para la extracción de agua para la
ciudad de Cajamarca. El flujo media de base es de 184 ls ', lo que representa 44
porciento del flujo total de corriente. Del análisis de la curva de flujo de recesión
se obtiene tin volumen de almacenamiento de agua de captación media de 3.57
X 10'^ m^, lo que corresponde a una profundidad de 85 mm de escurrimiento.
El volumen de almacenamiento de agua descargable de Andosoles, un tipo
de suelo conocido por ser un depósito de agua muy importante en los Andes,
corresponde a una profundidad de 33 mm de escurrimiento. Por otra parte, el
estudio muestra que el entorno geológico es de gran relevancia. Ojos de agua (18
mm) y un régimen de caudal de los efluentes (20 mm) contribuyen de manera
significativa a secar la escorrentia estacional. Los resultados implican que la
conservación del agua en la cuenca del Ronqtiillo debe poner énfasis no solo en
la conservación de los suelos, sino también en las trayectorias de flujo de agua
del subsuelo, ya que la disponibilidad de agua se ve afectada por los procesos
que operan más allá de las fronteras de captación derivadas topográficamente.
Palabras clave: Sierra del Perú, capacidad de almacenamiento de agua, relación de
almacenamiento-descarga, análisis de la curva de recesión hidrográjica
Introduction
Mountains are an important source of freshwater for the adjacent
lowlands. Mountainous areas are characterized by disproportionaUy high rainfall
and discharge, and thus are addressed as water towers (Viviroli et al. 2007,
ViviroU and Weingartner 2004). With respect to water resources in the tropical
and subtropical Andes, the pronounced seasonality in rainfall (Bendix and Lauer
1992, Garreaud 2009) and thus in discharge is of high significance. The same
applies to the northern Sierra of Peru, where even areas close to the South
American Continental Water Divide (SACWD), which are characterized by
annual precipitation ~ 1,000 mm, are prone to water scarcity' in the dry season.
A reason for this low water availability in the dry season is the lack of natural
water storage capacity of the individual river basins. Thus, the generated base
flow does not provide sufficient discharge to meet the human demand for water
resources during the dry season.
Dry Season Runoff and Natural Water Storage Issues in Cajamarca, Peru 61
A typical example of the outlined situadon is the region surrounding

the city of Cajamarca in northern Peru. The city of Cajamarca is located at an
elevadon of 2,700 m asi, and its water supply is partly provided by the discharge
of the river Ronquülo (Atkins et al. 2005, EPS SEDACAJ S.A. 2006). A water
inlet located close to the RonquOlo's mouth supplies the Santa Apolónia water
plant, which provides fresh water for about one third of the populadon of
the city of Cajamarca.. The conduit connecdng the two facilities provides a
hydraulic capacity of approximately 65 Is' (EPS SEDACAJ S.A. 2006). Recendy
die hydraulic capacity has been increased to 90 Is' (Yanacocha 2013). Apart
from Santa Apolónia, the water plant El Milagro, which is supplied by the
discharge of the rivers Porcón and Rio Grande, offers a maximum water
purification capacity of 200 Is ' (EPS SEDACAJ S.A. 2006). However, within the
past decades, a growing urban populadon, accompanied by an increase in water
demand, resulted in severe water shortages, which nowadays are notable because
of the interruption of water supply services for several hours a day within the
dry season. The assessment of the future water demand of the urbanized area
of Cajamarca reveals that the populadon will increase to approximately 242,000
by 2035; thus, the water demand will increase to -490 Is', twice as much as in
2005 (EPS SEDACAJ S.A. 2006). Consequendy, a new hydraulic infrastructure
project is at the planning stage, aiming to exploit the water resources of the
Chonta river (CES 2010, Municipalidad Provincial de Cajamarca 2012). Up to
1980, the Ronquillo was the only source of fresh water for the city of Cajamarca,
and the discharges of the Ronquulo catchment are sdll an integral consdtuent
of the future water supply of the urbanized areas of Cajamarca (EPS SEDACAJ
S.A. 2006).
In contrast to the severe water shortages in the dry season, the rainy
season is characterized by high discharges endangering the urban infrastructure
and by the loss of water as a valuable resource. Moreover, the watersheds suffer
degradadon, which is mainly associated with the fluvial process of surface
runoff, which furthermore triggers soil erosion. Condnued soil degradadon
results in reduced infiltradon rates and water storage capacity, which in turn
increases surface runoff and thus soil erosion and further degradadon (Carrillo-
Rivera et al 2008, Martínez-Mena étal 1998, Römkens étal 2002). Owing to this
self-reinforcing process, the natural water retarding and water storage capacity
and also the groundwater recharge of the watersheds decline.
In the Andean mountains, the interlaced occurrence of clastíc siliceous
and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks as well as igneous rocks results in the
development of complex and compartmentalized groundwater bodies (Tovar-
Pacheco et al 2006), which extend over a high difference in elevadon (Houston
2009, Magaritz et al 1990). Magaritz et al (1990) and Aravena (1995) report on
a regional groundwater flow system that extends from the Andean highlands to
the Pacific coast. Rainfall over the mountain ridges contributes to groundwater
recharge in the coastal area, interconnected via fault systems. Houston (2009)
modeled the groundwater recharge of a high-elevation Andean watershed
(> 4,000 m asi) in southern Peru and found that recharge rates increase with
altitude owing to the increment in sparse vegetation cover and coarse-grained
soils. In the Andean mountains, soils are a very important source of base flow
generadon. Especially Andosols provide a high water-retarding capacity and are
of major relevance to water resources in the tropical and subtropical Andes
(Buytaert et al 2006, Buytaert et al 2005, Celled and Feyen 2009).
The existence of groundwater in the region of the city of Cajamarca is

undisputed, as the watersheds enclosing the city of Cajamarca are characterized
by perennial stream flow, although glaciers or relevant ardficial storage facüides
are nonexistent. Moreover, the occurrence of thermal springs (Baños del Inca)
in the valley of Cajamarca indicates the ascent of water from considerable depth
(Benavides-Ferreyros et al 2007, Gobierno Regional de Cajamarca 2009).
In the region of Cajamarca, issues related to water resources are very
sensidve topics. This is not only due to restricted access owing to growing water
demand and seasonaUty in rainfall, but also to a very dynamic mining industry.
Since the 1990s, the presence of transnadonal mining companies in Peru has
increased drasdcally (Bury 2002). Mining acdvides affect the livelihoods of
the rural populadon of Cajamarca in many ways; however, a very conspicuous
negadve impact is noted with respect to water resources (Bury 2004, 2005).
The increased compeddon for water resources among the various producdve
sectors (agriculture, mining, industry) bears the seed for conflicts and social
unrest (Gifford et ai 2010, Triscritd 2013). In consideradon of the smoldering
social conflicts it is even more important to assess the hydrological funcdons
(coUecdon, storage and discharge) of watersheds (Black 1997) and make the
results available to facilitate the decision making process.
Against this background, the present study aims to contribute to a
better understanding of the hydrology of the Ronquülo. By quandfying its
base flow and its natural water storage capacity and further reladng them to the
exisdng natural water storage enddes this study puts emphasis on the low flow
condidons during the dry season. The quandficadon of water resources is of
major interest for the people of Cajamarca, as the RonquiUo catchment is an
important source of the water supply of the city of Cajamarca.
Research Area
The study area is located in the northern Sierra of Peru, in the region of
Cajamarca, west of the eponymous provincial capital (Figure 1). The RonquiUo
watershed extends from the SACWD (approx. 4,000 m asi) to the RonquiUo
gauging stadon (2,838 m asi) at the urban fringe of the city of Cajamarca. The
above-ground catchment area encompasses approximately 42 km^ and drains
into the Amazon via the Crisnejas and Marañón rivers.
In general, the Andes are characterized by different aldtudinal belts
(Blüthgen and Weischet 1980). Pulgar-Vidal (1996) defines eight different
zones, which differ from each another by aldtudinal range and climatological,
geomorphological and biodc criteda. In the RonquiUo watershed, the quechua
(2,300 m - 3,500 m asi) -mA jalea (3,500 m - 4,000 m asi) aldtudinal belts are
present (Figure 2a). The xsxm.jalea refers to the transidon zone between the more
humid páramo orobiome in the north and the more arid puna orobiome in the
south (Luteyn 1992, MoUna and Litde 1981, Sánchez-Vega et al. 2006, Sánchez-
Vega and DiUon 2006). The páramo is weU known for its reliable generadon
of base flow (Buytaert et al 2006, CéUeri and Feyen 2009) and thus is a very
important water resource for urban agglomeradons within inter-Andean vaUeys
(MuUigan i/a/. 2010).
Figure 1. The catchment area of the Ronquillo river. The dashed line in the
detailed map (on the left) represents the South American Continental Water
Divide (SACWD).
The geological and hydrogeological units in the Ronquillo watershed

