Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Evaluation and analysis of water-based photovoltaic/thermal (PV/

T
T) system
Hussein A. Kazem
Faculty of Engineering-Sohar University, PO Box 44, Sohar, PCI 311, Oman

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Water-based PV/T collectors are useful for simultaneous hot water and electricity generation.
Grid connected This paper presents the design of a grid-connected water-based PV/T and performance evaluation
Photovoltaic/thermal system from outdoor experiments in weather conditions of Oman. The paper focuses on the electrical
Electrical performance performance of the system under three days of testing and draws conclusions onto the effect of
Oman
ambient conditions and solar irradiance on conventional PV panels and PV/T collectors. The
proposed PV/T shows superior electrical performance during the examination period, with
consistent rise in electrical efficiency over conventional PV. The peak electrical power and vol-
tage achieved by the system are around 67 Wp and 18.9V, respectively. The average power of the
PV/T panel is 6% higher than average power of conventional PV panel.

1. Introduction

The aggregate sustainable power source introduced in Oman up to 2009 was 235 kW. The "electricity regulation authority" in
Oman affirmed a waitlist of six sustainable power source pilot ventures [1,2]: (I) a 100 kW photovoltaic (PV) solar oriented task in
“Hiji” utilizing thin film and monocrystalline PV; (ii) a 292 kW PV solar oriented undertaking in “Al Mazyonah”; (iii) a 1500 kW PV
venture in “Hiji”; (iv) 28 kW PV in “Al Mathfasolar” venture, consolidating battery stockpiling ability; (v) the “Masirah Island”
500 kW wind undertaking; and (vi) the “Saih Al Khairat”, “Wilyiat of Thumrait” 4200 kW wind turbines. Additionally, the “Majan
Electricity (MJEC)” organization introduced 50 kW PV. Furthermore, the “Rural Areas Electricity Company (RAECO)” introduced a
50 MW wind farm in the South of Oman. Moreover, a 1024 MW solar powered trough plant was introduced to deliver steam for oil
upgrade recuperation in 2017. Last but not least, two new large-scale projects are initiated as follows: (i) 1000 MW PV system in
“Sohar” Port; (ii) 1000 MW PV system in “Ibri”.
The above-mentioned facts indicate that there is a great potential for the use of the abundant Renewable Energy (RE) sources
available in Oman as another source for generating electrical energy, thermal energy as well as to help in covering the increased
energy demand. There are multilevel benefits for the country: to reduce the consumption of conventional fuels, to mitigate the
environmental impact produced by the used fossil-fuel based technologist, to support creating business opportunities and industrial
initiatives for Omani companies to invest in RE technologies, to reduce the increased pressure on the electrical grid, thermal energy to
produce steam for oil production and to improve the technical expertise in RE in Oman.
The sun powered radiation on the desert region every year is proportional to countless occasions Oman's aggregate creating limit.
PV system applications may be grouped into three categories: standalone PV systems, solar tracking systems and grid-connected
PV systems. A standalone PV system is one that does not have a grid connection. Solar tracking system allows the solar panels’ to
track the sun to maximize the amount of energy that the solar cells produce. Grid-connected PV system is that system which

E-mail address: h.kazem@soharuni.edu.om.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100401
Received 3 December 2018; Received in revised form 26 December 2018; Accepted 25 January 2019
Available online 28 January 2019
2214-157X/ © 2019 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

