Courage: Its Nature and Development

NELSON H.GOUD

Courage is presented as the energizing catalyst for choosing growth over safety needs. A
contefit analysis of the literature reveals 3 dimensions of courage: fear, appropriate action,
and a higher purpose. Guidelines and strategies for developing courage are described.

Several schools of psychology point to a basic tendency underlying all growth.

Maslow (1968,1971) called it the self-actualizing tendency; Jung (1968) called
it individuation; Homey (1950) called it a drive toward self-realization. Carl
Rogers (1961,1980) described this force accordingly.
Whether one calls it a growth tendency, a drive toward self-actualization, or a for-
ward-moving directional lendmcy, it is the mainspring of life . . . it is the urge
which is evident in ali organic and human life—to expand, extend, become au-
tonomous, develop, mature—the tendency to express and activate all the capaci-
ties of the organism. (1961, p. 35)

The actualizing tendency can be thwarted or warped, hut it cannot be destroyed

without destroying the organism. (1980, p, 118)

According to these theorists, there is an inherent force directing growth.

Why, then, is there so much difficulty in achieving full growth, wholeness,
or self-realization? Rogers (1961) contended that the growth tendency will
not flourish without unconditional positive regard, empathy, and authen-
ticity from significant others. Maslow (1970,1971) proposed that there are
prerequisites to self-actualization in the form of basic need gratification and
a firm values framework. In addition, Maslow (1968) maintained that the
growth tendency is counteracted by the safety impulse:
Every human being has txth sets of forces within him. One set clings to safety and
defensiveness out of fear, tending to regress backward, hanging on to the past . , .
afraid to take chances, afraid to jeopardize what he already has, afraid of indepen-
dence, freedom and separateness. The other set of farces impels him forward toward
wholeness of Self and uniqueness of Self, toward full functioning of ali his capacities,
toward confidence in the face of the external world, (p. 46)

A gap is created whenever growth forces encounter equally powerful safety

forces (fears). If growth is to proceed, then this gap must be leaped.
Nelson H. Goud, School of Education. Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Nelson H. Goud, School of Edu-
cation, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 902 W. New York Street, India-
napolis, IN 46202 (e-mail: ngoud@iupui.edu).

102 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44
 The energizing catalyst for choosing growth over safety is courage. Cour-
age allows one to effectively act under conditions of danger, fear, and risk.
Without courage, the individual or group remains stuck in existing patterns
or immobilized in fear. Rogers (see Rogers & Stevens, 1971) stated it in this
manner.
It is the quality of courage which enables a person to step into the uncertainty of the
unknown as he chooses himself. . . . It is not an easy thing to have Ihe courage to be,
and clients shrink from it at the same time as they move toward it. (pp. 42, 46)

Maslow (1991) said.

The difference between the diminished individual, wistfully yearning toward full
humanness but never quite daring to make it, versus the unleashed individual,
growing well toward his or her destiny, is simply the difference between fear and
courage, (p, 120)

Because courage is given a pivotal role in growth, it is of great significance

to understand its nature. The purpose of this investigation is twofold: (a) to
present a conceptual model of the dimensions of courage and (b) to describe
guidelines for developing courage. A variety of disciplines were examined
for their views on courage: military history and research (W. Miller, 2000;
Rachman, 1978), schools of psychology (Ellis, 1995,1998; Frankl, 1984; Maslow
1968,1970,1971, 1991; Rogers, 1961, 1980; Rogers & Stevens, 1971), litera-
ture (Hemingway, 1932/1960, 1939/1969; Tolstoy, 1999), and philosophy
(Aristotle, trans. 1987; Maclntyre, 1984; May, 1976; Thomson & Missner, 2000;
Tillich, 1952/2000).
One of the most extensive analyses of courage is in The Nicomachean Ethics
by Aristotle (trans. 1987). He believed that courage was between the extremes
of cowardice and foolhardiness. Aristotle's overall definition of courage is
"He who faces and fears the right things for the right motive and in the right
way and at the right time, and whose confidence is similarly right, is coura-
geous" (p. 63). In addition to examining Aristotle, a content analysis was
conducted on the divergent sources noted above. It yielded three primary
dimensions of courage: fear (danger, risk), appropriate action, and purpose.
All three dinnensions must be present for an act or person to be called coura-
geous (see Figure 1). In actual acts of courage, all three dimensions interact
simultaneously and with varying degrees of intensity. For purposes of dis-
cussion, however, it is necessary to examine each dimension separately.