are represented by a Cretaceous series that formed from the Aptian to Turonian
ages. The series is folded into a synclinal structure, whose axis is orientated from
northwest to southeast (Figure 2b). In the Albian, a clastic siliceous facies was
transformed into an epicontinental carbonaceous facies Qacay etal 2003, Jaillard
1994, Robert et al 1998). In consequence, the oldest geological formation,
termed Farrat, consists mainly of sandstone and quartzite, whereas the younger
geological formations consist of carbonaceous sediments, banked carbonate
rocks and claystone. At several locations the San Pablo and Huambo Cenozoic
vulcanite formations overlie the Mesozoic series (Lagos-M. et al 2006, Reyes-
Rivera 1980).
The Farrat, San Pablo and Huambo formations (Figure 2b) are described
as joint aquifers (Gobierno Regional de Cajamarca 2009). Peña and Vargas (2006)
report a hydraulic conductivity of 1.2 x 10 " ms' for the sandstones of the Farrat
formation. The Ghúlec, Pariatambo, Yumagual,Quilquiñán and Gajamarca formations
are described as aquitards (Gobierno Regional de Cajamarca 2009, Peña and
Vargas 2006). However, Tovar-Pacheco (2006) emphasizes the importance of
the Ghúlec, Yumagualosià Ga/amarca formations as karstic aquifers for groundwater
recharge. Fernández-Rubio et al (2012) report hydraulic conductivities ranging
from 1.2 X 10'" to 1.2 x lO^'ms' for the Yumagual formmon and from 1.2 x 10'-
to 1.2 X 10"' ms'' for the Quilquiñán formation.
The area under investigation is located in a region of overlapping
cold humid and moderate sub-humid climate (ONERN 1975). The rainfall
regime is characterized by a distinct dry season from May to September and
a major rainfall period from October to April. The seasonal migration of the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) results in a bimodal rainfall distribution,
with a secondary rainfall maximum in October and a primary rainfall maximum
in January and February.
64 Journal of Ladn American Geography
HydrographicaUy the watershed of the RonquiUo is characterized

by a rectangular stream pattern (Figure 2a) and consists of five tributaries,
the Balconcillo, Conga, Cushunga, Rosapata and Manzana. Of these, only
the Balconcillo and the Conga, located in the western part of the watershed,
are perennial rivers. The Cushunga River reveals an unorthodox stream flow
pattern. In the upper catchment area the river is perennial; however, by cutting
through the volcanic deposits of the San Pablo formation, the river's discharge
fluctuates or even runs dry. The Rosapata and Manzana rivers, both located
at the eastern part of the watershed, fall dry during the dry season and are
thus classified as intermittent rivers. The dammed lake of Mataracocha provides
a volume of 123,000 m' (Chávez-Guzmán 1993); however, its water is used
for irrigation purposes, and thus does not contribute to the discharge of the
RonquiUo.
The spatial distribution of stream flow characterisdcs is related to the
spadal distribution of soUs (Figure 2c). The western part of the catchment,
which belongs to '^e, jalea altitudinal belt, is dominated by deep soils, whereas
in the eastern part soUs exceeding a depth of 30 cm are only found at the
vaUey floors (Poma-Miranda and Poma-Miranda 2001, Poma-Rojas 1989). In
consequence, the rivers originating in the eastern part (Rosapata and Manzana)
of the watershed faU dry during the dry season, whereas rivers originating
in the western part (Balconcillo, Conga and upper Cushunga) sustain a
perennial flow. The soils in the western part of the watershed are classified
as Andosols and cover about 46 percent of the catchment area. Poma-Rojas
and Alcántara-Boñón (2010) differentiate the Andosols further into Paramo-
Andosols and Paramosols. The Paramo-Andosol develops over volcanic and
volcanic-sedimentary deposits, whereas the Paramosol develops over sandstone,
carbonaceous sediments and quartzite. In the eastern part of the watershed,
soUs such as Leptosols and Regosols are predominant. At more favorable sites
for soU development, Acrisols and Cambisols and also deeper Phaeozems occur.
Material and methods

The hydro-cUmatological datasets used in the present study were
provided by a research project entided Conservadón del aguay suelo en las cuencas de
los ríos Chetillanoy Ronquillo en la Sierra norte del Perú (CASCUS). A gauging station
(Orpheus Mini II, OTT Hydrometrie) records the water level at a overflow
weir, located at the water inlet of the RonquiUo River (2,838 m asi, 07°09'25"S,
78°32'11"W). Water level data is transformed into discharge data by applying
Poleni's formula (Bretschneider et al 1993). Meteorological data is obtained
from a weather station (DAVIS Vantage Pro 11) located at the smaU viUage of
Chamis (3,224 m asi, 07°08'02"S, 78°33'41"W).
Chamis rain
gauge
Ronquillo
gauging station
Mataracocha
lagoon
Perennial
rivers
^ H Jalea (< 3500 m asi)
Intermittent N 9 Springs
t
rivers
Irrigation A Stream flow
canal ^ measurement
1.250 2.500 5.000 Meters

—H 1 1
Figure 2. Environmental setting of the Ronquillo watershed.

a) Hydrographical map shows perennial and intermittent rivers, sub-catchments,
locations of stream flow measurements, springs as reported by Benavides-
Ferreyros et al. (2007) and the area covered by the grass-dominated orobiome
azmeà Jalea (>3,500 m asi).
b) Geological map shows the Mesozoic sedimentary and the Cenozoic igneous
strata within the catchment area of the RonqtiiUo (Reyes-Rivera 1980).
c) Soil map showing sou types based on the nomenclature of the World
Reference Base for Soil Resources (FAO 2006).
In the course of the four-year monitoring period (2008—2012), the data

record shows some gaps, which are marked in Figure 3. All stadsdcal methods
appued in the present study are based on periods when at least 90 percent of the
data is available.
To esdmate base flow, we applied the methods of Wundt (1953),
KiUe (1970) LiUich (1970) and the base flow separadon approach, provided by
the United Kingdom Insdtute of Hydrology (UKIH) (Insdtute of Hydrology
1980). According to the continuity equadon, base flow equals groundwater
recharge, if losses due to abstracdon, ascent, seepage and evapotranspiradon
can be neglected.
After Wundt, mean base flow equals the arithmetic mean of mean
monthly low flows (Eq. 1).
n '^^•'^
where Q^ is mean base flow (m^s'), NQ^^^ (m's') is mean monthly low flow
of the month m, and n is the number of months used in the calculation. Kille
(1970) improved the approach of Wundt by arraying the mean monthly low
flows, according to their magnitude, in the form of a duration curve and by
evaluating the median value of a straight line modeled graphically to the lower
end of the data array. To objectify the approach by Küle, Wittenberg (2011)
suggests using the 50 percent value (median) of the duration curve instead.
The approach of Lillich (1970) is based on the single measurement of the dry
weather flow (Eq. 2).
(Eq.2)
where ^ji is the base flow (m^s ' ) , £ . (m^s') is the measured discharge at least
three days after a rainfall event, and n is the number of measurements taken.
Instead of using individual measurements, in the present study all mean daily
discharges obtained at least three days after a rainfall event are used for the
calculation. The base flow separation procedure is conducted by applying the
UKIH method. For this method, mean daily discharge data is used to determine
"turning points", which are joined by straight Hnes to form the base flow
hydrograph (Aksoy et al 2009, Institute of Hydrology 1980). The delineated
base flow hydrograph is smoothened by a recursive digital filter (Aksoy et al
2009, Eckhardt 2005).
Besides the evaluation of base flow, quantification of the water storage
capacity of the watershed's aquifer is of major importance. The aquifer s
volume can be quantified by analyzing the stream flow recession curve of a
watershed and by determining the storage-discharge relation (Lerner etal 1990).
Several methods for analyzing stream flow recession curves are available (see
e.g.. Chapman 1999, Nathan and McMahon 1990, Tallaksen 1995). The storage-
discharge relation can be described as a linear and also as a non-linear function.
Although the linear theory is still applied (Fenicia et al 2006) and performs
well for shorter recession periods (< 10 days) (Chapman 1999), recent studies
indicate that a non-linear algorithm seems to perform better in describing the
storage-discharge relation of watersheds (Aksoy and Wittenberg 2011, Moore
1997, Wittenberg 1999, Wittenberg and Sivapalan 1999). Accordingly, the
storage-discharge relation can be written as a non-linear equation (Wittenberg
1994):
= a-Q'' (Eq.3)
For i' in m^ and Q in m^s"', the coefficient a has the dimension m'^'s''. The
exponent b is dimensionless. The combination of equation 3 with the continuity
equation of a reservoir without inflow {dS/dt - - Q) yields the recession curve
equadon for the nonlinear reservoir starting at any initial discharge Q (t = Q)
(Wittenberg 1999): "
The parameter values a and h can be determined iteradvely by apphdng the least-
squares method (Wittenberg 1994). If the parameter /; is known, then the a can
be derived by applying equation 5.
a=
where Q^ is the discharge at time / of the observed flow recession and At