associated with the power grid, stockpiling can be given by the neighborhood service organization. The excess energy created by the
client can be sold to the utility at a cost underneath that charged by the utility to the client. The value differential would pay for the
capacity and dispersion. A grid-connected inverter must be utilized with the goal that the phase and the frequency of the client
generated power coordinate the grid. Prediction and optimization of PV/T collectors are crucial to advancing this technology towards
technical viability and economic feasibility. Although performance predictors of PV/T collectors are targeted thoroughly throughout
the literature, it is important to emphasize the study of various environmental conditions such as tropical and desert climates. As
different climates have varying solar irradiance, wind and ambient temperature profiles. These elements are key agents to shaping the
electrical and thermal outputs, as well as life time of the hybrid unit. Optimum design is only possible if the device is specifically
designed for the environment its intended to operate within. Hence, careful selection of design shape and material of collector is
recommended for optimization purposes for the intended application. Pre-heating and electric-support are useful tools for industrial
processes. Applications such as sterilization require both electricity and heat, making PV/T very suitable, conceptually.
The Renewable Energy Lab established by the research council of Oman (TRC) in Sohar University (SU) - Engineering building
(Research Grant Agreement No. ORG SU El 11 010) will be useful to support this study. This selection is based on the previews studies
that was conducted in the Lab. The infrastructure (PV, Thermal heaters, PV/T) and weather station that TRC has built in SU is
planned to be used for this purpose as a starting point. The standalone, grid-connected and tracking PV systems available in the Solar
Energy Lab., which can be used in simulation package as energy source for testing solar water heater [3], solar air heating [4] and
photovoltaic/thermal systems [5].
In this paper water-based grid-connected PV/T designed and installed in Renewable Energy Lab. Experimental work and data
collections to be conduct. Electrical and thermal analysis is going to be analyzed in Sohar-Oman. MATLAB software was used in the
simulation and analysis. Finally, a comparison of the obtained results with other works is done.

2. Theory and literature survey

A photovoltaic (PV) is a semi-conductor device that converts sunlight into electricity. PV panels are clean sources of energy,
portable and does not produce noise. They can be used in residential and industrial applications [3]. The major issue of concern to PV
panels is the performance over time. As it goes through degradation due to raise of its temperature. Every increase of 10 °C caused a
decrease in PV panel efficiency of 5% [4]. This rise is attributed to losses within the panel and due to outdoor temperature conditions.
Hence, the concept of hybrid PV/T collectors is introduced. As stated above, PV panels utilize the light of solar radiation. Another
device in solar energy is the thermal collector which utilizes the heat of solar radiation. Here the two devices can benefit from their
predicament by exchanging heat. PV/T is usually the thermal collector attached to the back of the PV panel. As the panel's tem-
perature rise, the heat transfer to the thermal collector will rise as well [5]. Therefore, providing cooling for the PV panel while
maximizing heat transfer to produce high thermal output, simultaneously [6].
To understand the PV/T mechanism it is important to understand how pipes are attached to the back of the PV panel. These pipes
should be made of material that exhibits good thermal conductivity. The pipes will absorb the heat of the PV, mainly by conduction.
The pipes will carry fluid within to extract the heat as thermal energy. It is desirable to ensure insolation for optimum heat transfer.
PV/T's are classified based on the working fluid within the pipes. The two major types are air-based and water-based PV/T collectors.
The most common type is the water-based PV/T collector. Many studies suggest that water base PV/T collectors exhibits better
performance than the air-based ones.
The total efficiency of the PV/T collector is defined as the summation of the thermal and PV efficiencies. This is displayed in the
following equation:
ηtotall = ηPV + ηthermal (1)
The system's thermal efficiency is:
˙ p (To − Ti )
mC
ηthermal =
Is × Ac (2)
Where Is is the solar intensity, Ac is the collector area, ṁ is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat (J/kg K), and To and Ti are the
outlet and inlet fluid temperatures, respectively.
The electrical efficiency ηe is:
I×V
ηe =
Is × Apanel (3)
where Apanel is the PV panel area, I is the current and V is the voltage.
This raise in efficiency is very helpful to maintaining the health of the installed PV panels and reducing the cost of energy. This
will drive up the economic benefits for the investor and the consumer [7].
Experimental work with different designs of water-base PV/T collectors have been carried out, by students and researchers, to test
their performance under different weather conditions. These studies provide a more realistic view of the potential of these collectors
in many countries and their performance over long periods of time. Comparisons between conventional PV's and water-base PV/T's
have been made to validate its theoretical principle [8–12,25].
Latest experimental work conducted by SERI, UKM-Malaysia in collaboration with Renewable Energy laboratory of Sohar uni-
versity-Oman, on water-based PV/T's shows promising results in terms of reducing the PV temperature and increasing the overall

2
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

Fig. 1. Solar energy profiles for Sohar-Oman.

