Energy Engg.-Lab Manual

Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s
Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune-41

Department of Mechanical Engineering
ENERGY ENGINEERING (402047)

BE Mechanical (2015 Pattern)
Practical File
Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune – 41

Subject: Energy Engineering
Practical Plan
Practical
Topic Planned Dates Actual Dates
No.
01 Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power

plant.
02 Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional Power Plants
03 Study of Fluidized Bed Combustion system.
04 Study of High Pressure Boilers
05 Study of Co-generation Plants
Trial on Steam Power Plant or with help of suitable

software to determine
a) Plant Efficiency, Rankine Efficiency Vs Load
06
b) Specific Steam consumption Vs Load
c) Rate of Energy Input Vs Load
d) Heat Rate and Incremental heat Rate Vs Load
Trial on Diesel Power Plant or with help of suitable

software to determine
a) Plant Efficiency Vs Load
07 b) Total fuel consumption Vs Load
08 Study of Power Plant Instruments
Signature of Faculty Subject H.O.D. Principal

Co-ordinator Mechanical Engg. Dept. SCOE, pune
MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 2

List of Experiments
Any Eight Experiment should be conducted (from Experiment No. 1 to 10) and
 Experiment No 1, 2, 7, and 8 are compulsory
 Experiment No: 3 - 9 can be performed using suitable simulation software
1. Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power plant.

2. Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional Power Plants.
3. Study of Fluidized Bed Combustion system.
4. Study of High Pressure Boilers
5. Study of Steam Turbine Systems –governing systems, protective devices, lubricating systems,
glands and sealing systems.
6. Study of Co-generation Plants
7. Trial on Steam Power Plant or with help of suitable software to determine
a) Plant Efficiency, Rankine Efficiency Vs Load
b) Specific Steam consumption Vs Load
8. Trial on Diesel Power Plant or with help of suitable software to determine
a) Plant Efficiency Vs Load
b) Total fuel consumption Vs Load
9. Study of Power Plant Instruments.
10. Study of Different Tariff Methods
Books
Text :
1. Domkundwar & Arora, Power Plant Engineering, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, New Delhi
2. Domkundwar & Domkundwar- Solar Energy and Non-Conventional Sources of Energy,
Dhanpat Rai& Sons, New Delhi.
3. R.K.Rajput, Power Plant Engineering‖, Laxmi Publications New Delhi.
4. D.K.Chavan & G.K.Phatak, Power Plant Engineering‖, Standard Book House, New Delhi.
References :
1. E.I.Wakil, Power Plant Engineering‖, McGraw Hill Publications New Delhi
2. P.K.Nag, Power Plant Engineering‖, McGraw Hill Publications New Delhi.
3. R.Yadav , Steam and Gas Turbines‖ ,Central Publishing House, Allahabad.
4. G.D.Rai, Non-Conventional Energy Sources, Khanna Publishers,Delhi
5. S.P.Sukhatme, Solar Energy‖ Tata McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi
6. G R Nagpal Power Plant Engineering , Khanna Publication

Oral Questions

Sinhgad College Of Engineering, Pune - 41
Term Work No: - 01
Study of “Visit to Thermal Power plant

/Co-generation Power plant”

AIM: -
Study of “Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power plant”
THEORY: -
The students are expected to visit any one Thermal /Co-generation Power plant and
write a report on it. The report should summarize the following points:
(a) Name of Thermal Power Plant

(b) Place of visit.
(c) Day / Date
(d) Introduction of power plant
(e) Block diagram of plant layout
(f) Unique features of power plant
(g) Specifications of plant
(h) Photographs
(i) Summarization

Term Work No: - 02
Study of “Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-

Conventional Power Plants”

AIM: -
Study of “Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional Power Plants.”
THEORY: -
The students are expected to visit any one Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional

Power Plants and write a report on it. The report should summarize the following
points:
(j) Name of Thermal Power Plant

(k) Place of visit.
(l) Day / Date
(m) Introduction of power plant
(n) Block diagram of plant layout
(o) Unique features of power plant
(p) Specifications of plant
(q) Photographs
(r) Summarization

Term Work No: - 03
Trial on “Study of Fluidized Bed Combustion

system”

AIM:- Study of Fluidized Bed Combustor

THEORY:-
3.1 Introduction
When air is passed through a fixed or packed bed of particles, air simply percolates
through the interstitial gaps between the particles. As the air flow rate through the
bed is steadily increased, A point is eventually reached at which the pressure drop
across the bed becomes equal to weight of the particles per unit cross-sectional area
of the bed. This critical velocity is called the minimum fluidization velocity, Umf, at
which the bed is said to be incipiently fluidized. As the air velocity is increased
further, the particles are buoyed up and imparted a violently turbulent fluid like
motion, with the drag forces exerted by the fluid on the particles exceeding their
weight. There is high degree of particle mixing and equilibrium between gas and
particles is rapidly established. This is called a fluidized bed.
In Fig.1 air supplied by a centrifugal blower is passed through a perforated or porous
plate, called the distributor, and then a bed of particles of wide size distribution. The
air flow rate is regulated by a bypass valve along with a control valve, and it is
measured by a rotameter. Dividing the mass flow rate, so measured, by the product of
the bed cross sectional area and density of air, the superficial velocity of air, U, is
estimated. For each mass flow rate or superficial velocity, which is gradually
increased, the pressure drop across the bed is measured.
Fig. 1: Measurement of Umf and Ut of Fluidized Bed
Fig. 2 demonstrates the variation of bed pressure drop with superficial velocity. The
pressure drop ∆p varies with the superficial velocity linearly along AB till it
approaches W/At, where W is the weight of particles in the bed and At is the bed