corresponds to the dme step, respectively. Wittenberg (1999) relates the
coefficient a to catchment properties, primarUy area and shape of basin, pore
volume and transmissivity. The exponent b defines the concavity of the recession
curve. For unconfined aquifers, in analogy to Darcy's law, it should be close to
0.5 (Wittenberg 2011). Chapman (1999), Wittenberg (1999) and Hammond and
Han (2006) showed that a wide range of values for the exponent b exists to
describe the recession curve of natural watersheds. However, most often the
values range between 0 and 1, and are most frequent from 0.3 to 0.5.
Within a watershed, the natural water storage systems that generate
dry season runoff are either soUs or rocks. To quandfy the water storage volume
of the soUs we determined the field capacity (FC), based on the formulas
provided by van Genuchten (1980), and the air capacity (AC), based on the
recommendations made by AG Boden (1994). The field capacity is defined as
the content of water, on a mass or volume basis, remaining in a soU two or three
days after having been wetted with water and after free drainage is negUgible
(Soil Science Glossary Terms Committee 2008). It represents the lower limit of
drainage or percolation, which is tantamount to the upper Umit of plant avaUable
water. The air capacit}', defined as the fracdonal volume or air in a soil at field
capacity water content (HiUel 1998), represents the gaseous soU volume that can
be replaced by water. Thus, during rainfall the soil pores wiU fiU with water and
if aU sou pores arefiUedwith water the soil is said to be saturated (Brouwer et
al 1985). Consequendy the infiltrated water drains and therefore contributes to
the stream flow untU the soil reaches the soU specific field capacity. The residual
water is retarded within the soil column and remains available for plant growth.
but does not contribute to stream flow. Owing to the excellent water retarding
capacities of Andosols (e.g., Buytaert et al 2006, Nanzyo et al 1993, Rousseaux
and Warkentin 1976) and the concurrence of Andosols and perennial stream
flow in the Ronquillo watershed, this study focuses on the Andosols as a water
storage system.
The quantification of rocks as a natural water storage system is based
on the evaluation of spring discharge of 107 spríngs, measured in the dry season
of 2007 (Benavides-Ferreyros et al 2007), and the evaluation of two transects
of runoff measurements, conducted in the course of the Ronquillo River, in
September 2009 and September 2012, respectively.
In general, discharge increases with drainage area and is mathematically
expressed as a power law function (Dunne and Leopold 1978):
Q = k-A' (Eq.6)
where Q is discharge (m's"'), ,é is a dimensionless constant, A is the area (m^)

and f is a dimensionless exponent. For geometrical reasons the discharge-area
relation should scale linearly (Dunne and Leopold 1978, Pilgrim et al 1982). An
increment in area (e.g., m^) results in a corresponding increment in discharge
(m^s'). Consequentiy, the exponent c exhibits values ~ 1. Recent studies confirm
that base flow for very small catchments (0.9 ha - 4.74 km^) (Kuras et al 2008)
and small catchments (55 - 254 km^) (Galster et al 2006) scales linearly {c ~ 1).
However, the discharge-area relation for peak runoff scales c <\ (Dunne and
Leopold 1978, Galster 2007). Galster (2007) argues that the nordinearity is due
to the spatial heterogeneity of catchments, thus influencing flood generation.
Results
Hydro-meteorological Data of Chamis Rain Gauge and Rjonquillo Gauging Station and
Their Implication for Dry Season Runoff
At Chamis rain gauge, mean annual rainfall is 985 mm. The period of
measurement comprised four rain periods from October to April (2008/09:
1,014 mm, 2009/10: 855 mm, 2010/11: 764 mm and 2011/12: 911 mm) and
three dry periods, from May to September (2009: 76 mm, 2010: 131 mm, 2011:
89 mm) (Table 1). Owing to major data loss in the dry season of 2011, a higher
amount of seasonal rainfall is to be expected (Figure 3).
At RonquiUo gauging station, mean annual discharge is 0.387 m ' s '
(Table 1), which corresponds to a runoff depth of 310 mm. In the dry seasons
of 2009, 2010 and 2011, a runoff depth of 73, 66 and 60 mm, respectively,
was recorded. Like the precipitation record, the hydrological data record is not
devoid of data loss (Figure 3), so runoff is presumably underestimated. Mean
specific runoff (Mq) and mean maximum specific runoff (MHq) show a high
seasonal variability. During the rainy season, values of mean specific runoff
vary from 9 to 18.5 ls'km"^ and during the dry season from 4.6 to 5.5 ls''km'^. In
comparison, values for maximum specific runoff rise to 49 Is 'km"^ during the
rainy season (Table 1).
Table 1. Hydro-meteorological characteristics of Ronquillo gauging station (2,838 m asi) and Chamis
rain gauge (3,324 m asi). The numbers correspond to averages of mean and maximum daily values for
each time period presented, respectively. Specific runoff corresponds to runoff (Is ') per unit (km^ of
the drainage area. Runoff depth is a composite of base flow, interflow and quick flow components.
The runoff coefficient (cj is computed as the ratio of runoff and rainfall.
Mean
Mean Mean specific Mean . Runoff
runoff runoff maximum " ^ " ^ „depth f=^f " c. (-)
(m's') (isW-^ runoff(m's') ^ m ^ " " ("™) ^"^^
RS 2008/09 0.598 14.2 1.609 38.2 259 1,014 0.25
DS 2009 0.234 5.5 0.257 6.1 73 76 0.95
RS 2009/10 0.489 11.6 1.415 33.6 211 855 0.25
DS 2010 0.212 5.0 0.351 8.3 66 131 0.50
RS 2010/11 0.379 9.0 0.923 21.9 164 764 0.21
DS2011 0.193 4.6 0.228 5.4 60 89 0.67
RS 2011/12 0.781 18.5 2.065 49.0 339 911 0.37

Mean
0.387 9.2 0.891 21.1 310 985 0.31
annual
Mean dry
0.213 5.1 0.279 6.6 66 99 0.71
season (DS)
Mean rainv
0.562 13.3 1.503 35.6 243 886 0.27
season (RS)
However, runoff variability shows a differendated annual cyclicity

(Figure 4a). Mq and MHq reach their maximums from December to April.
Beginning in May, the specific runoff declines until June and September, when
the values of Mq and MHq are comparable in magtiitude (3 to 7 Is'km^. Thus,
during the dry season base flow determines discharge characteristics, whereas
during the rainy season high-magnitude stream flow, related to surface runoff
and quick interflow, is the main consdtuent of discharge. This fact is even more
conclusive because the specific runoff coefficient (c^_.), which is the rado of
MHq and Mq, reaches values of close to 1 in the dry season Qune - Sep.)
(Figure 4b). The annual cyclicity of c^^ reveals a very high value in October (c
= 3.7), thus indicadng that in October, at the begintiing of the rainy season,
runoff events of high magnitude dominate the discharge yield and base tlow is
of minor importance.
Another important hydrological parameter is the runoff coefficient
(c^), computed as the rado of total runoff depth and rainfall. The runoff
coefficient describes the amount of rainfall that is effecdvely transformed into
runoff, or in other words rainfall, which is not evaporated and transpired by
vegetadon nor stored in the catchment.
The evaluadon of the runoff coefficient reveals that c^ is 0.31 for the
period of measurement, thus indicating that 31 percent of rainfaU effecdvely is
transformed into runoff (Table 1). However, c^ reveals an annual cycHcity. The
lowest values of c occur in the first part of the rainy season from October to
December. Although the onset of rainfaU in October causes runoff events of
high magnitude, only a smaU fracdon of the rainfaU is transformed into runoff
This indicates that a major fracdon of rainfaU is retained within the catchment
and refiUs the natural water storage systems. From January to May, c_^ increases
to values up to 0.59. In June the runoff coefficient increases dramadcaUy and
reaches values of up to 3, thus indicadng that the amount of water that runs
off equals three dmes the amount of rainfaU. This suggests that in this period
the watershed's discharge is independent of the amount of rainfaU and, thus,
discharge derives from base flow, which originates from the watershed's water
storage systems. In September the runoff coefficient decreases, thus indicating
that the water flow provided by the storage systems decreases over dme.
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Aug Sep
Figure 4: a) Mean monthly rainfaU (fiUed bars) at Chamis rain gauge (3,224 m
asi) and mean maximum (dashed Une) and mean specific runoff (soUd Une) at
RonquiUo gauging stadon (2,838 m asi), b) Runoff coefficient (c_., soUd Une) and
specific runoff coefficient (c^^, dashed Une).
Estimation of Baseflow
Mean base flow rate is esdmated by applying the methods of Wundt
(1953), KUle (1970) and LUUch (1970). Values of mean base flow obtained by the
approaches of Wundt and LUUch are 0.200 m^s' and 0.192 m^s', respecdvely
(Table 2). The base flow separadon method on the basis of the UKIH approach
(Insdtute of Hydrology 1980) results in a mean base flow of 0.202 m's'.
However, these values are significandy higher than 0.130 m^s', as obtained by
the approach of KUle (Figure 5). Accordingly the base flow rates correspond to
a runoff depth of 97, 144, 150 and 151 mm, respectively (Table 2). Thus, mean
base flow contributes 31 to 49 percent of the RonquiUo's discharge.
1
0.01
. 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 .
80 90 100
Figure 5: Base flow estimation based on the method of Kille (1970). The
median of mean monthly low flow (= 0.130 m^s"') represents mean base flow
(Wittenberg 2011). In comparison, base flow estimation based on the method
of Wundt (1953) yields a value of 0.200 m^s'.
Table 2. Baseflowestimation based on tbe methods ofWundt (1953), Kille (1970),