efficiency for tropical climate conditions of Malaysia. Al-Waeli et al. (2017) [5] produced different PV/T configurations with different
base fluids. Out of which is a novel water-base PV/T collector design. The collector comprised of PV panel, water tank and pipes with
water flowing in. The study showed improvement in electrical efficiency of water-based design over conventional PV panel from
7.1% to 8.6%.
This area of solar energy proves its potential to energizing the PV market and providing a better incentive to the investor and
consumer. More research is needed to explore the performance of such systems at relatively large-scale. In addition, investigations of
the life cycle cost analysis (LCCA), optimum pipe design and optimum PV/T configuration. This paper will use a 100 W of installed
PV/T water-based to examine its performance. Technical and cost evaluations will be conducted to provide the optimum formula
(system configuration) for such systems to raise the efficiency and reduce the costs for the system to compete in the market.
Photovoltaics/thermal systems, which are solar systems whose main idea has been developed forty years ago to provide electricity
and heat at the same time [13]. The principle of this system work is based on the production of electrical energy by photovoltaic cells,
and absorption of excess heat from the PV need by liquids such as air or water [14,15]. The final result of such a system is the
production of electricity and heat together with the possibility of improving the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell, which is highly
affected by its temperature. The experimental tests showed that the electrical efficiency of a PV module falls linearly with a tem-
perature rise as each 1 °C rise in the module temperature above 25 °C reduces conversion efficiency by approximately 0.5% for
crystalline silicon cells [16,17]. This technique, although its studies started 40 years ago by Wolf, Kern and Russell [18,19], is still far
from being ripe for marketing [20]. Many new PVT systems have recently been designed and studied [21–23].
The latitude and longitude of Oman are “16 40 N”, and “59 40 E”, respectively. Oman has high global solar radiation various in
the range of “3.2 to 6.2 kWh/m2/day” with a very high potential of solar energy on most of the land during the whole year. Fig. 1
shows the annual solar radiation in Sohar. It is clear seen that there is potential of solar energy in Sohar-Oman with high ratio of sky
clearness, which is about 342 days/year. The objective of this paper is to plan and assess the execution of grid connected PV/T system
in Sohar-Oman. The PV/T system designed, and measurement has been taken to evaluate the electrical, thermal and overall effi-
ciencies.

3. Materials and method

The PV/T collector used in this study is made up of stainless-steel material which has good thermal conductivity; heat transfer rate
increase. Moreover, it is easy to weld. The pipe is designed in rectangular shape, which allows to cover more area of the collector
while maintaining reasonably lower depth. The configuration of the pipe is a direct flow illustrated in Fig. 2(a).
The design of the thermal collector is similar to other systems in the literature [3]. Beneath the thermal collector a glass wool
insulation material was employed to ensure to heat leakage. Both panels were installed and fixed in an area without shading. The
thermal collector system is used to facilitate between hot and cold water to ensure cold water is used to cooldown the PV/T. The mass
flow rate of water was set for 0.02 kg/s.
Fig. 2(b) is a photo of PV and PV/T panels located on the surface roof of faculty of engineering in Sohar University. The module is
PLM-100/12 polycrystalline silicon solar module with high efficiency crystalline cell, it produces considerable power even if it
exposed to weak light. The PV highest specifications are: 100 W, Voc = 21.7 V, and Isc = 6.38 A, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 2(b), 2 m are fixed at the input and the output of the coper tube to measure the inlet and outlet water tem-
perature. The meter’s type is W1209 temperature control switch, the temperature value is displayed in °C via 3-digit seven segment
displayers.
Furthermore, different sensors, data acquisition and accessories has been installed for more accurate measurements of tem-
perature, solar radiation, current, voltage and power. The system contains the following parts:

• REAM - Data Acquisition System (4 mA, 5 V, 10V and 24 V).

• “NISE 104 – Computer Dual Core Atom D2550 1.86 GHz, 2 GB RAM, 32 GB SSD”
• 17” IP65 Touch Screen
• Software: “DART (Data Acquisition Real Time)”
3
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

Fig. 2. (a) PV/T pipe configuration, (b) PV and PV/T systems.

• WE300 - Rugged solar radiation transmitter detector. Range: 0-1500 W/m ; 400-1100 nm.
2

• WE710 “PV Panel backside surface temperature sensor”.