crosses sectional area. This is the fixed bed regime. With further increase in air flow,
the particles are buoyed up by the drag force only to fall back into the bed yielding
high turbulence, with ∆p=W/At remaining constant. This continues till there is
considerable pressure fluctuation and finally the superficial velocity reaches the state
C when particles start getting entrained in the air system, The superficial velocity of
air at which particle entrainment starts is called terminal velocity, Ut, of the particles,
The state of the bed in the range of superficial velocity from B to C, i.e. between Umf
and Ut is the fluidized bed regime. With further increase in velocity, the entrained
particles carried away, the weight of particles in the bed and so ∆p decrease till it
reaches the state D when all the particles are carried away, by the air stream, bed
becomes empty and ∆p zero.
Fig. 2: Variation of bed pressure drop with superficial velocity
3.2 Fluidized Bed Boilers

Fluidized bed boilers produce steam from fossil and waste fuels by using a technique
called fluidized bed combustion which has been discussed above.
These can be of two types:
1. Atmospheric Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB)
2. Circulating fluidized bed (CFB)
3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed


1. Atmospheric Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB)

Fig. 4 shows a bubbling fluid bed boiler system operating at atmospheric pressure,
similar to the one of 160 MWe Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) project at Shawn
similar to the one of 160 MWe Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) project at Shawnee,
USA, recently installed (1993).
USA, recently installed (1993).

Fig. 3: An atmospheric bubbling fluid bed boiler system
: An atmospheric bubbling fluid bed boiler system
: An atmospheric bubbling fluid bed boiler system

2. Circulating
ing fluidized bed (CFB)
The CFB boiler is said to be second generation fluidized bed boiler (Fig 5). It is divided
into two sections. The first section consists of (a) furnace or fast fluidized bed, (b) gas-
into two sections. The first section consists of (a) furnace or fast fluidized bed, (b) gas
solid separator (cyclone), (c) solid recycle device (loop seal or L-L-valve), and (d)
external heat exchanger (optional). These components from a solid circulation loop in
which fuel is burned. The furnace enclosure of CFB boiler is generally made of water
which fuel is burned. The furnace enclosure of CFB boiler is generally made of water
tubes as in pulverized coal fired (PC) boilers. A fraction of the generated heat is
absorbed by these heat transferring tubes. The second section is the back
absorbed by these heat transferring tubes. The second section is the back-pass, where
the remaining heat from the flue gas is absorbed by the reheater,
reheater, superheater,
economizer, and air preheater surfaces (as in conventional PC boiler).
economizer, and air preheater surfaces (as in conventional PC boiler).

II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019
MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018 Page 12
Coal is generally injected into the lower section of the furnace. Sometimes fed into the
loop-seal, from which it enters the furnace along returned hot solids, Limestone i
seal, from which it enters the furnace along returned hot solids, Limestone i
seal, from which it enters the furnace along returned hot solids, Limestone is fed
into the bed in a similar manner. Coal when mixed hot bed solids.
into the bed in a similar manner. Coal when mixed hot bed solids.
The primary combustion air enters furnace through an air distributor grate at the
furnace floor. The secondary air is injected at some height above grate to complete the
combustion. Bed solids are well mixed throughout the height of the furnace. Thus, the
ed solids are well mixed throughout the height of the furnace. Thus, the
bed temperature is nearly uniform in the 800
bed temperature is nearly uniform in the 800-900℃, through heat is extracted along
, through heat is extracted along
its height. Relatively coarse par of sorbent (limestone) and unburned char, larger than
the cyclone cut-off are captured in the cyclone and are recycled back near the base of
off are captured in the cyclone and are recycled back near the base of
the furnace. Finer solid residues (ash and spent
spent sorbents) generated during
combustion desulphurization leave the furnace, escaping through the cyclones, but
collected by a bag-house or electrostatic precipitator located further downstream.
house or electrostatic precipitator located further downstream.
house or electrostatic precipitator located further downstream.

Fig. 4: Schematic of a Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler
chematic of a Circulating Fluidized Bed Boiler
Advantages
vantages of CFB Boilers:
Circulating fluidized bed boilers have a number of unique: that makes them more
attractive than other solid fuel fired boilers as given below.
i. Fuel Flexibility: This one of the most attractive features of CFB boilers. Fuel particl
This one of the most attractive features of CFB boilers. Fuel particles
constitute less than 1-3% by weight of all solids in the furnace of typical CFB boilers.
3% by weight of all solids in the furnace of typical CFB boilers.
The rest of the solids are non combustible: sorbents (limestone or dolomite) and fuel-
The rest of the solids are non-combustible: sorbents (limestone or dolomite) and fuel
ash. The special hydrodynamic condition in the CFB furnace allows an excellent
ash. The special hydrodynamic condition in the CFB furnace allows an excellent gas-
solid and solid-solid mixing. Thus fuel particles fed to the furnace are quickly
dispersed into the large mass of bed solids , which rapidly heat the fuel particles
above their ignition temperature without any drop in the temperature of bed solids.
This feature of a CFB furnace allows it to burn any fuel without the support of an
auxiliary fuel.
ii. High combustion efficiency :
Superior mixing in the CFB , large reaction space (combustion zone extending up to
the top of the furnace , about 40m and above large utility boilers, and further beyond
into the hot cyclone) and consequently long residence time of combustion afford high
combustion efficiencies which can be 99% for a wide variety of fuels under different
operating conditions.
iii. Efficient Sulphur removal :
When coal burns, sulphur is oxidized to sulphur dioxideS+O2=SO2+9260kJ/kg. Some
part of SO2 converted toSO3.This SO2 and SO3 if thrown out to atmosphere undergo
chemical reaction with moisture, catalyzed by sunlight to form acids.
Limestone and dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3) are two principle sorbents used for the
absorption of S02 in fluidized bed combustors. For limestone directly fed into the CFB
furnace as bed material, there is calcinations when the limestone is decomposed into
CaO and CO2 through an endothermic reaction. Good contact between the gas and
solid and long residence time in the CFB combustor afford better sulphur capture at
Ca/S ratio of 1.5 to 2.0.
iv. Low NOx emission :
Owing to low combustion temperature and the staged combustion process, NOx
emission in a CFB can be kept low, in the range of 50-150 ppm.
v. Small furnace cross section :
A high heat release rate per unit furnace cross-section (about 5MW/m2) is a major
advantage of CFB boiler. It results in less floor area. A high superficial velocity (4-7
m/s) along with, intense gas solid mixing promotes high heat release and heat
dispersion in the bed.
3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Boiler