FEAR

It is difficult to imagine courage being called on when one is happy and joy-
ful. Courage, if it appears, always makes its presence known under condi-
tions of threat, risk, or danger. Some thinkers, like Keen (1999), contend that
fear is part of the human condition and that the "real question is not 'Are you
afraid?'but what are you fearful of and what do you do with fear" (p. 41).

Journal nf HUMANISTIC COUNSELING. EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 103
 PURPOSE

FEAR ACTION
FIGURE 1
Dimensions of Courage

Fears vary in their intensity and may have a tangible or intangible source
(the latter usually called anxiety). Examples of physical fear-inducing dan-
gers include combat, severe injury or illness, aggressive animals, and stand-
ing in an arena with nothing more than a cape and sword while awaiting
the charge of a 1,700-pound fighting bull. Selected fear-inducing threats with
psychological origins include phobias, fears of isolation or abandonment,
chronic anxiety, loss (e.g., relationship, job, aging), shame and disgrace, ero-
sion of identity and spiritual foundations, and fear of failure in the pursuit
of major goals and life dreams.
Existential writers point to nonbeing, one's eventual nonexistence, as the
core fear. Tillich (1952/2000) proposed that basic anxiety results from real-
izing one's finitude, and among the possible consequences of this fact are
alienation, meaninglessness, and despair. To affirm oneself in spite of these
obstacles, Tillich termed "the courage to be." Tillich also believed that fear
and anxiety function as guardians, as warning signals to one's being. Ac-
cording to Tillich, "Courage is the readiness to take upon oneself negatives,
anticipated by fear, for the sake of a fuller positivity" (p. 78).
Paradoxically, there is the fear of growth itself. Maslow (1971) called it the
Jonah complex and described it accordingly,
I had first labeled this defense the "fear of one's own greatness" or the "evasion of
one's destiny" or the "running away from one's own best talents.". . . We fear our
highest possibilities (as well as our lowest ones). . . . We are generally afraid to
become that which we can glimpse in our most perfect moments, under the most
perfect conditions, under conditions of greatest courage. We enjoy and even thrill

104 Icumai of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING. EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 3005 * Volume 44
 to the godlike possibilities we see in ourselves in such peak moments. And yet we
simultaneously shiver with weakness, awe, and fear before these very same pos-
sibilities, (pp. 35-37)

The fears triggered in a Jonah complex cluster around these themes: experi-
encing separateness and being too different, encountering overwhelming ex-
pectations and responsibilities, venturing into new and unknown paths, and
engendering unwanted jealousy and hoshlity from others because of attaining
a form of excellence (Goud, 1994; Lacocque & Lacocque, 1981; Maslow, 1968).
Probably the most common reactions to intense fears are to avoid or flee
from them. Fears and anxiety, however, can also have life-enhancing quali-
ties. Sugarman and Freeman (2003), Keen (1999), and W. Miller (2000) pointed
out that fears can mobilize resources to counter threats, focus one's conscious-
ness, and create a sense of aliveness.
Some writers place strict limits on the kinds of risks involving courage.
Aristotle (trans. 1987) believed that the truest courage involved facing a noble
death and "all such sudden emergencies as bring death near, and therefore
especially in facing the chances of war" (p. 88). W. Miller (2000) questioned
whether self-realization qualifies to be called a courageous quest:
Courage is too valuable to grant it to everyone who succeeds at a task that it took
some marshaling of will to do. There must be danger and hardship to overcome, real
danger and hardship, publicly discernible, properly appreciated. We should not
declare every achievement that demanded great commitments of labor, energy, and
devotion a matter of courage. Most self-realization is not about courage, nor do all
the obstacles that stand in our way require courage in their overcoming, (p. 282)

Growth psychologists (Homey, 1950; Jung, 1968; Maslow, 1971; Rogers, 1961)
would have strong disagreement with W. Miller on the role of courage and
self-realization.
In summary, there are wide variations among students of courage as to the
kinds of fears that involve courage. All agree, though, that facing fears is
essential in a courageous act. The nature of courageous and noncourageous
behaviors is the focus of the next exploration.