• WE700 + WE770 “Air temperature sensors”, range: -50°/+50 °C.
• Two “CTH Current Transformer – Through Hole Core Type 1- DC (20 A) – Output 4–20 mA”
A water pump is used to circulate the water, it is 24 V, 1 ampere with 1 L per minute water flow rate, hot water pumped from the
panel to the thermal collector system. The study monitored the temperature for three days 5th to 7th of November 2018 from 09:00
AM to 04:00 PM. Data Acquisition DART process is used to measure the panel’s voltage and current, the ambient temperature, and the
radiation.
DART consists of sensors, measurement hardware which acts as an interface between the computer and the signals from outside,
and computer with programed software which controls the operation of the DART device and used for processing, storming, and
visualizing the measured data.

4. Results and discussions

The findings are displayed in terms of the principle electrical parameters of a PV panel which are used to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the PV over three days. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the PV/T collector are presented in Fig. 3(a), along with
ambient temperature and global solar radiation.
Careful examination of the graph help elaborates few important points. Starting from the temperature of the inlet fluid and outlet
PV/T, both of which are consistent in their values.
The difference in inlet and outlet temperature indicates more heat is being transferred to the collector due to raise of cell
temperature rise over time. This heat does not, necessarily, correspond to the solar irradiance. Although solar intensity does affect
final thermal efficiency, it does not necessarily control the heat gain waveform, as elaborated in equation (2). The solar irradiance

4
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

Fig. 3. Comparison of (a) ambient temperature, Tinlet, Toutlet with respect to solar radiation; (b) PV voltage, (c) PV current, (d) PV power.

and ambient temperature during the testing period were considerably low due to measurements being taken in November. Moreover,
the change in inlet and outlet temperature may not be at optimum conditions which is a product of the thermal collector system,
which is very simple, cheap and not very efficient. The system is established in such way to show how simple thermal components
could lead to changes in electrical performance of the PV panel, which are illustrated in Fig. 3 (b), (c), (d). The electrical voltage,
current and power of the PV/T are illustrated in parts b, c and d of Fig. 3, respectively.
Fig. 3 (b), shows voltage waveform of both PV/T and PV during the testing period of three days. The waveform is similar to that of
the solar irradiance with some exception to decline of overall trend in the conventional PV; due to increase of cell temperature. While,
this decline is in lesser magnitude for the proposed PV/T; due to cooling. During the first day, the highest achieved voltages by PV
and PV/T are around 16.1 and 18.9 V, respectively. Although during the peak voltage, solar irradiance was not the highest. This
shows how cell temperature plays a major role to establishing open-circuit voltage of solar cells. Hence, more cooling is important for
better electrical performance. The results of the second and third days were quite consistent with the first day with exceptions
attributed to changes in solar irradiance, ambient temperature and other operational conditions. Fig. 3(c), shows different outcome
for the most-part, where current seems to be higher for a conventional PV panel due to higher cell temperature, which is supported by
the literature [24]. The maximum currents achieved during the first day are around 3.5 and 3.2 Amps for the conventional PV and
PV/T collector, respectively. More stability in current measurement is clear which is normal, relative to the voltage measurement.
Fig. 3(d), shows the power produced by both panels during the testing period. The PV/T power is higher over the entire testing period
than the PV power. It is important to note that only electric power is being considered in Fig. 3(d). The highest produced powers in
the first day are around 67 and 63 watts for PV/T and PV, respectively. Peaks does not offer accurate representation of performance
but does give a measure of how effective the technique can be on electric performance. Over average for the first day, the electric
power produced by both collectors are around 61.7 W and 65.1 W for the PV and PV/T, respectively. This means the electrical power
is around 6% higher for water-based PV/T collectors than conventional PV panels. The power produced by the PV/T is higher due to
increase of its voltage which is attributed to change in cell temperature and not solar irradiance. This is because both panels are
subjected to almost the same solar irradiance because they are placed next to each other. Although slight variations in received solar
irradiance are very possible. Other environmental factors are not taken into considerations as they are not within the scope of this
study. Among these factors are relative humidity, wind speed and dust accumulation. Table 1 presents comparison between the
current study and other studies presented in the literature.
Different techniques and approaches are present to analyzing behavior of PV/T systems. Lack of research into PV/T in desert &

5
 H.A. Kazem

Table 1
Comparison between proposed PV/T and other PV/T systems.
Reference Type of PV/T system Type of base-fluid Study approach Findings
employed

Current study Flat-Plate (direct flow) PV/T system Water-based Experimental study Peak electric power 67Wp, Peak voltage is 18.9 V.
Ibrahim et al. [9] Flat-Plate (Spiral flow) PV/T system Water-based Experimental study At solar irradiance of 690 W/m2 the average PV/T electric efficiency is around
10.8%.