Lillicb (1970) and tbe UK Institute of Hydrolog}' (1980).
Mean base Runoff Streamflow-
flow (m^s ') depdi (nun) baseflowratio
Wundt (1953) 0.200 150 0.48
Kille (1970) 0.130 97 0.31
Lillicb (1970) 0.192 144 0.47
UKIH (1980) 0.202 151 0.49
Mean 0.184 138 0.44
Stream flow recession curve analysis

Quantification of the water storage volume of the RonquiUo watershed
is provided by stream flow recession curve analysis and the evaluation of t h e
storage-discharge relation. Accordingly, a non-linear algorithm (Eq. 3) is fitted
to each dry season's hydrograph recession curve (2009, 2010 and 2011). T h e
fitted periods encompass 128 (2009), 135 (2010) and 94 (2011) days (Figure
3). Table 3 presents the c o r r e s p o n d i n g values for the coefficients a and t h e
exponents b for each fitted curve.
FoUowing the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s given by Wittenberg (1999, 2011) for

intercomparison purposes, the exponent /; was fixed (é*) and a* was subsequendy
calculated by applying equation 5. T h e exponent ¿* is set t o 0.41 t o equal the
arithmetic m e a n of t h e e x p o n e n t b (see Table 3).
T h e combination o f equation 3, coefficient a*, exponent ¿* and t h e
m e a n base flow estimations, o n the basis of W u n d t ' s (1953), KiUe's (1970),
LUUch's (1970) a n d U K I H ' s (Institute o f Hydrology 1980) approaches, yields
the water storage volume that the RonquiUo watershed must provide to generate
the estimated m e a n base flows (Table 4). F r o m this, it foUows that t h e water
storage capacity o f the RonquiUo watershed c o r r e s p o n d s t o a m e a n volume o f
3.57 X 1 0 ' m^. This volume c o r r e s p o n d s t o a runoff d e p t h of 85 m m .
Table 3. Coefficients of the nonlinear reservoir, detennined forflowrecession

curves of 2009,2010 and 2011 (see Figure 3).
The parameter a*'\& computed by insetting /; = 0.41 into equation 5.
Dr\' Season days (n) «(m'-^s*) b
2009 128 n.29 0.45 92.64
2010 135 61.75 0.36 76.08
2011 94 81.50 0.42 82.10
Mean 119 73.51 0.41 83.54
Table 4. Reservoir volume and reservoir depth based on nonlinear reservoir recession
curve analysis [b* = 0.41). The results ate obtained by insetting mean base flow
estimates, a* as presented in Table 3 and b* = 0.41 into equation 3.
J Wundt (1953) J Kille (1970) i'Liiiich (1970) .í'uKiH(i980) Mean
Dry
mm l O W mm lO'm' mm 1 0 V mm lO'm' mm
Season
2009 4.13 98 3.47 82 4.07 96 4.15 98 3.95 94
2010 3.40 81 2.85 68 3.35 79 3.42 81 3.25 77
2011 3.67 87 3.08 73 3.61 86 3.69 87 3.51 83
Mean 3.74 89 3.13 74 3.67 87 3.75 89 3.S7 85
Water storage volume of hydrological buffer systems

The existence of a relevant water storage volume of the RonquiUo
watershed is obvious because perennial streams exist within the watershed and
runoff coefficients > 1 have been observed. The question arises to what extent
natural water storage systems, such as soils or rocks, contribute to the observed
dry season base flow.
Water storage system sous

The characteristics of the soils occurring in the watershed of the
RonquiUo are descríbed in detail by Poma-Rojas (1989) and Poma-Rojas
and Aleantara-Boñón (2010). Hence, only the Andosols and their regional
counterparts (Paramosols and Paramo Andosols) come into consideration to
provide an appropriate water storage volume. This thesis is reinforced by the
fact that only those sub-catchments within the RonquiUo provide a perennial
stream flow in which these sou tj'pes occur (Figure 2c). The Andosols in the
RonquiUo basin cover an area of 19.2 km^ and show a mean soil depth of about
0.53 m (Landa-E. et al 1978, ONERN 1975, Poma-Rojas 1989).
The volume of the water storage capacity can be estimated by
combining soil volume, sou specific air and field capacity (33 kPa). The volume
of the Andosols amounts to 10.8 x 10^' m', of which the Paramo-Andosols
account for 62 percent (Table 5). The soil-specific volumetric water content at
field capacity (33 kPa) is calculated on the basis of the formulas provided by van
Genuchten (1980) and corresponds to 28 Vol. percent. However, owing to the
high organic content ( 7 - 1 4 percent) of the Andosols, the specific volumetric
water content at field capacity had to be augmented to 42 Vol. percent, on the
basis of the recommendations made by AG Boden (1994). Accordingly, the
volumetric water content at field capacity (33 kPa) corresponds to a volume of
6.6 X 10'' m', which represents a runoff depth of 99.6 mm (Table 5).
The evaluation of the dischargeable water storage volume that
effectively drains into the rivulets is based on the determination of the sou-
specific air capacity. Owing to the high organic content of the Andosols, the air
capacity has been augmented (AG Boden 1994), whichfinallyrestilts in a mean
air capacity of 15 Vol. percent. This corresponds to a runoff depth of 32.7
mm. The correction values for Andosols, Paramosols and Paramo-Andosols are
presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Hydrophysical soil properties owing to soil texture of Andosols (Landa-E. et al. 1978),
Paramo Andosols (ONERN 1975) and Paramosols (ONERN 1975), volumetric water content at
33 kPa on the basis of van Genuchten (1980), soil water storage volume and resulting runoff depth.
Owing to the high organic content, volumetric water content and air capacity have been corrected m
accordance with AG Boden (1994). Correction values are given in bold.
Paramo
Soil type Dimension Andosol Paramosol
Andosol
Granulometry
63/18/19 24/41/35 65/24/11
(Sand/Sat/Clay)
Sandy Sandy
Soil type Clay Loam
Loam Loam
Mean Sum
5.0 11.8 2.3 19.2
26 62 12 100
Soil depth 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.53
Volume 2.5 7.1 1.1 10.8

Volumetric water
0.39(0.14) 0.55(0.16) 0.32(0.12) 0.42(0.14)
content at 33 kPa*
Air capacity 0.16(0.05) 0.12(0.05) 0.16(0.03) 0.15(0.04)
10'm' 1.35 4.68 0.53 6.6

Soil water
storage volume
mm 27.7 57.4 14.5 99.6
Dischargeable soil
' ^ 0.4 0.8 0.2 1.4
water storage volume
Runoff depth 9.3 19.4 4.0 32.7
field capacity
Water storage system rocks

Spring delivery/spring discharge
In addidon to the soils, the geological environment may provide an
appropriate water storage volume. Evidence of the water yield of individual
geological units is provided by the pouring rates and the spadal distribudon
of 107 springs located within the RonqtiiUo watershed (Benavides-Ferreyros et
al. 2007). In sum, all documented springs provide a runoff of 24.5 Is', which
corresponds to a runoff depth of 18.3 mm. Springs located within a volcanic
rock environment account for 5.7 mm, and springs located in an area underlain
by carbonate rocks account for 12.7 mm (Table 6).
The spadal distribution of the springs shows that 63 of the 107
documented springs are located within the Cushunga sub-watershed (Figure 2a).
These 63 springs contribute 71 percent of the total spring runoff An especially
high-yielding area within the Cushunga sub-watershed is the boundary zone of
the San Pablo Cenozoic volcanic-sedimentary formation and the Mesozoic marls
and carbonate rocks of the Chulee, Yumagual,Quilquiñán and Cajamarea formadons
(Figure 2b). It seems reasonable to assume that the intrusion of igneous rocks
into the Mesozoic sedimentary deposits resulted in a fractudng of the Mesozoic