The combustion process takes place in a pressurized environment resulting in a
compact furnace and improved combustion efficiency. There is situ sulphur capture
and low NOx generation with bed operating at about 850℃ like atmospheric fluidized
bed combustion (AFBe) furnace. The process allows the use of a gas turbine, driven by
pressurized hot combustion gases. Thus, in addition to having the ability to burn high

sulphur and low grade coal in an environmentally acceptable
acceptable manner and the
compactness of the steam generator.
compactness of the steam generator.

Fig
Fig 5: Pressurized Fluidized Bed Boiler
The advantages of PBFBC are as follows:

i. There is increase in its specific power output and hence a potential reduction
in capital cost. At a typical fluidizing velocity of 2 m/s the bed area of AFBC at 1
in capital cost. At a typical fluidizing velocity of 2 m/s the bed area of AFBC at 1
bar is 2 m2/MW, while it is 0.2 m2/MW at 10 bars.
ii. By combining a gas turbine with a steam turbine, the overall efficiency of
power generation system can be increased from 33% for conventional power
plants to more than 40% in PBFBC plants.
more than 40% in PBFBC plants.
iii. The emission of nitrogen oxides can be substantially reduced.
The emission of nitrogen oxides can be substantially reduced.
iv. The PBFBC has higher combustion efficiency than an AFBC.
The PBFBC has higher combustion efficiency than an AFBC.
v. The gas residence time in an AFBC is about 0.5 s, in a PBFBC (due to fluidizing
velocity of about 1 m/s for
for a higher gas density), Therefore, the sulphur
capture is more.

Term Work No: - 04
Study of “High Pressure Boilers”

AIM: - Study of high pressure Boilers.

Learning objective:
1. To get conversant with steam Boiler and its classification.
2. To understand working of some special types of boilers operating at super critical
pressures.
3. To understand Features of high pressure (power) boilers

THEORY:-
In all modern power plants, high pressure boilers (> 100 bar) are universally used as
they offer the following advantages. In order to obtain efficient operation and high
capacity, forced circulation of water through boiler tubes is found helpful. Some
special types of boilers operating at super critical pressures and using forced
circulations are described in this experiment.
1. The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of
steam is required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
2. The forced circulation of water through boiler tubes provides freedom in the
arrangement of furnace and water walls, in addition to the reduction in the heat
exchange area.
3. The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
4. The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
5. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces
the possibility of gas and air leakages.
6. Some special types of high pressure supercritical boilers are described in this
experiment.
Features of High-pressure Boilers:
1. Forced circulation of water – in all modern high-pressure boilers, the force

circulation of water is maintained with the help of pumps. It raises the mean
temperature of heat addition and evaporation capacity if the boiler.
2. Large number of small diameter tubes – the surface-area-to-volume-ratio (area

density) increases with the use of small-diameter tubes. It helps in a high rate of
the heat transfer to water flowing inside the tubes. Further, use of a short tube
reduces the pressure loss and gives the better control the quality of steam.
3. Improved mode of heating – the high-pressure boilers use the following

methods for improved heat transfer rate:
a. Evaporative of water above the critical pressure of steam.
b. Heating of water by mixing superheated steam for high heat transfer rate.

c. Increasing the combustion of air velocity over the tube.
4. Pressurized combustion – for increasing the combustion rate and thus heat-
release rate, pressurized air is used in the furnace. It gives a large amount of heat
in a small space.

1. LA MONT BOILER
A forced circulation boiler was first introduced in 1925 by La Mont. The
arrangement of water circulation and different components are shown in Fig. 1 The
feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler)
through the economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water
passing through the economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times
the mass of steam evaporated. This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes
and the part of the vapour is separated in the separator drum. The large quantity of
water circulated (10 times that of evaporation) prevents the tubes from being
overheated.
The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar
above the drum pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the
nozzle into the evaporator. The steam separated in the boiler is further passed
through the super-heater. Secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the
parallel boiler circuits a choke is fitted entrance to each circuit. These boilers have
been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 120 bar
and temperature of 500°C. Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large
capacity power.