ACTION

At first glance it would appear rather easy to determine if one acts bravely or
not. One either jumps into the ocean to save a drowning child or one remains
imprisoned in fear. Aristotle (trans. 1987) explained that there are three choices
when facing fears: courage or one of its extremes, cowardice or foolhardi-
ness. A foolhardy person is likely to be impulsive and to take unnecessary
risks when other options may be available. This person may charge into the
ocean knowing that he cannot swim well or not notice that there is a nearby
lifeguard. There is an extreme degree of impulsivity in the foolhardy that
does not permit a quick but reasonable survey of the resources needed in a
risky situation. A person dominated by cowardice has an excessive degree
of fearfulness and is deficient in confidence. Flight and avoidance are the

Journal ol HUMANISTIC COUNSEUNG. EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 105
key responses of the cowardly. This person will see the drowning child and,
even if he or she has the swimming skills, is immobilized by negative possi-
bilities or walks away. Courageous persons "are able to assess the danger,
their own resources, and then take the proper action" (Thomson & Missner,
2000, p. 78). This person may quickly glance around to see if there is a life-
guard and, if not, judge whether he or she will need a flotation device to help
in the rescue and then rush into action. The courageous person is facile in
using two other classic virtues: wisdom and judgment. Finally, not taking
action may be the courageous option, for example, refusing to engage in ille-
gal or immoral acts under great pressure to do so.

Masks of Courage

An action may reveal or conceal courage. Some behaviors resemble courage

but are only masks. True courage requires that one is aware of the dangers
and has legitimate fears. Below are some impersonators of courageous acts.
Bravado, recklessness, and rashness. Here there is an eagerness to show brav-
ery, but when the real peril presents itself, the bravery diminishes.
Ignorance. Here one performs actions in the face of jeopardy but does not truly
realize the dangers and bas no felt fear, a necessary condition of courage.
Forced bravery. Aristotle (trans. 1987) mentioned the case of army command-
ers who flog soldiers who retreat in the combat and force them back into battle.
He dismissed this as true courage because "we ought to be courageous not
because it is compulsory, but because it is noble" (p. 82).
Fearlessness

It is possible to be aware of great risks and danger and still take appropriate
action with little or no fear. Rachman (1978) provided an example:
Novice parachute jumpers display courage when they persevere with their jumps
despite subjective fear. Veteran jumpers, having successfully habituated to the situ-
ation, no longer experience fear when jumping; they have moved from courage to
fearlessness, (p. 249)

This movement from courage to fearlessness is based on mastery, experience,

and competence. One has the earned confidence and knowledge on what to do in
situations of risk. Lack of proper skills and experience may move a person into
the opposite direction: cowardice. Hemingway (1932/1960) described brave but
inexperienced bullfighters "who are made cowardly by having to face difficult
bulls without the knowledge, experience or training to handle them" (p. 160}.
Fearlessness may also appear as a transitory state when instant action is
required to confront a dangerous situation. It is only afterward that the fear
is felt. Many instances of saving others' lives are of this kind of blend of courage
and fearlessness.
Two of the dimensions of courage have now been observed: facing physical or
psychological fears and responding with appropriate actions that lie somewhere

106 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 * Volume 44
between rashness and cowardice. The remaining dimension, purpose, is one of
mystery and complexity. It is also the focus of most of the writings on courage.