units, thus creadng a joint aquifer. In consequence, the superficial and the
subterraneous water reservoirs are closely coupled, resuldng in the unorthodox
stream flow characterisdcs of the Cushunga. In-field observadon confirms that
the river Cushunga runs dry along its course, and thus its contribudon to dry
season runoff is smaU (< 10 Is', on 27 August 2009).
Table 6. Characteristics of springs within t}ie Ronquillo catchments on the basis of well discharge
in July 2007 (Benavides-Ferreyros dal 2007).
Specific Runoff
Area Number Well discharge
Entity Era runoff depth
(knr) of weüs (Is-')
(Is-'km-) (mm)
Huambo Ccnozo c 0.43 0 ___
0 San Pablo Cenozo c 5.55 19 7.56 1.36 5.66
^ Cajamarca Mesozo c 4.00 2 1.30 0.32 0.97
Q Quilquiñán Mesozo c 6.19 26 6.02 0.97 4.50
-^ Yumagual Mesozo c 12.87 17 2.91 0.23 2.17
5)3 Pariatambo Mesozo c 2.69 8 2.00 0.74 1.49
-3 Chulee Mesozo c 5.39 35 4.69 0.87 3.51
Mesozo c 0.28 0 ___
Far rat Mesozo c 4.76 0 — _-_
Volcanics Cenozo c 5.98 19 7.56 1.27 5.66
Carbonates Mesozo c 36.20 88 16.91 0.47 12.65
Sum 42.18 107 24.48 2.93 18.30
Effluence of groundwater
In the course of the RonquiUo River, a series of runoff measurements
was conducted on 13 September 2009 and 22 September 2012 (Figure 6b).
No rainfaU was recorded on either day. The measurements reveal that both
the runoff and the specific runoff increase erradcaUy between the oudet of
Cushunga and the oudet of Rosapata. Although three years separate the two
measuring campaigns, the measured erradc increase of up to 87 and 94 Is-',
respecdvely, is very similar in its dimension (see Figure 6b), thus indicadng a
typical pattern for the end of the dry season. The measured runoff decreases
in the condnued course of the RonquiUo, which, however, can be explained by
human water withdrawal and the existence of several smaU handmade water
distribudon conduits. However, because a broader vaUey bottom with aUuvium
emerges in the lower part of the RonquiUo, an increased infiltradon in the river
bed cannot be excluded completely.
The very obvious erradc increment in runoff within the course of the
RonquiUo must be related to subsurface flow processes. An explanadon may be
that die Pariatambo geological formadon (Figure 6a), which mainly consists of
claystone, acts as an aqmclude, and thus the increment in runoff may be due to
an effluent flow regime. This hypothesis that the RonquiUo incises into a local
aquifer is backed up by the increment in the specific runoff (Figure 6b) and
accordingly in the discharge-area reladon, which plots with an exponent of scale
(c) of 1.78 (Figure 7), thus implying that the baseflowincreases dispropordonaUy
to the drainage area.
Huambo (hy)
P>fM>gwM San Pablo (sp)
Ttironian Cajtunarc (es)
QullquJíl¿n((|u}
YumaBuaKy«)
Paratiambo (pa)
5 Albian Chulee (ch)
inoafin)
Apüan Farr al (fa)
Figure 6: a) Sketch of the geological setting along the course of Ronquillo river,
b) Longitudinal section of Ronquillo (ABC), specific runoff and stream flow
measurements (numbers) of 13 September 2009 and 22 September 2012 within
the course of Ronquillo. Geological boundaries are marked by filled diamonds.
Triangles indicate the outiets of the main tributaries. Numbers indicate measured
stream flow in Is'.
A disproportional increase of base flow with drainage area, however,

may occur owing to an additional source of waterflow,which originates outside
the above-ground catchment area. To estimate this additional water flow, a
conceptual model is compiled (Eq. 7), in which the runoff at any locality in the
course of the Ronquillo (Q) consists of runoff provided by the above-ground
catchment area (g.J and runoff provided by the catchment area beyond the
topographically derived catchment boundaries (Ô^J.
ß=ßnt+ß (Eq.7)
For localities located upstream of the measured erratic increment of runoff, _g

is set to 0. By combining equations 6 and 7 and by resolving fot ^ , the water
flow originating beyond the topographically derived catchment boundaries is
calculated by applying equation 8:
(Eq.l
The parameters k.^^^ and c.^^ are determined by regression modeling {k. = 0.214,
^/,,/ ~ ^•''4' ""^ ~ 0.93, n = 6), based on those six runoff measurements taken
upstream of the point of effluence (Figure 7). Accordingly, the mean deviadon
of the measured runoff (s;..) from the modeled regression graph correlates with
the water flow that cannot be explained by the discharge-area-reladon valid for
those runoff figures unaffected by the effluence. Thus, the mean deviation of
the meastired runoff (e;.^ corresponds to the water flow originating beyond
the topographically derived catchment boundaries. The analysis indicates that
approximately 26 Is' or a runoff depth of 20 mm originate from beyond the
topographically derived catchment boundaries of the RonquiUo.
.7b M
120 y - 0.172x'
R^= 0.97 /
n =10
y1
1 /
100 /
1
T /'
(0
80
'Ii 1 /
1
/
g 60
3
OC
^ R2= 0.93
n=6
40
20
1 1 1
10 20 30 40 50 60
Catchment area (km^)
Figure 7: The discharge-drainage-area rado for the RonquiUo watershed

(solid line) is based on runoff measurements on 13 September 2009 and 22
September 2012. Diamonds indicate data excluded from calculation owing to
water withdrawal. The recession model for the discharge-drainage-area ratio
for RonquiUo watershed (dashed line) is based on six runoff measurements
upstream of the alleged effluence ( g j . The departure from the recession curve,
denoted as error (s^, is due to the effluence of groundwater from areas outside
the RonquUlo catchment area.
Summary and Discussion

The catchment of the Ronquulo is characterízed by a distinct seasonal
variability of rainfaU and discharge. The rain-bearing months of January to
March are characterized by runoff events of high magnitude, whereas the
discharge during the dry season Qune to September) derives mainly from base
flow. A high runoff coefficient (c^ > 1) of single months indicates that the
watershed's discharge is at times independent of rainfall.
In the present study, the methods appUed to quantify dry season
runoff resulted in a mean base flow of 0.130, 0.192, 0.200 and 0.202 m^s',
respectively, corresponding to a runoff depth of 97, 144, 150 and 151 mm.
However, it should be noted that the quantification of mean base flow on fhe
basis of discharge data is subject to uncertainties (Nathan and McMahon 1990,
Tallaksen 1995, Wittenberg 2011). Statistical methods such as those of Wundt
(1953) and IiUich (1970) tend to overestimate base flow (Wittenberg 2011).
The quantification of the natural water storage capacity of the RonquiUo
watershed is based on the fitting of a non-Unear algorithm (Wittenberg 1994,
1999) to the hydrograph recession curves. Assuming that recharge is negligible
during the recession period, the natural water storage capacity of the RonquiUo
watershed must be between 3.13 and 3.75 x lO*" m' to secure a base flow
generation of 130 to 202 Is'. The volume of the storage system corresponds to
a mean runoff depth of 85 mm.
The determination of the natural water storage capacity of the
RonquiUo watershed indicates that both soUs and rocks contribute significantiy to
the dry season runoff of the RonqtiiUo. The quantification of the dischargeable
water storage volume of the Andosols resulted in a volume of 1.4 x 10'' m\
which corresponds to a runoff depth of 33 mm. However, the result is only
vaUd under the assumption that evaporation losses and replenishment due to
rainfaU or fog precipitation are negUgible.
In the RonquiUo watershed, 107 springs have been documented
(Benavides-Ferreyros et al 2007), whose pouring rates sum up to a runoff
depth of 18 mm. A vast number of the spríngs are located close to stratigraphie
boundaries. Of major relevance appears to be the boundary zone of the
volcanic-sedimentary formation of San Pablo, which penetrates the sedimentary
rock of the Chulee, Yumagual íína Quilquiñán formations.
Even more important for dry season runoff seems to be the Pariatambo
formation that acts as a local aquifer. The measured erratic increment in runoff
values indicates that by cutting through the Pariatambo formation the RonquiUo is
affected by an effluent flow regime. Quantification of the effluence is based on
two measuríng campaigns conducted in September 2009 and September 2012.
AppUcation of a regression model for the discharge-area relation indicates that
a runoff of approximately 26 Is ', which corresponds to a runoff depth of 20
mm, originates beyond the topographically deríved catchment boundaríes of the
RonquiUo. As stated by Tovar-Pacheco (2006), the Chulee, Yumagual&nà Cajamarca
formations are joint aquifers. Moreover, Cammeraat and Seijmonsbergen
(2010) describe ignimbrite deposits, known as "Bosques de Rocca", which are
widespread in the region of Cajamarca, as silica karst formadons. The existence