6
Sopian et al. [11] (Serpentine, Oscillatory & parallel- Water-based Experimental study Highest type was Parallel-serpentine with PV/T electric efficiency of 13%
serpentine) PV/T systems
Chen et al. [17] (Flat-Plate, glazed, unglazed) PV/T systems Water-based Numerical simulation and Optimal tank volume on Pareto frontier shows equally scattering distribution
optimization [99.5 L - 218.6 L] for a 2 m2 glazed PV/T collector.
Wolf [18] Flat-Plate PV/T system Water-based Numerical (solar heating system & PV Peak photovoltaic output between hours 11 & 15, with around peak electric
programs) power of 420 Wp
Yang & Athienitis [26] one-inlet and two-inlet BIPV/T systems Air-based Experimental Thermal efficiency is 5% higher using two inlets compared to one
Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

rural areas, particularly Oman. This paper covers this gap with analysis of experimental work.

5. Conclusions

The outdoor experiments conducted in Sohar, Oman of a grid-connected PV/T system is reported in this paper. A rectangular
absorber shape with a direct flow configuration was used as the collector for the PV/T system. Comparison between the proposed PV/
T and a conventional PV was made by measuring the electrical performance of both panels, while being placed next to each other.
The main conclusions of this study are summarized below:

1. Water-based PV/T collectors produce higher electric power over the examination period.
2. The voltage waveform is highly affected by cell temperature, which is highly influenced by heat transfer from PV panel to thermal
collector.
3. Increase in cell temperature causes an increase in short-circuit current of the PV, which is consistent with the literature.
4. Higher outlet temperatures are achieved by direct flow pipe configurations with single inlet/single outlet due to more time for the
fluid to heat up. This may not be ideal for heat transfer, but it is certainly simpler for the design and cheaper in costs.
5. The use of rectangular absorber shape is very productive to reducing heat of PV panels as it covers more surface area and hence
more heat transfer.

This study shows the massive potential PV/T collectors hold to raising the electrical efficiency and performance of PV panels in
Oman climate conditions. Further discussion of thermal aspect and heat exchange coefficients is important to be conducted in future
studies.

Conflicts of interest

“The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper”.

Acknowledgment

“The research leading to these results has received Research Project Grant Funding from the Research Council of the Sultanate of
Oman, Research Grant Agreement No. ORG SU EI 11 010. The authors would like to acknowledge support from the Research Council
of Oman”.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100401.