Fig.1 LA MONT BOILER

2. BENSON BOILER
The main difficulty experienced in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment
of bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles reduce the
heat flow and steam generation as it offers higher thermal resistance compared to
water film
1. Benson in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical
pressure (225 atm.), the steam and water would have the same density and
therefore the danger of bubble formation can be completely
2. Natural circulation boilers require expansion joints but these are not required
for Benson as the pipes are welded. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and
quicker as all the parts are welded at site and workshop job of tube expansion is
altogether avoided.
3. The transport of Benson boiler parts is easy as no drums are required and
majority of the parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
4. The Benson boiler can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area. The
space problem does not control the size of Benson boiler used.
5. The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using small
diameter and close pitched tubes.
6. The superheater in the Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation
system, therefore no special starting arrangement for superheater is required.
7. The Benson boiler can be started very quickly because of welded joints.
8. The Benson boiler can be operated most economically by varying the
temperature and pressure at partial loads and overloads. The desired
temperature can also be maintained constant at any pressure.
9. Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems due to bubble formation in
the natural circulation boiler which never occurs in Benson boiler. This feature of
insensitiveness to load fluctuations makes it more suitable for grid power station
as it has better adaptive capacity to meet sudden load fluctuations.
10. The blow-down losses of Benson boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation
boilers of same capacity.
11. Explosion hazards are not at all severe as it consists of only tubes of small
diameter and has very little storage capacity compared to drum type boiler.
During starting, the water is passed through the economiser, evaporator, superheater
and back to the feed line via starting valve A. During starting the valve B is closed. As
the steam generation starts and it becomes superheated, the valve A is closed and the
valve B is opened. During starting, first circulating pumps are started and then the
burners are started to avoid the overheating of evaporator and superheater tubes.

Fig 2 : Benson Boiler

3. VELOX BOILER:
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound-velocity, the heat is transferred from the
gas at a much higher rate than rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. The advantages of this
theory are taken to obtain the large heat transfer from a smaller surface area in this boiler.
Air is compressed to 2.5 bars with the help of a compressor run by gas turbine before
supplying to the combustion chamber to get the supersonic velocity of the gases passing
through the combustion chamber and gas tubes and high heat release rates. The burned
gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the tubes. The heat is
transferred from gases to water while passing through the annulus to generate the steam.
The mixture of water and steam thus formed then passes into a separator which is so
designed that the mixture enters with a spiral flow. The centrifugal force thus produced
causes the heavier water particles to be thrown outward on the walls. This effect separates
the steam from water.
The separated steam is further passed to superheater and then supplied to the prime-
mover. The water removed from steam in the separator is again passed into the water tubes
with the help of a pump. The gases coming out from the annulus at the top are further
passed over the superheater where its heat is used-for superheating the steam. The power
output of the gas turbine is used to run the air-compressor. The exhaust gases coming out
from the gas turbine are passed through the economiser to utilize the remaining heat of the
gases. The extra power required to run the compressor is supplied with the help of electric

motor. Feed water of 10 to 20 times the weight of steam generated is circulated through the
tubes with the help of water circulating pump. This prevents the overheating of metal walls.
Fig.3: Velox Boiler
4. SUPER CRITICAL BOILER
Boilers can be designed to operate at pressures above the critical pressure (221.2
bar). No drum is necessary in such boilers since no separation of the water and steam
occurs, the two being at the same density.
2- Steam Separator
3- Boiler Feed Pump
5- Economiser
6-Evaporator
7- Superheater

Fig. 4 Ones through boiler

Thus, there is no circulation. The water enters the bottom of the tubes and is
completely transformed to steam by the time it reaches the top, passing through the
tubes only ones. For this reason it is known as a ones-through boiler, often referred to
as drumless boiler.
Advantages of High-pressure Boilers:
1. High-pressure boilers use the forced circulation of water which ensures the
positive circulation of water and increased evaporative capacity.
2. They require less heat of vaporization.
3. They are compact and thus require less floor space.
4. Due to the high velocity of water, the tendency of scale formation is minimized.
5. All parts are uniformly heated and the danger of overheating is minimized.
6. The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without
the use of complicated control devices.
7. The plant efficiency is increased.
8. With the use of high-pressure boilers, the steam generation is economical
Conclusion: -Hence we studied working principle and types of high pressure Boilers.

Term Work No: - 05
Study of “Co-generation Plants”

Title: Study of Co-generation Power Plant
Learning Objectives: To Study of Co-generation Power Plant.
Introduction:
Thermal power plants are a major source of electricity supply in India. The
conventional method of power generation and supply to the customer is wasteful in
the sense that only about a third of the primary energy fed into the power plant is
actually made available to the user in the form of electricity (Figure 1). In
conventional power plant, efficiency is only 35% and remaining 65% of energy is lost.
The major source of loss in the conversion process is the heat rejected to the
surrounding water or air due to the inherent constraints of the different
thermodynamic cycles employed in power generation. Also further losses of around
10–15% are associated with the transmission and distribution of electricity in the
electrical grid.
Fig 1: Balance in a typical coal fired power station for an input Energy of 100 Giga
Joules (GI)
Principle of Cogeneration:
Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is defined as the sequential
generation of two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy
source, typically mechanical energy and thermal energy. Mechanical energy may be
used to drive an alternator for producing electricity, or rotating equipment such as
motor, compressor, pump or fan for delivering various services. Thermal energy can

be used either for direct process applications or for indirectly producing steam, hot
water, hot air for dryer or chilled water for process cooling.
Cogeneration provides a wide range of technologies for application in various
domains of economic activities. The overall efficiency of energy use in cogeneration
mode can be up to 85 per cent and above in some cases.
For example in the scheme shown in Figure 2, an industry requires 24 units of
electrical energy and 34 units of heat energy. Through separate heat and power route
the primary energy input in power plant will be 60 units (24/0.40). If a separate
boiler is used for steam generation then the fuel input to boiler will be 40 units
(34/0.85). If the plant had cogeneration then the fuel input will be only 68 units
(24+34)/0.85 to meet both electrical and thermal energy requirements. It can be
observed that the losses, which were 42 units in the case of, separate heat and power
has reduced to 10 units in cogeneration mode.

Along with the saving of fossil fuels, cogeneration also allows to reduce the
emission of greenhouse gases (particularly CO2 emission). The production of
electricity being on-site, the burden on the utility network is reduced and the
transmission line losses eliminated.

Fig 2: Cogeneration advantage
Cogeneration makes sense from both macro and micro perspectives. At the
macro level, it allows a part of the financial burden of the national power utility to be
shared by the private sector; in addition, indigenous energy sources are conserved. At
the micro level, the overall energy bill of the users can be reduced, particularly when
there is a simultaneous need for both power and heat at the site, and a rational energy
tariff is practiced in the country.
Classification of Cogeneration Systems:

Cogeneration systems are normally classified according to the sequence of
energy use and the operating schemes adopted.

A cogeneration system can be classified as either a topping or a bottoming
cycle on the basis of the sequence of energy use. In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is
used to first produce power and then thermal energy, which is the by-product of the
cycle and is used to satisfy process heat or other thermal requirements. Topping cycle
cogeneration is widely used and is the most popular method of cogeneration.

a. Topping Cycle
The four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems are briefly explained in
Table 1.
Table 1: Types of topping Cycles
A gas turbine or diesel

engine producing
electrical or mechanical
power followed by a heat
recovery boiler to create
steam to drive a
secondary steam turbine.
This is called a combined-
cycle topping system.

The second type of system
burns fuel (any type) to
produce high-pressure
steam that then passes
through a steam turbine
to produce power with
the exhaust provides low-
pressure process steam.
This is a steam-turbine
topping system.


A third type employs heat
recovery from an engine
exhaust and/or jacket
cooling system flowing to
a heat recovery boiler,
where it is converted to
process steam / hot water
for further use.

The fourth type is a gas-

gas
turbine topping system. A
ystem. A
natural gas turbine drives
a generator. The exhaust
gas goes to a heat
recovery boiler that
makes process steam and
process heat

b. Bottoming Cycle:
In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high temperature thermal energy
and the heat rejected
jected from the process is used to generate power through a
recovery boiler and a turbine generator. Bottoming cycles are suitable for
manufacturing processes that require heat at high temperature in furnaces and
kilns, and reject heat at significantly high temperatures. Typical areas of
application include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical industries.
Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants.
Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants.
The Figure 3 illustrates the bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a furna
furnace to
produce synthetic rutile. The waste gases coming out of the furnace is utilized in a
boiler to generate steam, which drives the turbine to produce electricity.
boiler to generate steam, which drives the turbine to produce electricity

Fig.3: Bottoming Cycle
Conclusion: -Hence we studied working principle and types of Co-generation Power

Plant.


Term Work No: - 06
Trial on “Steam Power Plant”

AIM: To conduct a trial on steam power plant and determine the Optimum Point Load

THEORY:
1. Introduction:
Steam power plants are the most common source of electrical energy in the
world today. They also find use as captive power plants in various industries and co-
generation power plants. Steam power plants work on the Rankine cycle with
modified superheating and regenerative feed heating. Operating pressure ranges from
30 bar to 180 bar and can occasionally peak at 240 bar. Temperature ranges from
450°C to 585°C. Thermal power plants use a condensing turbine while those meant
for captive power plants use a non-condensing turbine as well. Plant capacity ranges
from 5 MW to 500 MW. Steam power plants can use a wide range of fuels such as coal
(crushed or pulverized), oil, natural gas, waste gas at high temperature, industrial
waste fuels of furnace oils and LSHS. These days, waste heat recovery plants are
becoming very popular because of their reduced fuel consumption and are finding use
in steel, cement, soda-ash industries, etc. Steam plants are also used as bottoming
plants in combined cycle power plants with gas turbine plants as topping power
plants.
2. Description of the Laboratory Steam Plant:
The boiler consists of two helical coils through which water, under pressure, flows.
The feed water pump pumps water from the exit of the economizer to the lower end
of the water tubes. When flowing through the tubes, feed water is directly flashed into
steam and is collected in the common header, which is placed at the top of the boiler.
Steam is generally wet and hence moisture needs to be separated at the exit. Moisture
separator and steam traps are provided in the steam line to supply dry steam to the
turbine. The boiler works on high speed diesel (HSD) oil, which is stored in an
overhead tank. It is supplied to the burner by a gear pump under a constant pressure
for proper atomization.
High temperature gas generated in the furnace flows from the top of the boiler to the
bottom through the inner core of the tube. They are then deflected upward from the
outer side of the tube and enter the economiser where it preheats feed water and then
leaves the boiler through the chimney.

In the steam line, steam flow meter and separating and throttling calorimeters are
provided to find the steam flow and dryness fraction of the steam. A separate
pressure gauge near the turbine gives the steam pressure.
Steam turbine is a re-entry type impulse turbine with single disc i.e. it is a two-stage
velocity compounded steam turbine with hemispherical buckets. To keep the turbine
speed constant, pressure of the incoming steam is governed by a centrifugal governor.
The output of the turbine is used to drive a single phase alternator, which supplies
constant load to the lamp bank and variable water load.

1 Stack 8 To separating and Throttling calorimeter
2 Water Tank 9 Load Bank
3 Economizer 10 Generator Set
4 Feed Water Pump 11 Steam Turbine
(reciprocating)
5 Main body of Boiler 12 Economizer
6 Fuel Injector with Burner 13 Fuel Pump (gear pump)
7 FCV 14 Flexible Coupling

Fig. 1: Schematic of steam power plant
Steam passes through the condenser where it is condensed by cooling water. The
turbine can be operated in condensing and non-condensing modes. The condensate is
sent to the supply water tank of the boiler.

3. Plant Specification:
 Boiler
1. Manufacturer : 3M Boilers Pvt. Ltd., Pune
2. Working Pressure : 15 bar
3. Evaporation Rate : 800 kg/hr (wet steam)
4. Fuel Used : High Speed Diesel (HSD) Oil, LDO, FO
5. Type : Non-IBR, Water Tube, Package Type
 Turbine Generator Set
1. Output : 6 KVA
2. Voltage : 230 V, Single Phase, 50 Hz
3. Speed : 3000 rpm
4. Procedure:
1. Open the cocks on the fuel tank and water tank and switch on the supply
through the panel mounted on the boiler.
2. Put the main switch in ‘CIRL’ position, so that the feed pump starts pumping
water through the boiler tubes and pumps out air trapped in the tubes through
the air valve on the top of the boiler.
3. Put the switch on the ‘AUTO’ mode, which will start the blower and fuel pump.
The burner will be immediately fired by a spark plug.
4. Observe the steam coming out of the vent in about one minute.
5. Slowly close the valve on the vent pipe, when temperature reaches 192°C.
Allow the turbine to increase speed. This will cause the lamps in the control
panel to glow. The lamp-bank remains on the turbine through out to the
control panel, since there is no emergency trip on the turbine.
6. Adjust the depth of immersion of the electrode in the water loading system to
give the required load current, such as 5 A, and record all the readings, once
the system reaches steady state.
7. After the test is over, slowly remove the load and simultaneously close the
steam stop valve, so that the turbine slows down.
8. Open the valve on the vent pipe and allow the boiler steam to discharge to the
atmosphere.
9. Put the selector control switch to ‘CIRL’ and let water circulate through the
boiler tube. Observe this for about five minutes, by which time, the boiler will
cool down. Switch off the main supply and close all cocks and valves except for
the vent pipes.
10. Clean the unit.


5. Observations:
1. Barometric Reading (Pa) = 1 bar
2. Room temperature (Ta) = °C
3. Diameter of the Orifice = 24 mm
4. Rate of Fuel Firing = 60 lph
5. Density of Fuel (ρ) = 0.83 kg/l
6. Calorific Value of Fuel = 42,500 kJ/kg
7. Feed-water Temperature (ti) = °C
6. Observation Table:
Sr
Description 1 2 3 4
No
1. Steam pressure at boiler valve (P1) (kg/cm2)
Temperature of steam at boiler steam stop
2.
valve (t1) (°C)
3. Pressure difference at orifice (ΔP) (kg/cm2)
Time for collecting 100 cc water in separating
4.
calorimeter (T2) (s)
Temperature of water in separating
5.
calorimeter (t2) (°C)
Time for collecting 1000 cc water in throttling
6.
calorimeter (T3) (s)
Temperature of water in throttling calorimeter
7.
(t3) (°C)
Pressure of steam before throttling (P3)
8.
(kg/cm2)
9. Temperature of steam after throttling (t4) (°C)
10. Pressure of steam near turbine (P4) (kg/cm2)
11. Turbine speed (N) (rpm)
12. Generator voltage (V) (volts)
13. Load Current (I) (Amps)

Time for boiler operation out of 5 minutes (T1)
14.
(s)
15. Load (W)

7. Sample Calculations:
1. Steam pressure at boiler (P1):

P1(abs) = P1(gauge) + Pa
=
P1(abs) =

2. Absolute Pressure before throttling (P3):
=
P3(abs) =

3. Pressure at turbine inlet (P4):
=
P4(abs) =

4. Pressure of steam at orifice-meter (P2):
P1(abs) + P4(abs)
P2(abs) = 2

=
P2(abs) =

5. Fuel fired in boiler for 5 min load duration (mf):
( ) × × ρ
=
=
=

6. Thermal energy supplied to boiler during 5 min load duration (QS):
QS = mf x C.V.
=
QS =
7. Rate of heat supplied (I):

QS × 3600
I =
5 × 60
=
I =


8. Plant output (electrical) (Le):
Le = Le(const) + Le(variable)
V . I
= + 1000
=
Le =

9. Plant efficiency (ηp):
×
ηp = × 100
=
ηp =

10. Heat Rate ( HR):
I
HR = L
e
=
HR =
Incremental heat rate (IHR) = dI/dL

IHR is found from graph of I vs L by measuring the slope of the tangent
at the given load.
8. Result Table:
Sr
Plant Performance Parameter 1 2 3 4
No
1. Plant Load (kW)
2. Plant Input (kJ/hr)
3. Plant efficiency (%)
4. Heat Rate (kJ/kW-hr) (×103)
5. IHR (kJ/kW-hr) (×103)
9. Conclusions:

The graph of IHR and HR vs Load indicates that the optimum loading point
occurs at KW.

Graphical Analysis

Term Work No: - 07
Trial on “Diesel Power Plant”

AIM: To conduct a trial on diesel power plant and to determine the operating
parameters and economical load of the plant.
THEORY:
1. Introduction:
Diesel power plants have the advantages over other types of power plants that they
don’t need any warming time and don’t need to be run for a very long time before
loading. There are no standby losses, like those in steam power plants. Diesel power
plants are used in applications where fuel costs are low, water supply is limited and
plant capacity is less (5 to 10 MW).
1.1. Advantages of Diesel Power Plants over Thermal Power Plants:
1. Diesel power plants are more efficient than thermal power plants for lower
capacity plants.
2. Diesel power plants can run on a wide range of fuels such as HSD, LSD, FO,
HFO and LHSH and can also use natural gas.
3. Low initial cost.
4. Quick starting.
5. Easy to maintain.
6. Compact.
7. Can be installed.
8. No ash handling system required.
9. Simple lubrication system required.
10. High efficiency.
1.2. Disadvantages
1. These plants have lower capacity than thermal power plants.
2. Higher repair costs.
3. Diesel power plant has shorter life.
4. They produce excessive noise.
5. High lubricating oil consumption.
6. These plants are not suitable for long control operations.
1.3. Applications
1. Central Power plant
Power generation capacity of diesel power plants is limited to 50 to 100 MW. This
capacity depends upon the economics of cost of the plant and load conditions.
2. Standby Plant
Diesel power plants are used as standby plant to supply a part of the load in power
station when required. e.g. if hydroelectric power plant is a main source of

electricity and water supply falls, a diesel power plant is used temporarily in
parallel with hydroelectric power plant.
3. Peak Load Plant
Diesel power plants are used for meeting peak load requirement, while base load is
supplied by a thermal of hydroelectric power plant. Diesel power plants are ideally
suited to this application because they can be started to meet the required load.
4. Emergency Plant
Diesel power plants are also used as emergency plants to meet the power
requirement when main power plant fails.
5. Nursery station
Whenever smaller power plants are to be setup, diesel power plants are the most
suitable since generation period is smaller. These small capacity plants are called
nursery stations.
6. Setup Plants
Diesel power plants are used as auxiliary power plants for starting large plants.
7. Mobile Plants
Mobile diesel power plants, usually trailer mounted, can be used for a wide range
of applications, supplying power to construction sites etc.

2. Experimental Setup
The setup consists of 5HP diesel engine which is mounted on a foundation.

Water is circulated through a water jacket for cooling the plant. Water is also
provided to the exhaust gas calorimeter. The engine is connected to a single phase ac
generator by means of a coupling. Electricity thus generated is supplied to load bank.
2.1. Specifications:
Engine:
1. Make : Kirloskar Oil Engines
2. Type : Single cylinder, vertically mounted
3. Speed : 1500 rpm
4. Bore*Stroke : 90 mm * 110 mm
5. Power : 5 HP (3.75 kW)
Generator:
1. Type: Electric generator
2. Capacity: 5kVA, 50Hz, 230 at 1500 rpm.


2.2. Test Setup:
An electric load bank consist
consist six 500W bulbs and five 100W bulbbulbs with digital
voltmeter, ammeter, shell and tube exhaust calorimeter, air box with an orifice and
digital gas calorimeter at various points with thermocouple.
digital gas calorimeter at various points with thermocouple.

2.3. Procedure:
1. Ensure that there is sufficient fuel in the tank.
Ensure that there is sufficient fuel in the tank.
2. Starts the water tap to supply
supply water to the engine and the exhaust gas
calorimeter.
3. Switch on the AC supply.
Switch on the AC supply.
4. Note all reading.
Note all reading.
5. Gradually load the engine by turning on the bulbs one by one.
Gradually load the engine by turning on the bulbs one by one.
6. Repeat the above procedure for different values of load.
Repeat the above procedure for different values of load.
7. To stop the engine, first unload the engine and then pull the stop lever.
To stop the engine, first unload the engine and then pull the stop lever.
2.4. Observations:
1. Density of fuel(ρ) : 0.83kg/ltr
Density of fuel(ρ) : 0.83kg/ltr
2. Calorific value of fuel : 42500kJ/kg
Calorific value of fuel : 42500kJ/kg
Time for 10
Speed Voltage Current Load Exhaust gas
ml of Fuel ‘t’
(rpm) V (volts) I (Amp) (kW) temp. (℃)
(sec)

2.5. Calculations
1. Power output from engine (Load) (L) = V×I =
2. Fuel Consumption(mf) = × ρ × 10 =
( )
3. Plant efficiency (η) = × .
=
4. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (B.S.F.C) = mf × . ( )
=
5. Plant input (I) = mf × C. V. =
6. Heat rate (HR) = =
∆
7. Incremental heat rate ( ) = =
∆
2.6. Result Table
Fuel flow
Plant B.S.F.C Plant I/P H.R. I. H. R.
Load L rate (mf ×
efficiency (kg/kw- (I) kJ/hr kJ/kW-hr (kJ/kw-
(W) 103)
ɳ (%) hr) 103 ×103 hr) × 103
(kg/s)
3. Conclusions
1. From the graph of mass flow rate Vs load, it is observed that as load
increases engine has to produce more work.
2. The graph of BSFC Vs load shows a dropping nature. BSFC decreases with
load because higher fuel is consumed more efficiently.
3. Brake thermal efficiency increases with load. Graph of IHR & HR Vs load
indicated optimum loading point occurs at __________.

Graphical Analysis:

Term Work No: - 08
Study of Power Plant Instruments

Aim: To study various instruments used in power plants.
Theory: In power plants various instruments are used for a number of reasons so as
to operate the power plant efficiently. Instruments provide accurate information for
guidance to safe, continuous and proper plant operation.
Classification of instruments: The two general classifications of instruments are:

1. Those employing purely mechanical methods
2. Those employing electro-mechanical methods
The instruments can also be classified as follows:

1. Indicating instruments
2. Recording instruments
3. Indicating and Recording instruments
4. Indicating and integrating instruments
5. Recording, Indicating and integrating instruments
Commonly used instruments in a power plant are:

1. Pressure gauges
2. Thermometers
3. Liquid level gauges
4. Flow meters
5. Gas analyzers
6. Humidity measuring instruments
7. Impurity measuring instruments
8. Speed measuring instruments
9. Steam calorimeter and fuel calorimeter
10. Electrical instruments
1. Pressure gauges:
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges.
A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually

limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer
manometer is often
used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum gauge is
r specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum gauge is
used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which
vacuum which is further divided into two
subcategories, high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high
ultra high vacuum). The
applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums has an
applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums has an
overlap.
Fig 1: Pressure gauge
2. Thermometers:
A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using
a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using
a variety of different principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the
temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical
change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change
rs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change
into a numerical value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).
into a numerical value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).


Fig 2:. Thermometer
3. Liquid level measurement:

Level sensors detect the level of substances that flow, including liquids, slurries,
granular materials, and powders. Fluids and fluidized solids flow to become
essentially level in their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity
whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be
measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river or a
lake). The level measurement can be either continuous or point values. Continuous
level sensors measure level within a specified range and determine the exact amount
of substance in a certain place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the
substance is above or below the sensing point. Generally the latter detect levels that
are excessively high or low. There are many physical and application variables that
affect the selection of the optimal level monitoring method for industrial and
commercial processes. The selection criteria include the physical: phase (liquid, solid
or slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric constant of
medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or
electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also
important are the application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance, response rate,

ease of calibration or programming, physical size and mounting of the instrument,
monitoring or control of continuous or discrete (point) levels.
Fig 3: Liquid Level Sensor
4. Flow meter: Flow can be measured in a variety of ways. Positive-displacement

flow meters accumulate a fixed volume of fluid and then count the number of times
the volume is filled to measure flow. Other flow measurement methods rely on forces
produced by the flowing stream as it overcomes a known constriction, to indirectly
calculate flow. Flow may be measured by measuring the velocity of fluid over a known
area.

Fig 4:. Flow Meter
5. Gas analyzers: These are used to analyze the constituents of flue gas and to find
the exact percentages of each constituent.
Fig 5: Gas Analyzer
6. Humidity measurement: Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapour in the
air, and can refer to any one of several measurements of humidity. Humid air is a
mixture of water vapour and other constituents of air, and humidity is defined in

terms of the water content of this mixture, called the absolute humidity. Relative
humidity, expressed as a percent measures the current absolute humidity relative to
the maximum. Specific humidity is a ratio of the water vapour content of the mixture
to the total air content (on a mass basis). The water vapour content of the mixture can
be measured either as mass per volume or as a partial pressure, depending on the
usage. There are various devices used to measure humidity. A device used to measure
humidity is called a psychrometer or hygrometer.
Fig. 6: Hygrometer
7. Impurity measurement: Impurities are substances inside a confined amount of

liquid, gas, or solid, which differ from the chemical composition of the material or
compound. Impurities are either naturally occurring or added during synthesis of a
chemical or commercial product. During production, impurities may be purposely,
accidentally, inevitably, or incidentally added into the substance. The levels of
impurities in a material are generally defined in relative terms. Standards have been
established by various organizations that attempt to define the permitted levels of
various impurities in a manufactured product.
8. Speed measuring instruments: Speed of rotation of turbines and generators is

measured using Tachometers

Fig 8: Tachometer
9. Calorimeters: Calorimeters are used to calculate dryness fraction of steam in order

to know its quality.

Fig. Calorimeter
10. Electrical instruments: Multimeters and energy meters are used to measure
various electrical quantities such as current, voltage, frequency and power factor.

Fig.10: Multimeter
Conclusion: After studying above instruments, measurement of various parameters

of power plants can be done.
of power plants can be done.

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Sinhgad Technical Education Society’s

Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune-41

ENERGY ENGINEERING (402047)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

01 Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power

03 Study of Fluidized Bed Combustion system.

04 Study of High Pressure Boilers

05 Study of Co-generation Plants

Trial on Steam Power Plant or with help of suitable

Trial on Diesel Power Plant or with help of suitable

08 Study of Power Plant Instruments

Signature of Faculty Subject H.O.D. Principal

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 2

1. Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power plant.

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 3

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 4

Term Work No: - 01

Study of “Visit to Thermal Power plant

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 5

Study of “Visit to Thermal Power plant /Co-generation Power plant”

(a) Name of Thermal Power Plant

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 6

Term Work No: - 02

Study of “Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 7

Study of “Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional Power Plants.”

The students are expected to visit any one Visit to HEPP/GTPP/Non-Conventional

(j) Name of Thermal Power Plant

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 8

Term Work No: - 03

Trial on “Study of Fluidized Bed Combustion

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 9

Fig. 1: Measurement of Umf and Ut of Fluidized Bed

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 10

Fig. 2: Variation of bed pressure drop with superficial velocity

3.2 Fluidized Bed Boilers

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 11

iv. Low NOx emission :

3. Pressurized Fluidized Bed Boiler

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 14

The advantages of PBFBC are as follows:

Term Work No: - 04

Study of “High Pressure Boilers”

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 16

Features of High-pressure Boilers:

1. Forced circulation of water – in all modern high-pressure boilers, the force

2. Large number of small diameter tubes – the surface-area-to-volume-ratio (area

3. Improved mode of heating – the high-pressure boilers use the following

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 17

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 18

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 19

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 20

Fig.3: Velox Boiler

4. SUPER CRITICAL BOILER

3- Boiler Feed Pump

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 21

Advantages of High-pressure Boilers:

2. They require less heat of vaporization.

3. They are compact and thus require less floor space.

7. The plant efficiency is increased.

8. With the use of high-pressure boilers, the steam generation is economical

MECH/BE/SEM II/Energy Engineering/2018-2019 Page 22

Term Work No: - 05