of joint aquifers and/or karst formadons may explain the dispropordonal
increment in runoff values. As in areas prone to karst processes, superficial and
subterraneous water flows are pardy or even endrely decoupled from the above-
ground catchment area (Bakalowicz 2005, White 2002).
However, no condnuous data on the effluent flow regime is available.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that besides a presumed seasonal variability
of the effluent flow, the runoff values obtained in September 2009 and
September 2012 are very close to each another, suggesdng that the effluence of
approximately 26 Is ' may be typical for the end of the dry season. Moreover, an
effluent flow regime of the Ronquillo implies that its water yield and its water
qualit)' are affected by processes operadng beyond topographically derived
catchment boundaries.
Conclusion
The present study shows that in high mountainous watersheds the
natural water retarding and storage capacity of natural storage systems such
as soils and rocks is of major importance for the seasonal reguladon of water
resources.
Owing to their good water retendon capacity, the Andosols and their
regional counterparts provide a high dischargeable water storage volume. The
corresponding runoff depth of 33 mm corresponds to a mean discharge of
44 Is'. Because the hydratilic conducdvity capacity of the water conduit, which
supplies the Santa Apolónia water plant is approximately 60 - 70 Is', close to 60
percent of total water abstraction may be covered by the discharge originating
in these soils.
However, the favorable characterisdcs of these soils develop under
cool and wet climadc condidons, which mainly occur in the jalea aldtudinal belt.
Several studies showed that in cases of inappropriate land use, e.g., agricultural
acdvides or afforestadon, these soils may irreversibly lose their favorable water
retendon potendal (Buytaert et al 2007, Buytaert et al 2005, Farley and Kelly
2004, Harden 2006, Poulenard et al 2001). Accordingly, the protecdon of this
unique orobiome is of major significance, in order to guarantee downstream
water availability during dry seasons.
Apart from the sous, rocks are of great importance as a source of
dry season runoff Their relevance is obvious in the closely coupled superficial
and subterraneous water flows, as apparent in the occurrence of a vast number
of springs. Especially the boundary zone of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and
Cenozoic igneous rocks facilitates the interchange between these compartments.
In addidon to diese springs, the Pariatambo geological formadon is of major
significance. The effluence of groundwater into the Ronquillo corresponds
to a discharge of 26 Is ', which is close to one third of the actually measured
discharge during the field campaigns. In this way, groundwater-bearing rocks are
of vital importance for the water supply of Cajamarca, but also for the water
82 Journal of Latin Amedcan Geography
withdrawal of the rural populadon. On the one hand, the addidonal discharge
guarantees the workload of the Santa Apolónia water plant and, on the other
hand, springs are occasionally the only opportunity for the rural populadon to
withdraw water during the dry season.
From a water resource conservadon and management perspecdve, the
soils emerge as a primary field of intervendon. A vast number of strategies
and measures are available to preserve or to develop soUs as a medium for
water retendon and water storage purposes (e.g., Critchley and Siegert 1991,
Critchley et al 1994, Young 1989). Accordingly, emphasis should be put on the
preservadon of soUs and pardcularly on the preservadon of the jalea ecosystem
and the reacdvadon of soils as a water storage medium in the aldtudinal belt of
the quechua.
In addidon, greater attendon should be paid to the exploradon of
subterraneous water flow paths and their contribudon to dry season runoff.
Stronger efforts to integrate water resources that are either difficult to assess or
even of unknown origin are likely to faciUtate the midgadon of water scarcity
problems within high Andean watersheds.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Ana C. Ángulo Alva from El Centro
Ecuménico y Acción Social Norte - CEDEPAS NORTE, Cajamarca, Peru for
helping us to prepare and conduct the research acdvides. Special thanks go to
Carlos Cerdán for his assiduous gathering of environmental data and to Edwin
Pajares-Vigo for the assistance and networking dudng the periods of residence.
This research was financed by the Hans Sauer Foundadon, Germany. FinaUy we
would Uke to thank Anne Beck at Freie Universität BerUn, Department of Earth
Sciences, for revising the EngUsh version of the manuscript as weU as three
anonymous reviewers for their useful comments.
References
AG Boden. 1994. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. Hannover: Bundesanstalt für

Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe und den Geologischen Landesämtern in der
BundesrepubUk Deutschland.
Aksoy, H., K. Ilker and I. Ebru. 2009. FUtered Smoothed Minima Baseflow
Separadon Method. Journal of Hydrology 372: 94—101.
Aksoy, H. and H. Wittenberg. 2011. Nonlinear Baseñow Recession Analysis

in Watersheds with Intermittent Streamflow. Hydrological Sdences Journal 56(2):
226-237.
Aravena, R. 1995. Isotope Hydrology and Geochemistry of Northern Chile

Groundwaters. Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Etudes Andines 24(3): 495-503.
Atkins, D, C. Calderón, E. Montoya and E. Morales. 2005. Evaluation of Water

Quality in Cajamarca, Peru, Annual Monitoring Report 2004-2005. Washington
DC: Compliance Advisor/Ombudsman.
Bakalowicz, M. 2005. Karst Groundwater: A Challenge for New Resources.

Hydrogeology Journal 13 (1 ) : 148-160.
Benavides-Ferreyros, I., I.R. Ángeles-Lazo, E. Salazar-Salazar and J. Abásolo-

Tejada. 2007. Inventario Participativo de Fuentes de Agua Superficial de la
Cuencas del Río Mashcon. Cajamarca: Autoridad Nacional de Agua.
Bendix, J. and W. Lauer. 1992. Die Niederschlagsjahreszeiten in Ecuador und

ihre klimadynamische Interpretation. Erdkunde A6{2): 118-134.
Black, P. E. 1997. Watershed Functions. Journal of the American Water Resources

Assodation 33{\): 1-11.
Blüthgen, J. and W. Weischet. 1980. Allgemeine Klimageographie. Berlin, New York:

Walter de Gruyter.
Bretschneider,H.,K. Lecher and M.Schnriidt. 1993. Taschenbuch derWasserwirtschaft

Parey.
Brouwer, C , A. Goffeau and M. Heibloem. 1985. Irrigation Water Management:

Introduction to Irrigation, Training Manual No. 1. Rome, Italy: FAO.
Bury, J. T. 2004. Livelihoods in Transition: Transnational Gold Mining Operations

and Local Change in Cajamarca, Peru. The GeographicalJournam0(1): 78-91.
. 2005. Mining Mountains: Neoliberalism, Land Tenure,

Livelihoods, and the New Peruvian Mining Industry in Cajamarca. Environment
and Planning A 37(2): 221-239.
.. 2002. Livelihoods, Mining and Peasant Protests in the Peruvian

Andes. Journal of Latin American Geography 1 (1): 3-19.
Buytaert, W, R. Célleri, B. De Bièvre, E Cisneros, G. Wyseure, J. Deckers and

R. Hofstede. 2006. Human Impact on the Hydrology of the Andean Páramos.
Earth Sdence Reviews 79(1-2): 53-72.
Buytaert, W, V. Iñiguez and B. De Bièvre. 2007. The Effects of Afforestation

and Cultivation on Water Yield in the Andean Páramo. Forest Ecology and
Management 25\{\-2): 22-30.
Buytaert, W, G. Wyseure, B. De Bievre and J. Deckers. 2005. The Effect of

Land-Use Changes on the Hydrological Behaviour of Histic Andosols in South
Ecuador. Hydrological Processes 19(20): 3985-3997.
Cammeraat, E. and H. Seijmonsbergen. 2010. Significance of SiUca Karst in

Ignimbrite Landscapes in the Peruvian Andes and Their Vulnerability to Land
Degradation. In EGU General Assembly. Vienna, Austria.
Carrillo-Rivera, J. J., A. Cardona, R. Huizar-Alavarez and E. Graniel. 2008.

Response of the Interaction between Groundwater and Other Components of
the Environment in Mexico. Environmental Geology 55(2): 303-319.
CéUeri, R. and J. Feyen. 2009. The Hydrology of Tropical Andean Ecosystems:

Importance, iCnowledge Status, and Perspectives. Mountain Research and
Development 29{A): 350-355.
CES. 2010. Estudio de Factibilidad - Presa Chonta proyecto de reguladon de las aguas
del rio Chonta mediante la presa Chonta. Ed. CES Consuldng Engineers Salzgitter
GmbH. Cajamarca: Asociación Los Andes de Cajamarca (ALAC), MunicipaUdad
Provincial de Cajamarca.
Chapman, T.. 1999. A Comparison of Algorithms for Stream Flow Recession

and Baseflow Separadon. Hydrological Processes (13): 701-714.
Chávez-Guzmán, J. B. 1993. El Agua en la Subcuenca del Rio Manzanas. In

Ecología Y Desarrollo Sostenible en los Andes - Experiencias en la Subcuenca del Rio
Mañanas - Sierra Norte del Perú: Cajamarca. E. Regalado-P. and S. Vásquez-M.
(eds.), pp. 51-71. Cajamarca: PNUMA.
Critchley, W. and K Siegert. 1991. Water Harvesting: A Manualfor the Design and
Construction of Water Harvesting Schemesfor Plant Production. Rome: FAO.
Critchley, W., C. Reij and T. J. WiUcocks. 1994. Indigenous SoU and Water
Conservadon: A Review of the State of Knowledge and Prospects for BuUding
on Traditions. Land Degradation ¿r Development 5{A): 293-314.
Dunne, T. and L. B. Leopold. 1978. Water in Environmental Planning. San Francisco:

W. H. Freeman and Company.
Eckhardt, K. 2005. How to Construct Recursive Digital Filters for Baseflow

Separation. Hydrological Processes 19: 507-515.
EPS SEDACAJ S.A. 2006. Plan Maestro Optimizado para las dudadesy localidades de
Cajamarca, Contumacy San Miguel Cajamarca: Empresa Prestadora de Servicio
de Agua Potable y Alcantarillado Sanitario de Cajamarca.