References

[1] Authority for Electricity Regulation in Oman, Study on Renewable Resources, Oman, Final Report, May 2008, (2008).
[2] Hussein A. Kazem, Renewable energy in Oman: status and future prospects, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 3465–3469.
[3] A. Fudholi, K. Sopian, M.H. Yazdi, M.H. Ruslan, A. Ibrahim, Hussein A. Kazem, Performance analysis of photovoltaic thermal (PVT) water collectors, Energy
Convers. Manag. 78 (2014) 641–651.
[4] Ahmad Fudholi, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Mohammad H. Yazdi, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, Mohamed Gabbasa, Hussein A. Kazem, Performance analysis of solar drying
system for red chili, Sol. Energy 99 (2014) 47–54.
[5] Ali H.A. Al-Waeli, K. Sopian, Miqdam T. Chaichan, Hussein A. Kazem, Adnan Ibrahim, Sohif Mat, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, PCM based photovoltaic thermal (PVT)
system: an experimental study, Energy Convers. Manag. 151 (2017) 693–708 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019689041730287X -
af005Evaluation of the nanofluid and nano-.
[6] Alex barrett. YouGen blog. 10th of March 2017. Solar PV-T Systems - what Are the Pros and Cons?.
[7] Y. Tripanagnostopoulos, M. Souliotis, R. Battisti, A. Corrado, Energy, cost and LCA results of PV and hybrid PV/T solar systems, Prog. Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 13
(3) (2005) 235–250.
[8] Ali H.A. Alwaeli, K. Sopian, Hussein A. Kazem, Hameed B. Mahood, Anees A. Khadom, Miqdam T. Chaichan, Modeling and experimental validation of a PV/T
system using nanofluid coolant and nano-PCM, Sol. Energy 177 (2019) 178–191.
[9] Adnan Ibrahim, Fudholi Ahmad, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Mohd Yusof Othman, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, Efficiencies and improvement potential of building in-
tegrated photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) system, Energy Convers. Manag. 77 (2014) 527–534.
[10] Ahmad Fudholi, Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Mohamed Gabbasa, B. Bakhtyar, M. Yahya, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, Sohif Mat, Techno-economic of solar drying systems
with water based solar collectors in Malaysia: a review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 51 (2015) 809–820.
[11] Kamaruzzaman Sopian, Adnan Ibrahim, Ahmed Fudhol, Mohd Yusof Othman, Mohd Hafidz Ruslan, Hussein A. Kazem, Experimental studies on building
integrated photovoltaic thermal collectors with different absorber design, 2nd International Conference on Energy Systems, Environment, Antalya, Turkey, 2013,
pp. 50–54.
[12] Ahmed Fudholi, Adnan Ibrahim, Mohd Yusof Othman, M.O.H.D. HAFIDZ, Energy and exergy analyses on water based photovoltaic thermal (PVT) collector with
spiral flow absorber, 2nd International Conference on Energy Systems, Environment, Antalya, Turkey, 2013, pp. 70–74.
[13] Xingxing Zhang, Xudong Zhao, Stefan Smith, Jihuan Xu, Xiaotong Yu, Review of R&D progress and practical application of the solar photovoltaic/thermal (PV/
T) technologies, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16 (1) (2011) 599–616.
[14] Ali H.A. Al-Waeli, K. Sopian, Hussein A. Kazem, Miqdam T. Chaichan, Photovoltaic/Thermal (PV/T) systems: status and future prospects, Renew. Sustain. Energy
Rev. 77 (2017) 109–130.
[15] T.T. Chow, A review on photovoltaic/thermal hybrid solar technology, Appl. Energy 87 (2) (2010) 365–379.
[16] E. Skoplaki, J.A. Palyvos, On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module electrical performance: a review of efficiency/power correlations, Sol. Energy

7
H.A. Kazem Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 13 (2019) 100401

83 (2009) 614–624.
[17] J.F. Chen, L. Zhang, Y.J. Dai, Performance analysis and multi-objective optimization of a hybrid photovoltaic/thermal collector for domestic hot water appli-
cation, Energy 143 (2018) 500–516.
[18] M. Wolf, Performance analysis of combined heating and photovoltaic power systems for residences, Energy Convers. Manag. 16 (1976) 79–90.
[19] E.C.J. Kern, M.C. Russell, Combined photovoltaic and thermal hybrid collector systems, IEEE Photovolt. Spec Conf. 1 (1978) 1153–1160.
[20] Y. Tripanagnostopoulos, Aspects and improvements of hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar energy systems, Sol. Energy 81 (9) (2007) 1117–1131.
[21] R. Daghigh, M.H. Ruslan, K. Sopian, Advances in liquid based photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) collectors, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (8) (2011) 4156–4170.
[22] Kumar Rakesh, A. Rosen Marc, A critical review of photovoltaic/thermal solar collectors for air heating, Appl. Energy 88 (11) (2011) 3603–3614.
[23] A. Ibrahim, M. Othman, M.H. Ruslan, S. Mat, K. Sopian, Recent advances in flat plate photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collectors, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
15 (2011) 352–365.
[24] Huan-Liang Tsai, Ci-Siang Tu, Yi-Jie Su, Development of generalized photovoltaic model using MATLAB/SIMULINK, Proceedings of the World Congress on
Engineering and Computer Science, vol. 2008, 2008, pp. 1–6.
[25] Photovoltaic Thermal PVT. NewForm Energy. Retrieved on 11th of November 2018.
[26] Tingting Yang, Andreas K. Athienitis, Experimental investigation of a two-inlet air-based building integrated photovoltaic/thermal (BIPV/T) system, Appl.
Energy 159 (2015) 70–79.