PURPOSE

Again, it is Aristotle (trans. 1987) who set the tone: "[T]he character of every-
thing is determined by its end. It is for the sake of what is noble then that the
courageous faces and does all that courage demands" (p. 89). Acting in the
face of fear is not enough, one must have a higher purpose for a courageous
act. A higher purpose refers to affirming or securing a value beyond one's
self-interests. The presence and absence, respectively, of a higher purpose
are demonstrated in these real-life incidents: (a) A young boy is attacked by
a shark in Florida coastal waters, his uncle rushes in and battles the shark
until the shark leaves and the boy is saved versus (b) a surfer intentionally
surfs in the same waters after sharks are seen nearby.

Emotion

Certain daring acts fueled by emotion alone are usually not designated as
courageous ones. Tolstoy (1999) said, "A brave man is one who conducts
himself as he ought... it is impossible to call a man brave who risks his life
out of vanity or curiosity or greediness" (p. 22). Aristotle (trans. 1987) would
also disqualify acts that are driven only by revenge, fear, or to gain pleasure
or avoid pain. Strong emotional states, however, are often enablers of coura-
geous acts. Effectively facing fears often means to rouse emotion and pas-
sion to gain confidence. W. Miller (2000) pointed out that anger is a common
ally called on to battle fear. Arousing helpful emotions to confront fears is
sometimes ritualized, for example, singing, chanting, dancing, listening to
motivational speakers, and watching inspirational movies.

Thrill Seeking

Another category of daring actions not prompted by high purpose is those

actions characterized as thrill seeking, for example, bungee jumping, rock
climbing, skydiving, extren:ie sports, tough-man contests, and reality TV ad-
ventures. The purpose of these actions resides in the sensations derived from
the activity itself (the high of an adrenaline rush, exhilaration), the admira-
tion of nonrisk takers, and, sometimes, cash.

Role of Valued Goals

"The more valued and worthy the goal, the greater the willingness to incur
the risk to bring it about" (W. Miller, 2000, p. 53). Having an ultimate end
calls forth the resolve and behaviors to challenge fears and threats. Normally
one would avoid a vicious dog, but if one's child is attacked by this same

Journdl of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 107
dog, then in all probability the dog would have a ferocious opponent. Deeply
held values, then, can evoke courage. Robert Coles (1998), author of award-
winning books on children in crisis, defined courage "as a determination,
no matter the obstacles or dangers, to live up to one's values" (p. 121). Ex-
pressing and protecting these values may involve additional kinds of cour-
age in addition to physical courage. History is rife with accounts of great moral
courage: for example, the human rights efforts of Mahatma Gandhi, Martin
Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Aleksander Solzhenitsyn. W. Miller (2000)
stated that "most nonviolent resistance to oppression is about courage pure
and simple. Beating, imprisonment, pain, even death are part of the risk" (p.
256). He also observed that moral courage is a lonely stance—one must take
a stand and call attention to oneself.
Moral courage can be expressed on a smaller scale. I know of a teacher
who was directed by her principal to flunk two first graders to meet some
district standard. The teacher, under threat of sanctions and possible job
dismissal, refused to do so because the two students had met all of the re-
quirements to pass first grade (the teacher's stand eventually prevailed and
she kept her position).

The Gray Virtue

If an act is executed in the face of great danger for an ultimate end, then we
have a courageous act. This does not mean that everyone will agree or even
like the act or purpose. As W. Miller (2000) put it, "courage is a gray virtue,
equally serviceable for both good and bad causes" (p. 8). Enemy soldiers,
too, may be brave. There are great individual variations in what one believes
to constitute an ultimate value, such as beauty and art. Hemingway (1932/
1960) believed that bullfighting met the criteria:
It is impossible to believe the emotional and spiritual intensity and pure, classic
beauty that can be produced by a man, an animal and piece of scarlet serge draped
over a stick. . . . There will be valor, art, understanding, and, above all, beauty
and great emotion . . . as profound as any religious ecstasy, (pp. 207-208)

An Attitude of Bravery

Tillich's (1952/2000) "courage to be oneself" is, in a way, an attitude taken

in the face of despair and meaninglessness. He sees life as a balance of cour-
age and fear. One strengthens courage by asserting one's sense of vitality, of
realizing one's being. The opposite attitude is adopting submissive coward-
ice to avoid pain, hurt, and anxiety.
Frankl (1984), founder of logotherapy and survivor of Auschwitz concen-
tration camps in World War II, proposed that one can find meaning in life in
three different ways: (a) by creating a work or doing a deed, (b) by experienc-
ing something or encountering someone one values, and (c) by the attitude
one takes toward unavoidable suffering (e.g., illness, loss, impending death).

108 lournal ol HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND UliVKLOPMEMT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44
On the last point, Frankl said that we have a choice to "suffer bravely." By
this he means one can search for a meaning that makes the suffering worth-
while, for example, during an illness or injury one acts in a manner that may
be a model for one's children. LaTour (1996) described the inner courage re-
quired by recovering cancer patients.

Related Issues

Several questions remain unanswered or call forth divergent views from

theorists of courage. Below is a selection of remaining issues:

1. What degree of fear, level of action, and worthiness of purpose quali-

fies an act to be called courageous? The sources offer a wide variety of
conclusions on this question. It appears that courage is a continuum,
and the judgment of where a particular act falls on the continuum is
made individually or by social consensus.
2. Tim O'Brien (1975), author and Vietnam combat veteran, asked what if a
person acts like a coward one time and a hero the next? Is this person
cowardly or courageous? He concluded that those who "do well on the
average, perhaps with one moment of glory, those are brave" (p. 147).
3. Several theorists pose that courage is in the upper echelon of a vir-
tues hierarchy. The early Greek philosophers, for instance, named
courage as one of the four cardinal virtues (the others being wisdom,
justice, and discipline). May (1976) stated.
Courage is not a virtue or value among other personal values like love or fidelity. It
is the foundation that underlies and gives reality to all other virtues and personal
values. Without courage our love pales into mere dependency. . . . Courage is neces-
sary to make being and becoming possible, (p, 4)

4. Maclntyre (1984) argued that courage is essential in authentic caring:

We hold courage to be a virtue because the care and concern for individuals, commu-
nities and causes . . . requires the existence of such a virtue. If someone says that he
cares for some individual, community or cause, but is unwilling to risk harm or dan-
ger on his, her or its own behalf, he puts in question the genuineness of his care and
concern, (p. 192)

5. In discussing psychological implications of the September 11,2001,

terrorist attacks, G. Miller (2002) noted that a cultural redefinition of
courage now includes works of caring and compassion.
6. Because of the universal respect for courage, it may become the rationale
for conducting questionable acts of war, injustice, plunder, and aggres-
sion (W. Miller, 2000). Additionally, some persons may seek or create
situations that show off their courage. Courage demands integrity.
7. Is courage an exhaustible resource or one that can be replenished? Stud-
ies on physical courage in combat point to a fixed-amount model. Rachman
(1978) cited research on World War II bomber crews that showed there

Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCAnON AND DEVELOPMENH' • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 109
 was an erosion of courage as the number of missions progressed. Trac-
ing accounts from ancient wars to modem times, W. Miller (2000) con-
cluded that "physical courage decays under the intense and relentless
demands of combat" (p. 65). He conjectured that moral courage does not
follow this same tendency but tends to increase with its use. Whether
moral courage increases under relentless opposition, such as negative
sanctions, is debatable. Without support and success on the sidelines,
few will continue to withstand the barrage of both formal and informal
penalties. If courage is an exhaustible resource, however, then one must
use great judgment on how often and how much it should be summoned.

DEVELOPMENTAL APPLICATIONS

Some hints for developing courage were mentioned in the above sections.
Here I tum to specific strategies that are recommended for developing and
maintaining courage. These guidelines parallel the three-dimensional model
and focus on three themes: (a) instilling confidence and trust in one's capa-
bilities, (b) perceiving a purpose, and (c) managing fears.

Confidence

Belief and trust in one's capabilities (i.e., confidence) is a primary force in coun-
tering fears, risks, and the safety impulse. A specific form of self-confidence,
self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977,1986,1993), is of special import. Self-efficacy is
an estimate of one's capabilities to handle specific challenges and tasks. Self-
efficacy is "an important determinant of how much effort people will exert
and how long they will persevere in the face of significant challenges" (Rice,
1998, p. 540). Ideas for enhancing confidence are discussed below.
Success and strengths. One's actual performance in past similar situations
creates a frame of reference for estimating success in current or future chal-
lenges. If one was anxious before a math test in the past but performed well,
then one would most likely have confidence about preforming well on an up-
coming math test (and the reverse if one had failed earlier).
It is common for a person to not recognize his or her past successes. If
one is potentially facing a fearful situation, it will help to engage in a dis-
cussion of how one handled similar situations in the past, paying particu-
lar attention to any successful outcomes. Another suggestion is to construct
a "strengths inventory." Here the strengths of a person are listed (some
categories to consider are career, interpersonal, intellectual/academic,
physical, emotional, special abilities [such as art, music, athletic, hobby],
and so forth). Without a conscious reminder of strengths, they tend to slip
from one's awareness (therefore not available under conditions of chal-
lenge). In short, it is possible to increase one's confidence level by making
more conscious one's genuine, existing strengths (see Johnson, 2000, for
additional ideas). Finally, recognizing strengths is only the start; they must

110 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSEUNG, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44
be exercised: "Not only is it fun to use our capacities, but it is necessary for
growth. The unused skill or capacity can . . . atrophy or disappear, thus
diminishing the person" (Maslow, 1968, p. 201).
Risk taking and comfort zone expansion. Regarding the development of cour-
age, Aristotle (trans. 1987) said "it is by acting in the fear of danger and by
habituating ourselves that we become cither cowardly or courageous" (p.
44). Situations requiring great courage do not occur frequently in most lives.
Gaining experience is often limited and unpredictable. It is possible, on a
smaller scale, to have consistent "courage practice." The idea is to engage in
gradual risk taking. Here one attempts tasks just beyond a comfort zone (much
in the same manner that a parent coaxes a toddler to take a few steps). Fre-
quent and gradual risk taking enables a person to develop ways to effec-
tively act while experiencing fears and anxieties. Earlier, it was mentioned
that thrill-seeking activities were not exemplars of courage because of the
absence of a higher purpose. These same activities, however, do provide good
practice in confronting fears and n:\aking them manageable. Keen (1999) regu-
larly tried trapeze flying and found that "each time I triumph over a minor
fear, I get a shot of pure vitality straight into the center of my being" (p. 43).
Other adventure activities include rock/wall climbing. Outward Bound ex-
peditions, ropes courses, skydiving, martial arts, and so on.
Taking a stand for what one deeply values is the focus of moral courage.
Fears of disapproval, being different, displeasing authority, and penalties
rear their heads during actions of moral courage. Not taking a stand, though,
results in feelings of a failure of integrity and of inadequacy and guilt. The
key is going just beyond one's comfort zone in situations requiring moral
courage. Work, home, and everyday life offer many opportunities to practice
making stands on what one believes. Assertiveness training (Alberti &
Emmons, 1995; Johnson, 2000) is an excellent approach for building skills
in expressing one's views.
Coles (1998) contended that children "are more interested In matters of
right and wrong, virtue, and vice, than we sometimes might acknowledge,
either as parents or as teachers" (p. 122). He pointed out that moral situa-
tions occur everywhere—the living room or kitchen, the playground, the class-
room—situations that call for someone to take a stance.
Practicing for courage is a process of moral and physical "toughening."
Doing the right thing in the face of fear demands a good amount of confi-
dence, fortitude, and discipline. Risk fitness means accepting fear and anxi-
ety as part of this process, not as something to be avoided. One must come to
believe that fear will be getting as much or more as it gives. Rachman's (1978)
summary of studies of fear and courage supports this guideline. He said that
training in dangerous jobs, such as fire fighting, emphasizes gradual and
graduated practice of the dangerous tasks. He concluded, "Courageous be-
havior is determined predominantly by the combination of competence and
confidence, and both of these qualities are strengthened by repeated and
successful practice" (p. 248).

Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 111
 Commenting on young bullfighters, Hemingway (1932/1960) said, "If you
gore him too early, too often and too young he will never be the bullfighter he
might have been" (p. 199). For children (and any inexperienced person), the
magnitude and pacing of risks are crucial. Attempting tasks too far beyond
one's capabilities usually results in overwhelming failure and fears. The
fearful person will then, quite reasonably, retreat to safety and be extremely
hesitant to risk any new behaviors.

Modeling

Direct experience with courage-building activities is one path for developing

a courageous disposition. Observational leaming, or modeling (Bandura, 1986),
is another powerful modality. Observing how others respond to situations one
may encounter has considerable influence on one's actions. A child, for ex-
ample, can vicariously become fearful of dogs because a parent acts fearful in
the presence of dogs. Rachman (1978) described how fear and courage are
contagious through the actions of models. Combat soldiers had an increased
susceptibility to fear if a fellow soldier showed extreme fear reactions; coura-
geous behavior, however, boosted their self-confidence and was often imitated.
W. Miller (2000) believed both fear and courage are contagious, but the effects
are more lasting and intense for the case of catching fear.
One's perception of having the capabilities to handle situations, self-efficacy,
is affected by models (Bandura, 1986). Watching someone similar to one-
self succeed in a task tends to increase one' confidence in performing the
same task (the reverse also holds true). Although direct models are the most
influential, vicarious modeling can also occur (e.g., reading biographies
and stories, hearing about courageous acts, and so forth). Whether direct
or indirect, the more exposure to persons who demonstrate courageous
behaviors, the more the likelihood it will encourage the same behaviors in
the observer.

Encouragement and Hope

A person leaming to face fears and to show fortitude often needs some help
in maintaining or increasing a willingness to continue. This comes in the
form of encouragement. Self-efficacy and confidence have been found to be
influenced by verbal persuasion (Bandura, 1986). This can take the form of
genuine praise of efforts, or coaxing one to try harder because one is pro-
gressing, or urging one to attempt a difficult task because one truly has the
potential for doing it. Adier (as cited in Mosak, 1989) placed courage and
encouragement at the core of one's growth. In Adler's scheme, people may
hold deep feelings of inferiority and discouragement. In describing Adler's
therapeutic approach, Corey (2001) said that "clients are both encouraged
and challenged to develop the courage to take risks and make change in
their lives" (p. 124). Encouragement in the Adierian approach includes

tl2 Journai of HUMANISnC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44
recognizing strengths, creating a sense of belonging and contributing to a
greater community, being willing to be imperfect, and committing to behav-
ioral changes.
In addition to its motivational power, genuine encouragement shows an-
other person that one is not alone in a challenging or risky endeavor. It is
always nice to have someone, and sometimes it only requires one, cheering
on the sidelines or helping to lick the wounds. When asked if giving too much
encouragement was potentially harmful, Adler remarked.
Life will correct it if children get too big-headed. But it doesn't do the reverse if
they get discouraged. There was an old saying in the Viennese circus: "It's not
terribly difficult to tame a lion, but is there anyone who has learned to make the
lamb roar?" {as cited in Hoffman, 1994, pp. 243-244).

Higher Purpose

The level of commitment to a courageous act is directly related to a felt sense

of purpose. "If we have our own why... we shall get along with almost any
hozo" (Nietzsche, as cited in Kaufmann, 1983, p. 468). Situations requiring
short-term courageous responses usually have highly visible purposes (e.g.,
rescues). It is the longer term situations (e.g., illness, loss, moral courage stands)
where the sense of a higher purpose often fades or wanes. One may be aware
of one's actions and the fears, but why these things are significant becomes
indistinct. A reminder of this purpose is essential at these points. One ex-
ample: A student of mine was severely injured in an auto accident, his wife
killed, and his child survived with minor injuries. During a lengthy reha-
bilitation, he became depressed over his loss. The reason "to continue" was
getting dimmer. Then one day his daughter was giggling and playing with
her toys and the father became sharply aware that his now-too-long self-
absorption was not going to help him raise his child. He had a worthy pur-
pose chattering right in front of him. Additional reminder strategies include
inspirational reading, a small retreat, sharing the purpose of an endeavor
with like-involved colleagues, and so on.
Tillich (1952/2000) also advocated becoming a participant with a greater
whole. In addition to the courage to be a separate self, he said that one must
have "the courage to affirm himself as a part of the community in which he
participates" (p. 91). Meaningful participation in the cultural creations, ei-
ther as the originator or in one's reactions to creations, is essential. By doing
these things, one affirms life and negates emptiness and alienation.
Coles (1998) conducted a classroom discussion on courage with fourth-
grade students. One 9-year-old provided an explanation of the role of a higher
purpose as well as anyone:
Courage is when you believe in something, you really do, so you go ahead and try
to do what your beliefs tell you to do, and if you're in danger, that way—well,
you're not thinking "I'm in danger." You're thinking, this is right, this is impor-
tant, and I'm going to go ahead, and that is that. (pp. 118-119)

Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT • Spring 2005 • Volume 44 113
Fear Management

The key factor in fear management is controllability. Rachman (1978) stated

that "the absence of perceived control in a potentially aversive condition
generates fear, whereas the acquisition of a perceived sense of mastery re-
duces fear" (p. 9). Developing confidence and self-efficacy, observing mod-
els, and bolstering a sense of purpose are potent forces for counteracting fears.
Additionally, there are numerous approaches that aim directly at reducing
fears: systematic desensitization (Morris, 1986), flooding (Frankl, 1984), and
rational emotive behavior therapy (Corey, 2004; Ellis, 1995, 1998;
Meichenbaum, 1985; Seligman, 1998).

If It Works

In the midst of experienced fear, sometimes a small action will be enough to

keep you from becoming a trembler. W. Miller (2000), for example, stated that
among combat soldiers, proximity of others stimulates courage "just by be-
ing there ... their presence is a solace" (p. 180). He also found that courage
is more easily summoned when observed, and more during the day than night.
During intense moments of a baseball game, you will usually see a pitcher
fuss and twitch, rub the baseball, and paw the mound. Little does he know
that he is engaging in a fear-reducing technique. Rachman (1978) quoted a
study that concluded "People who face danger tend to feel less fearful if they
are able to engage in some form of useful overt activity" (p. 43). These diver-
sions, while not necessarily reducing the actual risks of dangers, enhance
one's feelings of control in the situation.
Hemingway (1932/1960) said that when a fighting bull enters the ring, he
will fiiid a querencia, a preferred locality. It is the place where the bull feels
the safest; it is his temporary honrie and once there he is very dangerous. Perhaps
one can learn from the fighting bull. When frightened it makes sense to find
a location where you feel more in control. It may be a particular room or a
place within a room, or a certain distance from a person or group, or possi-
bly in your favorite jacket or other piece of clothing. The point is to find or
create a place that feels the safest when confronting fears.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Courage has been presented as a necessary force for enhancing and main-
taining growth. It is courage that bridges the gap between the opposite pulls
of safety and new growth. A content analysis from a variety of disciplines
revealed three dimensions of courage: fear, appropriate action, and sense of
purpose. Descriptions and examples of these dimensions were discussed.
Guidelines, techniques, and strategies for developing courage were offered.
These developmental applications were based on three themes: building
confidence and self-trust, perceiving a worthy purpose, and managing fear.

114 Journal of HUMANISTIC COUNSELING, EDUCATtON AND DEVELOPMENT * Spring 2005 • Volume 44
 Among evergreen trees, the coastal redwood has a novel means of reproduc-
tion—the burl. A burl is a compact mass of dormant buds that may grow on the
redwood's roots, base, or trunk. The burl's buds sprout only when the redwood
experiences intense stress, such as fire, lightning, and extreme climatic condi-
tions. The burl then comes to life and forms a new branch, root, or even a whole
tree. Peril to the redwood is a stimulus to growth. Similarly, Ralph Waldo Emerson
{as cited in Whelan, 1991) believed that each of us has a deep remedial force
that is stirred by cruel disappointments and adversity: "[S]ecret forces do not
awaken until we are pricked and stung and sorely assailed" (p. 95). Among
these aroused secret forces is courage, one of our most valued capacities.

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