FAO. 2006. World Referenee Base for Soil Resources 2006. Rome, Italy: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Faríey, K. A. and E. F Kelly. 2004. Effects of Afforestation of a Páramo

Grassland on Soil Nutrient Status. Forest Ecology and Management 195(3): 281-290.
Fenicia, E, H. H. G. Savenije, P Matgen and L. Pfister. 2006. Is the Groundwater

Reservoir Linear? Learning from Data in Hydrological ModeUing. Hydrology and
Earth System Sciences (10) : 139-150.
Fernández-Rubio, D. R., D. L. López-García and D. J. Martins-CarvaUio. 2012.

Dictamen Perdal Internacional Componente Hídrico del Estudio de Impacto Ambiental
del Proyecto Minero Conga (Cajamarca - Perú). Lima: Presidencia del Consejo de
Ministros Perú.
Galster, J. C. 2007. Natural and Anthropogenic Influences on the ScaUng of

Discharge with Drainage Area for Multiple Watersheds. Geosphere 3(4): 260-271.
Galster, J. C , Frank J. Pazzaglia, B. R. Hargreaves, D. P Morrís, S. C. Peters and

R. N. Weisman. 2006. Effects of Urbanization on Watershed Hydrology: The
ScaUng of Discharge with Drainage Area. Geology 34(9): 713.
Garreaud, R. D. 2009. The Andes Climate and Weather. Advances in Geosdences

22:3-11.
Gifford, B., A. Kestier and S. Anand. 2010. Building Local Legitimacy into
Corporate Social Responsibility: Gold Mining Firms in Developing Nations.
Journal of World Business 45(3): 304-311.
Gobierno Regional de Cajamarca. 2009. Estudio de Hidrológico Regional de la region

Cajamarca. Cajamarca: Gobierno Regional de Cajamarca.
Hammond, M. and D. Han. 2006. Recession Curve Estimation for Storm Event
s. Journal of Hydrology (330): 573-585.
Harden, C. P. 2006. Human Impacts on Headwater Fluvial Systems in the

Northern and Central Andes. Geomorphology 79(3-4): 249-263.
HUlel, D . 1998. Environmental Soil Physics. San Diego: Academic Press.
Houston, J. 2009. A Recharge Model for High Altitude, Aríd, Andean Aquifers.
Hydrological Processes 23(16): 2383-2393.
Institute of Hydrology. 1980. Low Flow Studies. WaUingford, Oxfordshire:

Insdtute of Hydrology.
Jacay, J., E. Guadalupe and J. Sánchez. 2003. Estüo estructural de los yacimientos
minerales en la franja Huamachuco-Cajabamba: Andes Norperuanos. Revista
del Instituto de Investigadón de la Facultad de Ingenieria Geológica, Minera, Metalúrgica y
Geográfiea (i{\2): 16-20.
Jaillard, E. 1994. Kimmeridgian to Paleocene tectotüc and geodynamic evolution

of the Peruvian (and Ecuadorian) margin. In Cretaeeous teetonies of the Andes. J. A.
Salfity (ed.), pp. 101-167. Bratmschweig: Vieweg.
Knie, W. 1970. Das Verfahren MoMNQ, ein Beitrag zur Berechnung der
mitderen langjährigen Grundwasserneubildung mit Hilfe der monatlichen
Niedrigwasserabflüsse. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellsehafi Sonderheft
Hydrogeologie und Hydrogeochemie: 89—95.
Kuras, P K., M. Weiler and Y. Alüa. 2008. The Spatiotemporal Variabiltty

of Runoff Generadon and Groundwater Dynamics in a Snow-Dominated
Catchment. Journal of Hydrology 352(1-2): 50-66.
Lagos-M., A., J. Sánchez-I., Z Quispe-M. and O. Palacios-M. 2006. Aportes al

análisis de cuencas sedimentarias en los alrededores de las localidades de los
Baños del Inca, Cruz Blanca, Otuzco, distrito de Cajamarca. In XIII Congreso
Peruano de Geología. Lima.
Landa-E., C , C. Van Hoof-B., W. Poma-R. and J. Mestanza-N. 1978. Us suelos de

la cuenca del rio Cajamarca. Cajamarca.
Lerner, D. N, A. S Issar and I. Simmers. 1990. Groundwater Recharge: A Guide to

Understanding and Estimating Natural Recharge. Hannover: Heise.
Lillich, W. 1970. Vergleich moderner Methoden zur Bestimmung des

Grundwasseranteils am Gesamtabfltiß an der Erdoberfläche. Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft. 17-25.
Luteyn, J.L. 1992. Páramos: Why Study Them? In Páramo: An Andean Ecosystem
Under Human Influence. H. Balslev and J.L. Luteyn (eds.), pp. 1—14. London:
Academic Press.
Magaritz, M., R. Aravena, H. Pena, O. Suzuki and A. Grilli. 1990. Source of

Ground Water in the Deserts of Northern Chile: Evidence of Deep Circulation
of Ground Water from the Andes. Ground Water2S{4): 513-517.
Martinez-Mena, M., A. G. Williams, J. L. Ternan and C. Fitzjohn. 1998. Role

of Antecedent Sou Water Content on Aggregates Stability in a Semi-Arid
Environment. Soil and Tillage Research 48(1-2): 71-80.
MoUna, E. G. and A. V. Litde. 1981. Geoecology of the Andes: The Natural

Science Basis for Research Planning. Mountain Research and Development. 115-144.
Moore, R. D. 1997. Storage-Outflow ModeUing of Streamflow Recessions, with

AppUcadon to a ShaUow-Soil Forested Catchment. Journal of Hydrology (198):
260-270.
MuUigan, M., J. Rubiano, G. Hyman, D. White, J. Garcia, M. Saravia, J. G

Leon, J. J. Selvaraj, T. Gutdérez and L. L. Saenz-Cruz. 2010. The Andes Basins:
Biophysical and Developmental Diversity in a CUmate of Change. Water
International'i5{5): 472-492.
MunicipaUdad Provincial de Cajamarca. 2012. Instaladon, mejoramiento del servido

de abastecimiento de agua mediante ¡apresa Chonta en el distrito de Cajamarcay distrito de
Baños del Inca -Provintia de Cajamarca-Cajamarca. Cajamarca, Peru: MunicipaUdad
Provincial de Cajamarca.
Nanzyo, M., S. Shoji and R. Dahlgren. 1993. Physical Charactedsdcs of Volcanic

Ash Soils. In Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilisation. S. Shoji, R.
Dahlgren and M. Nanzyo (eds.), pp. 189-201. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Nathan, R. J. and T. A. McMahon. 1990. Evaluadon of Automated Techniques

for Base Flow and Recessio Analyses. Water Resources Research 26(7): 1465-1473.
ONERN. 1975. Inventario, Evaluation y Uso Rational de los Recursos Naturales de

la Zona Sur del Departamento de Cajamarca. Lima, Peru: Oficina Nacional De
Evaluación De Recursos Naturales.
Peña, F. and V. Vargas. 2006. Mapa Hidrogeológico de la Cuenca del Río

Jequetepeque: Regiones Cajamarca y La Libertad. In XIII Congreso Peruano de
Geología. Lima: Sociedad Geológica del Perú.
Pilgrim, D. H., I. Cordery and B. C. Baron. 1982. Effects of Catchment Size on

Runoff Reladonships./(7Är«fl/ö/' Hydrology 58(3-4): 205-221.
Poma-Miranda, J. C. and R. de la Cruz Poma-Miranda. 2001. Aplicación del

Sistema de Información Geográfica en la Generación y gesdón de Información
de Capacidades de uso de los Suelos de la Intercuenca de los Ríos San Vincente
y Porcón. UnpubUshed Thesis, Cajamarca: Facultad de Ciencias Agricolas y
Forestales, Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca.
Poma-Rojas, W 1989. Estudio de suelos del área del Proyecto Piloto de Ecosistemas
Andinos. Cajamarca: PPEA.
Journal of Latin American Geography
Poma-Rojas, W and G. H. Alcántara-Boñón. 2010. Estudio de Suelos con fines

de Zonificación Ecológica Económica y Ordenamiento terretorial de la región Gajamarca.
Cajamarca: Gobierno Regional Cajamarca.
Poulenard, J., P. Podwojewski,J. L. Janeau andj. CoUinet. 2001. Runoff and Soil
Erosion under Rainfall Simulation of Andisols from the Ecuadorian Paramo:
Effect of Tillage and Burning. Gatena 45(3): 185-207.
Pulgar-Vidal, J.. 1996. Geografía del Perú. Las ocho regiones naturales - la
Regionalización transversal - la Sabidura Ecológica Tradicional. lima, Peru:
PEISA.
Reyes-Rivera, Luis. 1980. Geología de los cuadrángulos de Cajamarca, San

Marcos y Cajabamba. Lima: Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgica.
Robert, E., L. G. Bulot, A. Dhondt, E. Jaillard, R. Viüagomez, M. Rivadeneira

and M. Paz. 1998. La Transgresión del Cretáceo inferior en el margen andino
(Perú y Ecuador): Datos preliminares. Boletin Sociedad Geológica del Perú 88: 73-86.
Römkens, Mathias J. M., K. Helming and S. N. Prasad. 2002. Soil Erosion under
Different Rainfall Intensities, Surface Roughness, and Soil Water Regimes.
Ca/i«« 46(2-3): 103-123.
Rousseaux, J. M. and B. P. Warkentin. 1976. Surface Properties and Forces

Holding Water in AUophane Soils. Soil Sdence Sodety of America Journal 40: 446-
451.
Sánchez-Vega, L, M. CabaniUas-Soriano, A. Miranda-Leiva, W Poma-Rojas, J.

Díaz-Navarro, F. Terrones-Hernández and H. Bazán-Zurita. 2006. La jalea: el
ecosistemafrió del noroeste peruano, fundamentos biologicosy ecológicos. Cajamarca: Minera
Yanacocha.
Sánchez-Vega, I. and M. O. Dillon. 2006. Jaleas. In Botánica Económica de los Andes

Gentrales. M. R. Moraes, B. 011gaard, L. P. Kvist, F. Borchsenius and H. Balslev
(eds.), pp. 77-90. La Paz: Universidad Mayor de San Andrés.
Soil Science Glossary Terms Committee. 2008. Glossary of Soil Science Terms.
Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society of America.
Tallaksen, L. M. 1995. A Review of Baseflow Recession Analysis, journal of

Hydrology 165: 349-370.
Tovar-Pacheco, J. A., J. L. Sayan-Miranda, G. Pérez-Verástegui and A. Guzman-

Martinez. 2006. Estado del conocimiento de la hidrogeología en Perú. Boletín
Geológicoy Minero 117(1): 147-161.

Triscritd, F.. 2013. Mining, Development and Corporate-Community Conflicts
in Peru. Community Development Journal A'èÇy): 4 3 7 ^ 5 0 .
van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. A Closed-Form Equadon for Predicting the

Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated SoUs. Soil Sdence Sodety of America Journal
44(5): 892-898.
ViviroU, D , H. H. Dürr, B. MesserU, M. Meybeck and R. Weingartner. 2007.

Mountains of the World, Water Towers for Humanity: Typology, Mapping, and
Global Significance. Water Resources Research 43(7): W07447.
Viviroli, D. and R. Weingarmer. 2004. The Hydrological Significance of

Mountains: from Regional to Global Scale. Hydrology and Earth System Sdences
Discussions 8(6): 1017-1030.
White, W. B. 2002. Karst Hydrology: Recent Developments and Open Questions.

Engineering Geology 65(2): 85-105.
Wittenberg, H. 1994. Nonlinear Analysis of Flow Recession Curves. In

FRIEND — Flow Regimes from International Experimental and Network Datapp.
61-67: IAHS Publication.
.. 1999. Baseflow Recession and Recharge as NonUnear Storage

Processes. Hydrological Processes {\?)): 715-726.
.. 2011. Praktische Hydrologie. BerUn: Springer-Vieweg Verlag.
Wittenberg, H. and M Sivapalan. 1999. Watershed Groundwater Balance

Estimadon Using Streamflow Recession Analysis and Baseflow Separation.
Journal of Hydrology 219(1-2): 20-33.
Wundt, W 1953. Gewässerkunde. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Yanacocha. 2013. Yanacocha fulfiUs its social commitment with Cajamarca

by funding improvements to the Santa Apolónia plant. Press release from
25.06.2013. URL: http://www.newmont.com/south-america/press-releases/
yanacocha-fulfUls-its-social-commitment-cajam area-funding-improvements.
Young, A. 1989. Agroforestryfor Soil Conservation. WalUngford: CAB Internation

Copyright of Journal of Latin American Geography is the property of University of Texas
Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use.

IN218-IN91-Paper Sobre Escasez de Agua en El Norte Del Perú PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IN218-IN91-Paper Sobre Escasez de Agua en El Norte Del Perú PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dry Season Runoff and Natural Water

Storage Capacity in the High Andean

A typical example of the outlined situadon is the region surrounding

The existence of groundwater in the region of the city of Cajamarca is

The geological and hydrogeological units in the Ronquillo watershed

HydrographicaUy the watershed of the RonquiUo is characterized

Material and methods

1.250 2.500 5.000 Meters

Figure 2. Environmental setting of the Ronquillo watershed.

In the course of the four-year monitoring period (2008—2012), the data

where Q^ is the discharge at time / of the observed flow recession and At

where Q is discharge (m's"'), ,é is a dimensionless constant, A is the area (m^)

RS 2008/09 0.598 14.2 1.609 38.2 259 1,014 0.25

DS 2009 0.234 5.5 0.257 6.1 73 76 0.95

RS 2009/10 0.489 11.6 1.415 33.6 211 855 0.25

DS 2010 0.212 5.0 0.351 8.3 66 131 0.50

RS 2010/11 0.379 9.0 0.923 21.9 164 764 0.21

DS2011 0.193 4.6 0.228 5.4 60 89 0.67

RS 2011/12 0.781 18.5 2.065 49.0 339 911 0.37

However, runoff variability shows a differendated annual cyclicity

Table 2. Baseflowestimation based on tbe methods ofWundt (1953), Kille (1970),

Stream flow recession curve analysis

FoUowing the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s given by Wittenberg (1999, 2011) for

Table 3. Coefficients of the nonlinear reservoir, detennined forflowrecession

Water storage volume of hydrological buffer systems

Water storage system sous

5.0 11.8 2.3 19.2

Soil depth 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.53

Volume 2.5 7.1 1.1 10.8

10'm' 1.35 4.68 0.53 6.6

Water storage system rocks

into the Mesozoic sedimentary deposits resulted in a fractudng of the Mesozoic

P>fM>gwM San Pablo (sp)

Ttironian Cajtunarc (es)

Apüan Farr al (fa)

A disproportional increase of base flow with drainage area, however,

For localities located upstream of the measured erratic increment of runoff, _g

Figure 7: The discharge-drainage-area rado for the RonquiUo watershed

Summary and Discussion

widespread in the region of Cajamarca, as silica karst formadons. The existence

AG Boden. 1994. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. Hannover: Bundesanstalt für

Aksoy, H. and H. Wittenberg. 2011. Nonlinear Baseñow Recession Analysis

Aravena, R. 1995. Isotope Hydrology and Geochemistry of Northern Chile

Atkins, D, C. Calderón, E. Montoya and E. Morales. 2005. Evaluation of Water

Bakalowicz, M. 2005. Karst Groundwater: A Challenge for New Resources.

Benavides-Ferreyros, I., I.R. Ángeles-Lazo, E. Salazar-Salazar and J. Abásolo-

Bendix, J. and W. Lauer. 1992. Die Niederschlagsjahreszeiten in Ecuador und

Black, P. E. 1997. Watershed Functions. Journal of the American Water Resources

Blüthgen, J. and W. Weischet. 1980. Allgemeine Klimageographie. Berlin, New York:

Bretschneider,H.,K. Lecher and M.Schnriidt. 1993. Taschenbuch derWasserwirtschaft

Brouwer, C , A. Goffeau and M. Heibloem. 1985. Irrigation Water Management:

Bury, J. T. 2004. Livelihoods in Transition: Transnational Gold Mining Operations

. 2005. Mining Mountains: Neoliberalism, Land Tenure,

.. 2002. Livelihoods, Mining and Peasant Protests in the Peruvian

Buytaert, W, R. Célleri, B. De Bièvre, E Cisneros, G. Wyseure, J. Deckers and

Buytaert, W, V. Iñiguez and B. De Bièvre. 2007. The Effects of Afforestation

Buytaert, W, G. Wyseure, B. De Bievre and J. Deckers. 2005. The Effect of

Cammeraat, E. and H. Seijmonsbergen. 2010. Significance of SiUca Karst in

Carrillo-Rivera, J. J., A. Cardona, R. Huizar-Alavarez and E. Graniel. 2008.

CéUeri, R. and J. Feyen. 2009. The Hydrology of Tropical Andean Ecosystems:

Chapman, T.. 1999. A Comparison of Algorithms for Stream Flow Recession

Chávez-Guzmán, J. B. 1993. El Agua en la Subcuenca del Rio Manzanas. In

Dunne, T. and L. B. Leopold. 1978. Water in Environmental Planning. San Francisco: