Answers to exercises

Exercise la
1. False. We can leam about grammar by studying Latin, but also by
studying any other language.
2. True. (See 1.1.)
3. True. (See 1.1.)
4. False. Spelling has to do with the written representation of the
sounds of a language, rat her than with how whole words are put
together to form sentences.
5. False. (See 1.1.)
6. False. Children leam how to speak without formal tuition, by
listening to the speech they hear around them. (See 1.l.)
7. False. This would be a prescriptive approach. Studying grammar
in fact involves describing how peop1e DO speak.
8. False. Notions of incorrectness are irrelevant to descriptive
grammar. (See 1.2.)
9. False. American English is simp1y DIFFERENT from British
English, and identifies its user as American. For examp1e, the verb
form gotten is used in American English, but not in British
(where got is used instead). (See 1.3.1.)
10. True. Language varies according to the characteristics of the user.
(See 1.3.2.)
11. False. (See 1.3.3.)
12. False. (See 1.3.2.)
13. True. (See 1.3.2., under 'Social-class membership'.)
14. False, at least in the context of grammar. (See 1.3.3.)
15. Fa1se. Speech and writing are equiva1ent in some ways, but not in
others. (See 1.3.3 and Chapter 8.)
16. True. Doctors have specialised terms, bare1y comprehensib1e to
patients, which they use when talking to one another.
17. False. (See 1.4.2.)
18. False. (See 1.5.)
19. False. (See 1.6.)
20. False. (See 1.7.)

Exercise Ib
1. C. Ambiguous as to who has the confidence.
199
200 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

2. B. Prescriptive gramm ar dictates that multiple negatives should be

avoided. However, many non-standard dialects allow them, and it
is estimated that they are used by 80- 90 per cent of speakers in
Britain.
3. C. Ambiguous as to whether there should be more schools, or
whether they should be more comprehensive.
4. A. Parts of the verbs are used ungrammatically.
5. A. This is actually a line from Hopkins's poem God 's Grandeur,
and so illustrates 'poetic licence'.
6. A. This is actually a sentence produced by a foreign learner of
English.
7. C. The sentence is too long and complex to process easily.
8. B. Prescriptive grammar would insist on subject pronouns He and
I.
9. C. Ambiguous as to who has laid the eggs.
10. C. Difficult to und erstand . This sentence demonstrates that
following a rule of prescriptive grammar (Le. not to end a sentence
with apreposition) can actually lead to ineffective communication.
(A wry marginal comment which Winston Churchill wrote on an
official document.)
Exercise lc
1. Formal; written;joumalism.
2. Formal; written; religion.
3. Informal; written; advertising.
4. Informal; spoken; advertising.
5. Informal; spoken;joumalism.
(SOURCES: 1. The Guardian, 25 July 1980; 2. The Book of Common
Prayer; 3. a British Rail advertisement in Radio Times; 4. a television
advertisement; 5. BBC Radio One Newsbeat, 25 July 1980.)

Exercise 2b
1. See Figure A.l.

2. See Figure A.2.

(a) The abbreviated tree diagrams would leave out the labels Wo and
Se (or Cl).
(b) The unlabelled tree diagrams would leave out all the labels.
3. [(Tawny owls) (were hooting) (loudly) (in the wood)).
4. [(The critics) (have slated) (his plays) (without mercy)).

Exercise 2d
1. Cl[AvP(Av Typically), NP(N Aunt NBelinda) Vp(vhad vbeen vutter-
ing) NP(NPlatitudes) NP(dall Nevening)].
2. See Figure A.3.
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 201

Figure A.1

Se
I
Cl
I
I I I

n
Ph Ph Ph

nl 1 1
I
Wo Wo Wo Wo Wo Wo Wo
I I I I I I I
Those students have made an interesting discovery.

Figure A.2

Se
I
Cl

Ph
I I
Ph
I
Ph
1
Ph

~Wo Wo~Wo
Wo
h
Wo Wo Wo
1
I
1
Wo
I I I I I I I I
Without doubt the play has been tremendously successful.

Figure A.3

Se
I
Cl
I
I I I
NP VP NP AjP

InV
Nv Aj
I
Aj
1
1
I
N
I
Aj
I I I I I I I
Jane is finding modem French literature fascinating.
202 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

3. CI[A(H Next ) S(M the Horchestra) P(Auxwill MVperform)

o (M Brahms's M third H symphony)].
4. See Figure A.4.

Figure A.4

Se
I
Cl
I
I I I I
o
n
S P A
I
I I In
H Aux Mv M H M H
I I I I I I I
Gertrude can type business letters very rapidly.

Exereise 2e
The following funetion labels should be inserted:
l.SP; 2.SP; 3.SPO; 4.SPO; 5.SP.

Exercise 3a
1. Count nouns: weed, laugh, employer; the remainder are mass
nouns.
2. For example, paper: count noun: news/examination/scholarly
paper; mass noun: material on which this answer is printed.
3. You can find the answer in Quirk and Greenbaum, A University
Grammar of English (1973) sections: (a) 4.40, (b) 4.48; (c) 4.50,
(d) 4.42-45.

Exereise 3b
1. Vo: the form given in the question; Vs: the Vo form with the -s
suffix; Ving: the Vo form with the -ing suffix; for Ved and Yen
there are two forms for hang, the second referring to a method of
execution: Ved: took, received, began, hung/hanged, slept
Yen: taken, received, begun, hung/hanged, slept
Of these, receive and hang (method of execution) are regular.
2. You can find the answer in Quirk and Greenbaum, A University
Grammar of English (1973) sections 3.10-19 (note that they use
V, V-ed 1 , V-ed 2 for our Vo, Ved, Yen).

Exercise 3e
Gradable adjectives: kind, dirty careful, unique in some people's usage
(see 3.2.3).
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 203

Exercise 3e
1. 1 Aj, 2 Av; 2.1 Av,2 Aj; 3.1 Aj 2 Av; 4.1 Aj, 2 Av; 5.1 Aj,
2 Av; 6.1 Aj, 2 Av; 7.1 Aj, 2 Av; 8. 1 Av,2 Aj.

Exercise 3f
1.1N,2V; 2.1 Aj,2N; 3.1V,2Aj; 4.1V,2Aj; 5.1V,2Aj;
6.1Aj,2V,3N; 7.1V,2N,3Aj; 8.referee:1N,2V;match:1N,
2V.

Exercise 3g
N cruppets, spod, vomity, Podshaw, glup, whampet, mimsiness,
manity, gooves
V whozing, priddling, vipped, brandUng, gumbled
Aj gleerful, groon, [lupless, blunk
Av then, huffily, podulously, bindily, magistly (it is perhaps possible
to conceive of magistly as a noun, but this is an unlikely inter-
pretation) .

Exercise 3h
I. [qBut ijalas, (dthe etwo Ajugly Nsisters) (yhad ygone) (Avhome)
(pwithout pnher)].
2. For example, [ijOK, cjalthough (pnI) (yam yfeeling) <Ayrather
Ajbored) (pwith dthese eeleven Ndasses)].

Exercise 4a
Main phrases: I. (Mary), (had), (a Iittle lamb); 2. (the fleece of the little
lamb), (was), (as white as snow); 3. (everyone in town), (admires),
(the whiteness of the fleece of Mary's little lamb).
Subordinate phrases: 1. none; 2. (of the little lamb), (as snow); 3. (in
town), (of the fleece of Mary's little lamb), (of Mary's little lamb),
(Mary's).

Exercise 4b
I.b; 2.c; 3.b; 4.a; 5.a; 6.a; 7.c.

Exercise 4c
A. We give only the most unmarked (or normal) orders: other, more
marked orders are possible. In order to help in detennining the pre-
modifier ordering rules (B), we have have indicated the dass of each
word.
I. GPCinderella's etwo Ajugly ~sisters.
2. dA AjSmail Ajgreen AjCarved Njade ~idol./dA AjSmall AjCarved
Ngreen-jade ~idol. (If 'green jade' is a substance.)
204 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

3. dAll dthose Ajintricate Ajinterlocking AjChinese ~designs.

4. AvQuite da dfew Ajdisgusting Ajold AjVictorian ~drawings./
dA dfew Avquite Ajdisgusting Ajold AjVictorian ~drawings.
5. GpMoldwarp's Ajbrilliant AjneW Ajgeological ~hypothesis.
6. GpMorgan's esecond Ajrevolutionary Ajcylindrical Nsteam ~con-
denser.
7. dAn Ajancient Ajgrey AjGothic Nchurch:: tower.
8. AvAlmost dall dthe efirst ehundred Ajforeign ~tourists.
9. GpHis Ajheavy AjneW Ajmoral ~responsibilities.
10. GpMy Ajhectic NLondon AjSocial ~life.

B. Here is a rule which covers the normal order of the premodifiers

in examples 1- 9 above, and in many other English NPs. (Superscript 'n'
in the rule indicates that there may be more than one of the category:
e.g. 'Ajn; means 'one or more adjectives'.)
NP = {Av} {d} {~p} {e n } {({Av}J\j)n} {Nn} ~

The only example not covered by the rule is example 10, My hectic
London social li/e, where the Aj social occurs after the N London
rather than before it. Adjectives like social and geological which are
derived from nouns and mean 'relating to' in some sense often come
immediately before the head N, after any modifying noun. (See Quirk
and Greenbaum, A University Grammar 0/ English (1973), section
13.40, for more details.) Within the category of adjectives that do
occur in the place our rule predicts, the order of astring of adjectives
is based on meaning, as follows:
general age colour verb participle provenance denominal
e.g. intricate new green carved Gothic geological
(This is based on Quirk and Greenbaum, 1973, section 13.41.)

Exercise 4d
1. (:nshe); 2. (~the ~skeleton ~(in ... n; 3. (~that "Xjstrange
N eeling,
Hf ). 4 . (M
d half M
d the H
Npeople M
Ajpresent ).,5. GP (S tanley's)
(M

"XjhistOriC ~meeting ~(with . . .) ~(at . . .); 6. e';[ all 1';[those

"Xjp(utterly fruitless) ~afternoon ~meetings 1[p(of ...) ~(last year».

 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 205

Exercise 4e
1. I; 2. we; 3. you; 4. you; 5. he; 6. she; 7. it; 8. they; 9. me, 10. us,
11. you; 12. you; 13. him; 14. her; 15. it; 16. them; 17. myself; 18.
ourselves; 19. yourself; 20. yourselves; 21. himself; 22. herself; 23. itself;
24. themse[ves; 25. my; 26; our; 27. your; 28. your; 29. his; 30. her; 31.
its; 32. their; 33. mine; 34. ours; 35. yours; 36. yours; 37. his; 38. hers;
39.-; 40. theirs.

[The OBJECI' form of the pronoun is in fact the form that occurs in the
greatest variety of places in grammatical structure, for example (a) as
0, (b) as head of a pp (Le. after a p), (c) in one-word answers (Who is
coming? Me.), and (d) in most people's casual speech after cj (lohn and
him), (e) as C (That's him.); other functions ofthe object pronoun will
be seen later.]
Exercise Sa
1. [SAPOA];2. [SP];3. [SPA];4. [SPOC];5. [SPOA];6. [AS
P C] ; 7. [A S P 0 0 A] (for the possibility of a second 0, see 5.6).

Exercise Sb
1. [NP AvPVPNPPP]; 2. [NPVP];3. [NP VP PP]; 4. [NPVPNPAjPl;
5. [NP VP NP AvP]; 6. [PP NP VP AjP]; 7. [NP NP VP NP NP AvP].

Exercise Sc
1. [S P Oi Od] and [S P 0 C]; 2. [S P 0] and [S P 0 A] (A = (with
brazen audacity»; 3. [S PC] and [S PO]; 4. [S P Oi Od] and [S P 0 C]
(it is also possible to understand this senten ce as [S P Oi Od]); 5. [S P
A] and [S P 0],

Exercise Sd
1. [S PO] ; 2. this is a passive c1ause (see 5.5) - the passive c1ause pattern
is [S P] , the corresponding active clause pattern is [S PO] ; 3. [S P] ;
4. [S PO]; 5. [S P 0]; 6. [S P Cl. 7. [S P Oi Od].

Exercise Se
1. A(for a man M(with one eye», or A(for a man) A(with one eye),
where second A is a manner adverbial; if you took looking for to
be the verb, the analyses would be 0(. .. M(. ..»,0(. .. )A( .. . ).
2. A(Avdown), or O(Ndown).
3. What in the question was intended to elicit an 0, but a C was
given in answer .
4. (the day [he was born]) is an 0 (what he cursed), or an A of
time.
206 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Exercise Sf
(In the tree diagrams we have used the more general labels v, V, and
Aux, rather than more specialised labels such as m, Ving, Prag, etc.)
1. See Figure A.5.

2. See Figure A.6.

3. See Figure A.7.

FigureA.5

Se
I
MCl
I
s p
I C
I

NP VP NP
~ I~
M H MvM IJ.
d N v d N
I I I I I
No man is an island.

Figure A.6

Se
I
MCl
I
s p
I I
0
I
A
NP VP NP AvP
I I
H Aux Aux Aux
I I I
Mv M
I I
M
I
M
I
H H
I
pn v v v V Av d Aj N Av
I I I I I I I I I I
You must have been eating too many green olives recently.
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 207

Figure A.7

Se
I
Mel
I
s
I
P
I
Oi
I
Od
NP VP NP NP
I rl .---,...-,---11 , 1 I
H Aux Mv M M H M H M
NvVd N Nd N PP

M
I I
M
I
H
p deN
I I I I
Dad 's given the carol singers a cheque for a thousand pounds.

Exercise 6a
See Figures A.8 and A.9.

FigureA.8

Se
I
Mel

A
I I
S
IP o
I
PP NP VP Nel
I Auxr-1Mv I
~
P d N
H
pn v V
I
0
NP
I
S
NP
P
VP
I
H
r lH
M
I
Mv
pn d N V
I I
As a politician, you should know what this country needs.
I I
208 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Figure A.9

Se
I
MCl

s
I
p
I A
I I
A
NP VP AvP ACl

M
r lH Mv
I
H
I s
I I
p
d N V Av cj NP VP
I r lMv
H Aux
pn v V
I I I
The burglar slunk away while we were arguing.

(While is a cj rather than an A, for it does not really answer the question
When? for we were arguing: the ACI answers that question for the
burglar slunk away.)

Exercise 6b
1. ACl[cj S PO], time; 2. ACl[cj S PA], purpose; 3. NCl[S P Oi Od];
4. RCl[S P Oi Od]; 5. RCl[A S P 0 A]; 6. NCl[A S P 0], reason;
7. ACl[cj S PA C], contrast; 8. NCÜS PA]; 9. RCl[S PA].

Exercise 6c
0Cling''2 . M S 0 A M A A
1. Cli''3 . CH''4 ·Clen''5 . Cling''6 . CH''7 . Cling''8 . Clen'

Exercise 6d
1. [S P O ] , [S P 0 A]
[PO A] [PO]
2. [S A P 0 _ _ ], [S APO A ].
[A S PA] [cj S PA]
3. [S P Oi Od ], [S P Oi Od A ].
[cjSPOA ] [cjSPO] [cjSPO]
[cj S PO]
4. [S P C], [S A P C] .
[P 0 A] [P 0]
5. [S PO ], [S PO A], [S PO A A).
[P 0 A A] [P 0 A] [P 0]
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 209

6. [S P Oi ], [S P Oi Od ],
[S P O ] [S PO ]
[A S P] [.4 S P]
[SPO_i_ Od ].
[S PO] [ASP]
7. [S P O ] , [S PO A ], and finally one in which [the dog
[PO] [PO]
smoking a cigar] was the event which I found:
[S P O ] ;
[S PO]
This is a 'catenative' construction (see 7.5.2).

Exercise 6e
I. [S P 0 ], [S P O ]
(M ( H + H » «
M H) + (H)
2. [S A P 0 ], [S A P 0 ]
«M H) + (H) } (M (H +H »
3. [S PO ], [S PO ]
(p ( H, H +M H) ) (p (M, M + M) H)

(lt is also possible to interpret the pp (in French ... ) as a C,

characterising (her exams) , or an A, though it is unclear what
kind of A. This would change the c1ause structure to [S P 0 C] or
[S P 0 A ] ; the structure of the pp remains as above.)

4. [S P C ], [S P C ].
«MH)+(HM)} (M(H+Hfl:L..»
[P] [P]
5. [A S PA A ], [A S PA A ].
([P] + [PO]) [(P+P) 0]

6. [S P A ] ,
[S P ( 0 + 0 )]
[S P (0 + O) ]
[S P A ] ,
(p <M H M +H»
[S P (0 + 0 )]
[S PO]
[S P A ],
(p ( M H M +M H M ))
[S PO] [S P ( 0 + 0 ) ]
210 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

[SPA ].
(p (MHM= +MH~ +H»)
[SPO] [SPO]
7. [S P A ], [S P A ] ,
(p M ( H +H M ») (p (M H + H ) M)
[S P A ], [S P A ].
(p M ( H +H ) M) (p (M H +H M ))
(Note that we have not further analysed the postmodifier pp (o!
questionable parentage).)
8. [S P e ],
[M ( M H +M H >M )
(pM (H+H»)
[S P e ],
(M (M H + M H M ))
(pM (H+H »)
[S P e ],
(M (M H + M H M >)
(p (M H+H »
[S pe ].
(M ( M H +M H >M )
(p (M H+H»)

Exercise 7a
1. (a) ~ling[standing at the door] should postmodify H gir1; (b) ~v
making requires an 0, but there is none.
2. (a) ~(:nmy) should be subject pn I, and Vs has should show sub-
ject concord and be vohave; (b) 1:f./nteresting should premodify
H job .
3. (a) ~(very good reputation) requires Af a, the INDEFINITE
ARTICLE; (b) pfor requires a NP or NCI after it.
4. A Cli is not usually a MCI in a sentence. But it could occur as a
SCI, or as an elliptical sentence (e.g. in reply to a question or as
the heading of an article).
5. A Cl without a S is not usually a MCI in a sentence. But it might
occur as an elliptical sentence, e.g. in very casual conversation, or
perhaps in an advertisement, for instance (Have gun, will travel.).

Exercise 7b
1. 'DO SUPPORT'. All the following transformations require a finite
operator verb, v = m, be, hv (see 4.5.2 and 5.4.1). If there is none,
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 211

use the dummy operator do. It will be the finite element, carrying
tense and agreeing with S.
2. CLAUSE NEGATION. Place negative not immediately after the
first (finite) v of P. If it is n 't, attach it to this v.
3. YES- NO INTERROGATION . Place the first (finite) v of P before S.
4. CLAUSE EMPHASIS. Place the main stress on the first v.
5. TAGS. Add an unlinked second Cl (see 6.7.1), consisting of the
first v of the P of the original Cl, with n 't attached, followed by
the subject pn that would stand for the S of the first Cl. (If the P
of the first Cl is negated, the tag will not be negative, Le. the tag
is opposite in polarity, positive or negative, to the original Cl.
There are also emphatic tags, which have the same polarity as the
original Cl (You like cheese, do you? He hasn 't [inished his home-
work, hasn't he?).
6. ELLIPTICAL COMPARATIVES: There are a number of different
kinds of elliptical CCI, but the kind represented by the data on
p.74 consists of cjthan followed by a S (normally not identical
to the MCI S), followed by the first v of the MCl P.
Note: (a) Mv do is not an operator v, hence it needs dummy do (I didn 't
do it); (b) Mv have is an operator v in some varieties of English, a full V
in others: hence, for example, Have you a match? or Do you have a
match?
Exercise 7c
1. [A S (PA +PA)1; 2. [AuxSAux (MvA +MvO) 1;
3. [S P <0 A + 0 A ) 1; 4. [A (S PA A + S PO) ];
5. [A <S P 0 + S Aux not) 1 (note that dummy operator~UXdoes
'stands for't~likes). 6. [A (S P C + SC) 1.

Exercise 7d
We give a fairly general description of the transformation, using symbols
(you may have used a less abstract description), but we do not attempt
to give the rather complex restrietions on their application.
1. Fronting o[ subordinate clause object

it be C CSl.·[' .. Pi 0 " .J----S be Ce .. M [ ... Pi ... ])

NP. NP l CH
For example,
It is C(interesting) ~l/>j(to study) ~p(grammar) in depthJ ~

~p(Grammar) is C(interesting~li[Pi(to study) in depthJ).

2. Postponement o[indirect object
S P Oi Od___ S P Od A(p NP.), where p = to or tor.
NP l
212 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

For example,
[S(We)p(are teaching) Oi(yoU) Od(grammar)]. ~ [S(We) P (are
teaching) 0 (grammar) A (p to you)] .
3. Postponement of postmodifier
NP(. .. H M) - N P ( . .. H ...... M), where M must be a Ph
or Cl. "
(This transformation is hedged about with restrictions which are
only poorly understood.)
For example,
~p<The H road M.(to a mastery of grammar) P(is) C(very thorny).
~~p<The H road P(is) C(very thorny) M.(to a mastery of
I
grammar».

Exercise 7e
1. [it be C S ],
[cj A S ....!!..f A A A]
[cj S......ll Al
2. [therebeSAA ].
[cj it be A that S P A 1

Exercise lla
(The error-type is followed by a suggested revision.)
1. B. lt was argued that the President .. .was dancing to the tune of
OPEC.
2. C. Mervyn John's record is now as good as, if not better than,
that ofhis countryman Michael Steed.
3. D. (It is difficult to avoid the 'dangling' non-finite clause, which is
is in any case not seriously objectionable.)
4. A. What worried her parents most was his being a racing driver.
S. C. We could knock twenty per cent off the fuel consumption and
yet keep the price ...
6. B. Have both/all of you opened your parcels?
7. E. (Split infinitive.) ... it would be wrong even to think of it.
8. A. (No obvious way of evading the object pronouns: subject
pronouns would look extremely odd here.)
9. A. Margaret and he will be playing against you and me.
10. B. Neither the publisher nor the author knows about the printer's
blunder.
11. A.... we girls were listening at the keyhole.
12. C.... and to its determination to stand on its own feet.
 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 213

13. A. (The genitive ... some Congressman from the Midwest's . ..

would be very awkward here. Either leave the sentence as it is,
or substitute a relative clause construction: ... about some
Congressman ... who had taken .. J
14. D. When they are removed from their normal habitat, it is advis-
able to treat these animals with great care.
1 S. D. Put the lights out when you leave. (A simpler and more direct
style is preferable, and avoids the usage problem.)
16. B. Radios of this sort are very reliable.
This sort of radio is very reliable.
17. D. As I was flying ... a sud den thought struck me.
18. E. (Superlative in place of comparative.) (To change best to
better here would seem rather pedantic.)
19. E. We shall not object to your postponing the meeting.
20. B.... any of her supporters has been disloyal.

Exereise 12a
1. b. The object a collar with studs alt over it is discontinuous.
2. b. 'Garden-path' ambiguity: that were needed reads like a passive
relative clause.
3. b. It lacks an antecedent such as water.
4. b. Ambiguity: the adverbial in her latest book can belong to the
main clause or to the noun clause.
S. c. Redundancy: in the long run, eventualty and one day are all
similar in meaning.
6. a. End-weight: up follows a long object.
7. a. End-weight: to end follows a long object.
8. b. Unclear antecedents for he, which and his.
9. b. The object tax-free presents of any size you like is dis-
continuous.
10. a. End-weight: the predicator revived follows a very long subject.
SUGGESTED REVISIONS
1. Mr and Mrs Smith bought their dog a collar with studs all over it.
2. Once the war started, the 'powers that were' needed human
cannon fodder.
3. The pipe was leaking so badly that the liquid ran a11 over the
kitchen.
4. She argues that in her latest book Iris Murdoch has produced a
masterpiece.
S. In the long run, we shall win the battle against poverty.
6. They have given up their plans for improving the sports facilities.
7. No one will ever know how Dickens intended to finish Edwin
Drood, the novel on which he was working when he died.
8. The detective swore that he had seen the accused checking in.
This sighting was evidence of the presence of the accused in the
hotel.
214 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

9. The Inland Revenue no longer allows you to give your children

tax-free presents of any size you like.
10. The desultory conversation in the drawing room revived among
guests who had regarded Miss Manning's performance of Ave
Verum as a mere interruption.

Exercise 12b
(i) SUGGESTED REVISIONS
1. Before we started eating, the table was absolutely loaded with
d elicacies.
2. It is best to reduce your overheads, and to work as far as possible
alone.
3. As we soon discovered, the ambassador was not interested in
discussing armaments.
4. I fed the dog, and Harry the budgerigar.
5. Inside, the house looks almost as it did when Darwin died.
6. Lord and Lady Boothroyd refused to meet her parents. OR Her
parents, Lord and Lady Boothroyd, refused to meet each other.
7. The party was attended by the Melchetts, some cousins of ours;
William, of course, arrived late.
8. Middlesex, having already won the Schweppes Championship,
looks like winning the Gillette Cup as well.
(ii) DESCRIPTION OF AMBIGUITIES
(All are 'garden paths' except 4 and 6.)
1. The table is initially read as object of the adverbial clause, not as
subject of the main clause.
2. Work is initially read as a noun coordinated with overheads,
rat her than as averb.
3. The ambassador is initially read as object of discovered, rather
than as subject of was.
4. EITHER Harry the budgerigar is a noun phrase coordinated with
the dog, OR Harry is the subject, and the budgerigar the object,
of an 'ellipted' verb ted.
5. Inside is read initially as apreposition, and inside the house as a
prepositional phrase. In fact, inside is an adverb, and the house
is subject of looks.
6. EITHER Lord and Lady Boothroyd is in apposition to Her
parents, OR Her parents is the 'fronted' object of meet.
7. William is read initially as coordinated with the Melchetts and
some cousins ot ours, rather than as subject of arrived.
8. Middlesex can be read initially as the subject of the adverbial
-ing clause Middlesex . .. Championship, rather than as subject
of the main clause.
Further reading

The list of references which follows includes aselection of books which

might be consulted by students wishing to pursue some of the topics we
have touched upon in this book.
The items are listed by author, in a1phabetical order, and are also
numbered consecutive1y for easy identification according to topic:

Topic Reference numbers

Language and linguistics 3,7,8,15,16,26,30,36,40,41
Language variation 18,19,29,37,38
English grammar 1,6,16,17,25,32,33,44
Speech versus writing 9,11,35
Discourse analysis 5,10,17,22
Analysis of literary discourse 12,14,20,23,24,36,39,43
Opinions on usage and correctness 2,13,21,27,31
Written composition 4,28,42

References
1. Adrian Akmajian and Frank Heny, An Introduction to the Prin-
ciples of Transformational Syntax (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press,
1975).
2. Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cab1e, A History of the English
Language (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978) eh. 9, 'The
Appeal to Authority, 1650-1800'.
3. Dwight Bolinger, Aspects of Language, 2nd edn (New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975).
4. G. V. Carey, Mind the Stop: ABrief Guide to Punctuation
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976).
5. Malco1m Coulthard, An Introduction to Discourse Analysis
(London: Longman, 1977).
6. A. P. Cowie and R. Mackin, Oxford Dictionary o!Current Idiom-
atie English. Volume 1: Verbs with Prepositions and Particles
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975).
7. David Crysta1, Linguisties (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971).
215
216 FURTHER READING

8. David Crystal, A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics

(London: Deutsch, 1980).
9. David Crystal, 'Neglected Grammatical Factors in Conversational
English', in Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik
(eds), Studies in English Linguistics: for Randolph Quirk (London:
Longman, 1980).
10. David Crystal and Derek Davy, Investigating English Style (London:
Longman, 1969).
11. David Crystal and Derek Davy, Advanced Conversational English
(London: Longman, 1975), (Accompanying tape availab1e.)
12. Edmund L. Epstein, Language and Style (London: Methuen, 1978).
13. H. W. Fowler, Modern English Usage, 2nd edn,revised by Sir Ernest
Gowers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965).
14. Roger Fowler, The Languages of Literature (London: Routledge
& Kegan Paul, 1971).
15. Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman, An Introduction to
Language, 2nd edn(New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1978).
16. H. A. Gleason, Linguistics and English Grammar (New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1965).
17. M. A. K. Hallidayand Ruqaiya Hasan, Cohesion in English (London:
Longman, 1976).
18. M. A. K. Halliday, Angus Mclntosh and Peter Strevens, The Linguis-
tie Sciences and Language Teaching (London: Longman, 1964)
ch. 4, 'The Users and Uses of language'.
19. Arthur Hughes and Peter Trudgill, English Accents and Dialects
(London: Arnold, 1979).
20. Roman Jakobson, 'Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics', in
Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in Language (Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press, 1960).
21. Samuel J ohnson, A Dictionary of the English Language (London,
1755).
22. Geoffrey N. Leech, English in Advertising (London: Longman,
1966).
23. Geoffrey N. Leech, A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (London:
Longman, 1969).
24. Geoffrey Leech and Michael Short, Style in Fiction: A Linguistic
Introduction to English Fictional Prose (London: Longman, 1981).
25. Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, A Communicative Grammar of
English (London: Longman, 1975).
26. J. E. Miller and E. K. Brown, Syntax: A Linguistic Introduetion
to Sentence Structure (London: Hutchinson, 1980).
27. W. H. Mittins et al., Attitudes to English Usage (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1970).
28. Walter Nash, Designs in Prose (London: Longman, 1980).
29. W. R. O'Donnell and Loreto Todd, Variety in Contemporary
English (London: Allen & Unwin, 1980).
30. Frank Palmer, Grammar (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971).
 FURTHER READING 217

31. Eric Partridge, Usage and Abusage, 5th edn (Lendon: Hamish
Hamilton, 1957).
32. Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum, A University Grammar
of English (London: Lengman, 1973).
33. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan
Svartvik, A Grammar of Contemporary English (New York:
Seminar Press and London: Longman, 1972).
34. Dan I. Slobin, Language Change in Childhood and in History (Uni-
versity of California, Berkeley: Werking Paper No. 41, Language
Behaviour Research Laboratery, 1975).
35. Michael Stubbs, Language and Literacy (London: Routledge &
Kegan Pau1, 1980).
36. Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Mary Louise Pratt, Linguistics for
Students of Literature (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1980).
37. Peter Trudgill, Accent, Dialect and the School (Lenden: Arne1d,
1975).
38. Peter Trudgill, Sociolinguistics (Harmondswerth: Penguin, 1974).
39. G. W. Turner, Stylistics (Harmondswerth: Penguin, 1973).
40. J. F. Wallwork, Language and Linguistics (Lenden: Heinemann,
1969).
41. J. F. Wallwerk, Language and Linguistics, a Workbook (Lenden:
Heinemann, 1972).
42. John E. Warriner and Francis Griffith, English Grammarand Com-
position (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973).
43. Henry G. Widdowson, Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature
(London: Longman, 1976).
44. David J. Young, The Structure of English Clauses (Lenden:
Hutchinson, 1980).
Index
Notes
1. Major or defining page references are printed in bold type.
2. See pages xiv-xvi for symbols and conventions.
3. The abbreviations s. and S.a. mean 'see' and 'See also' respectively.
a/an: s. indefmite article
abstract noun 25,45
Academie Franraise 174
accent 7
active: s. voice
actor: s. agent
addressee 9, 83, 135-6, 139, 145-6,
149-50, 154, 184
adjective 23-5,32,41,47-9,61-2,
65,99, 167: irregular 48; tests 47-8.
S.a. comparative, gradable, non-gradable
and superlative adjective
adjectival clause: s. relative clause
adjective phrase 32,35,47-9,57,62,
65-6,101
adverb 23-4,32,41,48-52,62,65-6,
99, 139, 167: circumstantial, degree
and sentence (attitude, connective)-
48-50; relative - 99; - tests 49-50;
- vs preposi tion 52
adverb phrase 32,35,49,57,65-6
adverbial 36,49,61,64,66,75-7,
80,82-6,94-5,97,100,102,139,
195: - movement 49,76-7,120;
obligatory - 85n; - optionality
49,77; sentential - 7..6-7; - tests
76-7; - types 64,77,97,102
adverbial clause 94,97-8,100,149:
non-finite - 102; - sub-classes
97, 102
advertising 150-5
affmnative, strong: s. emphatic
sentences; negation
agent 34, 181: by-adverbial 82,86,
121
alternative analyses 104-5, 120-5.
S.a fuzzy boundaries; multiple
classification; overlap
218
ambiguity 13,190, 193: grammatical
- (examples) 83,92,97, 101,
111-12;'gardenpath'- 190
and: s. coordinating conjunctions
antecedent 192-3: false - 193
apposition 61-2
article: s. defmite -; determiner;
indefinite -
aspect, perfective/progressive 66-8, 152,
165-6. S.a tense
attitude adverb 50
author-i'eader situation 163-4
auxiliary verb 35, 43, 53, 66-9,
78-9. S.a. aspect; modality; finiteness;
operator, voice
basic structure 113-16. S.a. clause
pattern; constituent structure; derived
structure; transformation
be 26,47,53,66-8,70, 83, 126-7.
S.a. copula; operator
blends, grammatical 139
boundaries: s. fuzzy
bracketing xvi, 28-9, 33-4, 36, 44n,
58-9,62,93,103-4,148-9: S.a.
labelling, tree diagram
branching coordination 118-19
branching, right vs left 137-8, 142
by: s. agent
case, pronouns 46,73
catenative constructions 121, 123-5
channel 9
character-eharacter/-reader situation
164
chiasmus 162
circumstance adverb 48-50: - types 50
class, grammatical 32-3,41-4. S.a.
 INDEX
clause -; elosed -; open -; parts of
speech (word), phrase -
elause 26-8, 33-4,64-6,75-88,93-4,
107, 121-7, 137: - elasses 96-103;
finite/non-finite - 66, 78-9; -
test 46. S.a. adverbial -; catenative;
comparative -; coordination ;-en -,
infinitive""'; ting ,....; main ,....; noun ....,;
prepositional -; relative -; sub-
ordinate -
clause elements 33-4,75-7, 80,
82-3,95, 103, 137: - hierarchy 84.
S.a. adverbial; complement; object;
predicator; subject
clause pattern 84-7
elause structure 64,75-88,137,147-9,
152. 167
elause-within-elause: s. direct subordi-
nation
elause-within-phrase/-word: s. indirect
subordination
eleft sentence 126
closed elasses 41-3,50-4. S.a. open
elasses
cohesion 126, 163-6
collective noun 45~, 177
command: s. imperative mood
common noun 45
communication 12-13, 134-5, 150:
sub-logical - 160
comparative adjective 47-8,65,154:
- adverb 49;- elause 99-100,103,
117,211
complement 36,47,60-1, 65, 75~,
82~,94,123n
complex sentence 77-8,93, 186
complexity, grammatical 62, 105~,
127, 137-8: - and style 142-3,
147-9, 152, 167, 185, 189, 194;
measures of - 137-8; horizontal/
vertical - 137, 147-9; - location
137-8,148,194. S.a. alternative
analyses; coordination; subordination
composite labels xv, 101
composition 184-95
compound word 62,104: - noun
27n; - verb 64
conative function 150, 152-3
conciseness 192-3
concord 75~, 78, 81, 177-8: notional
vs grammatical - 178. S.a. number;
person; grammatical
concrete noun 24, 45
conjunction 42, 52-4, 83, 86,95, 96-9,
102, 165: coordinating - 52-3,
107-9; correlative - 52-3;-
omiSSIon 96-7,109; subordi-
nating - 52-3, 95-9
219
connective adverb 50, 165
constituent 23, 29-30, 32, 58, 87:
discontinuous - 77,80-1,119-20,
128,190
constituent structure 113-14. S.a.
transformation
context 145, 163~
contractions 29,69-70, 153
conversation 119, 136-43, 151
coordinates 107
coordinating conjunction 52-3,
107-9: - omission 109; sentence
initial - 1 72
coordination 78,93,107-9, 117-19,
142, 187, 195: - and pronouns
175~; correlative - 52-3; - reduction
transformation 119; unlinked -
109, 119, 167
copula 47,83. S.a. be
count noun 45
criteria: s. tests/criteria
dangling participle/non-finite elause
180-1
deelarative mood 79-81, 84, 119,160
definite artiele (the) 25,42,44-5,47,
51,63
degree adverb 48-50
degree elause 100
demonstrative determiner/pronoun
63, 165
derived structure 80-2, 86, 98,
113-28. S.a. basic structure; trans-
formation
descriptive grammar 5, 11. S.a.
prescription
determiner 42,47,51,61,63,161.
S.a. defmite and indefmite artiele
diagram: s. skeleton analysis; tree diagram
dialect 7,9-11,70,99
direct address 9, 153-4: - question/
statement 9, 139; - speech/thought
164,-5
direct object 11, 82~. S.a. indirect
object; object
direct subordination 103-4
discontinuous constituents 77, 80-1,
119-20,128,190. S.a. stranded
preposition
discourse 133: - analysis 133-43,
145-55, 158~8; - situation 163-4;
spoken vs written - 140-3. S.a.
domain; mode; tenor
discourse linking: s. cohesion
da 53,66,68-70,80, 129,210. S.a.
dummy operator; operator; primary
verbs
220 INDEX
domain of discourse 9-10, 133, 146,
150-5
double analysis: s. alternative analyses
double negation 11
dummy operator (do) 69-70,80,129,
210
dummy subject (it, there) 126-7
elegant variation 165, 194
elements of clause structure 33--4,
75-7,80,82-3,95,103,137. S.a.
adverbial; clause structure; comp-
lernent; function; object; predicator;
subject
elements of phrase structure: s. head,
modifier
ellipsis 27n, 117-9, 124, 128, 160,165,
179-80,191-3: and pronouns 175
emphatic sentences 80,129,211. S.a.
negation
empty subject (it, there) 126-7
-en c1ause 86-7, 101-3
-en verb (Ven) 46, 68
end-focus 15-16, 160, 187-90: -
-weight 127, 160, 187-90
enumerators (cardinal, ordinal) 42,
52,61
existential particle (there) 127:-
sentence 126-7
explicitness 136, 140, 142
expressive function 150: - repetition
194 ' gradable adjectives 47-8. S.a. degree
extraposition 127-8
false antecedent 193
familiar discourse/address: s. politeness
figures of speech 160-3, 168
fmal position 189
fmite c1ause 66,78-9,96-100, 121-2:
- main verb 78; - operator 68-70,
78,80-1; - predicator 81-2;-
subordinate clause 78-9, 96-100, 187;
- verb 67-8,78; - verb phrase 66--8,
78,81-2. S.a. finiteness; non-fmite
finiteness 66-70,78-9,81,86-7,95-6,
101-3. S.a_ concord; fmite; non-
finite; tense
fust position 189
fluency 139--40, 142, 154
focus 15-16, 81, 160, 186-90
tor: indirect object 82, 128, 211;
infmitive clause subject 86
foregrounding: s. focus
form dass 32-3,41. S.a. dause classes;
phrase classes; parts of speech
form, grammatical 25, 32, 34, 43--4:
- labels xiv, 36
form of speech vs writing 135--40
formality 9,139--40,143,145-7, 150,
153-5
Fowler, H. W. 174,176,194
free indirect speech/thought 165-6
frequency 159
fronting 115-16,126
full verb 41,43,46,66-8. S.a.
auxiliary; verb
function class: s. elements; grammatical
- 31-6,53,87-8; - labels xiv, 36,
106-7
functions of language 134-5, 150-1,
193. S.a. conative, expressive,
metalinguistic, phatic, poetic and
referential function
fuzzy boundaries 25-6,32,42,48,
62, 124-5, 140, 150-1: - categories
26. S.a. alternative analyses; multiple
dassification; overlap
gender (feminine, masculine, neu ter)
46, 73: generic masculine 178
genitive: in advertising 152; - -ing
clause subjects 86; - particle (- 's)
57-8,65; - phrase 32,57-8,61,63,
65,86, 105, 152; - pronoun 63,65,
73, 176
ghost element: s. omission
given information 188
Gowers, Sir Ernest 174
adverb 49
grammar 3-5,7,26,113,171--81:-
and writing 184-95; authority 174;
good vs bad - 5-6, 171-2; - in
style 158-60
grammatical blends 139: - markers
50,53-4,57,95 (s.a. particles);
- prescription 5-6, 171-3; - rule
3-6,11-12; - test 30-2,43--4 (s.a.
tests); - unit 26, 28, 33--4, 87-8.
S.a. dass; complexity; concord; form;
function; subordination; structure
grammatical discretion, principle of
173
grammaticality 8, 12-13
have 53, 66, 68, 70. S.a. operator
head 35-6,44,47,49,51,57,63-6,
98. S.a. key word
hearer: s. addressee
historie present 164
horizontal complexity 137. S.a.
complexity
how 81
hypercorrection 176
 INDEX
idioms, phrasal and prepositional
verbs 64-5, 65n: prepositional - 42;
verb compound - 64
imperative mood 79-82, 139, 153
impersonal 146, ISO, 153, 155
in order (to) 102
incom plete sentences: s. ellipsis
indefinite article (a/an) 42,45,47,
51,63
indireet object 82-fi. (s.a. tor; object;
to): - postponement 128,211
indireet speech/thought 164-5:
question/statement 96, 139
indireet subordination 103-4, 106-7
inexplicitness 136, 140, 142
infinitive 11,67-8,79-81: - clause
86-7,101-3; - particle (to) 78-9,
86; split - 171-2
inflection 43-4
informality: s. formality
information 188. S.a. new information
-ingclause 86-7,101-3,176: - noun
clauses 102, 176; - verb (Ving) 46,
68
initial position 189
interaction features 139-40, 143,153-4
inteJjection 42, 53-4, 83-4
interrogative mood 12,69, 79-81,
115, 119, 139: S.a. wh-interrogative;
yes/no-interrogative
interrupted element: s. discontinuous
constituent
intonation 9, 135-7, 141
inversion: su bject and operator 80-1,
120; subject and predicator 115-16,
160; subject and wh-word 81, 115
irregularity 160-3
it: s. cleft sentence: pronouns; prop
subject
Jabberwockv 25, 31, 37
Johnson, Samuel 174
key word 32. S.a. head; main verb
labelling xiv-xvi, 33-6, 42,69,75,
77,88-90,105-7, HO, 128. S.a.
bracketing; tree diagram
labels, composite xv, 101
language variety 6-12, 134: spoken
vs written - 4. S.a. speech; writing
languages,other 10-12
Latin 4, 11,43,46, 149, 173, 176
left branching 137
length of sentences 138, 160, 185-6
lexis 7, 10, 143, 149, 152, 154-5,
159, 167
literature 13-16, 133-5, 151, 158-fi8
221
location of complexity 137-8, 148,
194
logical object/subject 121, 125
main c\ause 77-82, 84, 106, 186. S.a.
coordination; subordinate c\ause
main phrase 58-9
main verb 35,43,46,53,66-7, 70,
78,86. S.a. auxiliary; key word
marked order 116, 160, 190: -
structure 82, 127. S.a. order;
transformation; unmarked
masculine, generic 178
mass noun 45, 161
meaning 31-2,43-50,67,76,83-4,87,
97n, 178. S.a. semantic definitions
metalinguistic function 150
metaphor 48, 152, 160-1, 168: - in
advertising 152
mimetic 162-3
misattached non-f"mite clause 181
missing elements: s. omission
mobile elements 76-7, 83, 120
modal verbs 53, 66-8
modality 66-9, 166
mode of discourse 9,133-43, 154-5
modifier 35-6,47-9, 51,57,61-6,
98-100, 137, 195. S.a. postmodifier;
premodifier
monitoring features U9-40, 143, 154
mood: s. declarative; imperative;
interrogative
morpheme 27
multiple classification 42,44, 150-1.
S.a. alternative analyses; fuzzy
boundaries; overlap
multiple negation 11
multiple predication 124-5. S.a.
catenative constructions
n superscript 57
negation 69-70,80,211. S.a. emphatic
sentences; multiple negation
neutralisation 73
new information 126, 152, 160, 188
node 29,36
non-finite clause 66,78-9,86-7,95,
101-3: dangling/misattached/
unattached - 180-1
non-f"mite predicator 81-2,95:-
subordinate clause 101-3, 187;
- verb 67-8, 86, 95; - verb phrase
78-9,81-2. S.a. f"mite; f"miteness
non-fluency 139-40,142,154
non-gradable adjectives 48
non-standard language: s. standard
language
non-verbal signals 9, 135-6, 154
222 INDEX
not/·n 't: S. negation
notation: s. xiv-xvi
notional concord 178
noun 23~, 32,41,44-7,61, 152,
167, 177. S.a. abstract, collective,
common, concrete, count, mass and
proper noun
noun clause 94,96,98, 100-2, 122:
non·finite - 102; - postponement
187; - subject 86, 176
noun phrase 27, 32, 35~, 44, 47, 51-2,
57, 6~5, 76, 98,149,154,160: -
structure 61-2, 137, 152
number, concord 75~, 78, 177-8:
noun - 25, 45~; plural - 25~,
3In,45~, 177;pronoun - 73;
singular - 45~, 68, 177
numbers: s. enumerators
object 34, 60, 73, 75~, 82~, 94,
121-2,167: direct/indirect - 82~;
- fronting 114-16,128,211;
logical - 121
object complement 83. S.a. comp-
lement
object pronouns 73,175-7
obligatory elements 84, 85n: - adverbial
85n. S.a. c1ause pattern; optional
omission of elements 100, 116-19:
- of logical subject 125~. S.a. ellipsis
open cJasses 41-50. S. a. c10sed cJasses
operator verb 42-3,46, 53, 67-9,
78-81,127. S.a. auxiliary; full verb;
modal; primary verbs
optional elements 32, 34-5, 66, 68,
76-7,82--4: S.a. obligatory
order of elements 11-12,25, 34,66-7,
75-7,80-1,83,95,114-16,190.194:
basic - 114-18; marked - 160, 190.
S.a. cJause patterns; marked;
transformations; unmarked
orders: s. imperative mood
overlap of categories 50n, 51-3, 63,
84-5,96-7,140,150. S.a. alternative
analyses; fuzzy boundaries; multiple
c1assification
parallelism 14-16, 155, 161-2, 168:
ofform and meaning 161
parsing 23,29-30,62,69,87-90, 110,
113,118-19,123-5
particle, grammatical 12,53--4,57,
64-5,69, 78-9, 83, 88, 128
participle, past/present 68. (s.a. aspect,
·en and ·jng verb): dangling - 18~ I
Partridge, Eric 174
parts of speech 23-5, 32-3,41--4
passive: s. voice; - c1ause patterns 86-7;
- transformation 121, 125. S.a. agent
pa st participle 68
past tense: s. tense
perfective aspect 66-8
peripheral elements 75~, 83--4
person, grammatical 73,75:-
concord 75~, 78, 177; fust/second/
third - 68, 73; - verb marking 68
person addressed: s. addressee
personal 146, 153, 155
personal pronouns 63, 73, 139, 15~3,
161,165,175,191. S.a. pronouns
phatic function 150
phonology 4-5, 14, 163
phrasal verbs 64-5, 65n
phrase 26-7,35,57-71,78,93,
103--4,107,187: - c1asses 33,
57-71; main/subordinate - 58-9.
S.a. adjective, adverb, genitive,
noun, prepositional and verb phrase
phrase order 11-12,14-16,114
phrase-within-phrase: s. direct subordi-
nation
phrase-within-word: s. indirect subordi-
nation
plural: s. number; - verb 46
poetic function 150, 155: - licence 15
poetry 15-16, 155, 162
point ofview 164-5
polar interrogative: s. yes/no interroga-
tive
politeness 145~, 149
position, final/initial 189. S.a. order
ofelements
possessive pronoun: s. genitive pronoun
postmodifier 57-8, 62, 64~, 78,
98-101, 137, 149. S.a. modifier
postponement 16, 126: extraposition
127, 187; - of postmodifier 128,212.
S.a. end-weight
predicator 34,46-7, 66, 75~, 81-2,
84~, 95. S.a. main verb
premodifier 57-8,61,65, 137, 152
(s.a. modifier); order of premodifiers
72, 203
preposition 36,42,52, 54, 57-8, 64-5,
82, 100: c1ause/sentence final - 172;
- idioms 42; stranded - 64,99, 124;
- vs adverb 52, 64-5
prepositional c1ause 100-1, 103
prepositional object 64
prepositional phrase 27,32,36, 52,57-8,
62, 64~, 82, 86,100,104-5,117,128,
149: - and relative pronoun 99
prepositional verbs 64-5, 65n
prescription 5~, 11, 171-5
prescriptive rules 171-81
 INDEX
present participle 68
present tense: s. tense
primary verbs 53, 66-8. S.a. be; da; have
pro-form 191
progressive aspect 66-8, 165-6
pronouns 11-12,42,46,51,61,63,
73, 136, 139, 165: - antecedent
192-3; - prescription and usage
176-7. S.a. case; gender; number;
person; genitive, object, personal,
reflexive, relative and subject pronoun
prop subject (it, there) 126-7
proper noun 45
pro se 13-15,158-68
punctuation 135, 144
quantifier determiner/pronoun 63
Queen's English, the 7-8
question: s. interrogative
questions: direct 9, 139; - indirect
96, 139
rank scale 27-9,41,58,60,87,103,
107,117; mixed - 128
reduced forms: s. contractions
reduction 191. S.a. ellipsis
reduplication of degree adverbs 66
referential function 150, 152-3,
193
reflexive pronoun 73
regional variation 7
register 9-10
relative adverb 99
relative c1ause 60,62,98-101, 115-17,
149: non-finite - 102-3; relative
pronoun omission 98-9, 116-17; -
wh-subject deletion 99, 99n
relative pronoun 98-9, 116-17: -
omission 98-9, 116-17
repetition 138-9, 142, 154: expressive
- 168,191,194
reported questions/statements 96
request: s. imperative mood
fight branching 137
rules of grammar 3-8, 23, 113
- 's: s. genitive
salience: s. focus
semantics 4-5
semantic definitions 24-5,43-50,67,
76,97n
sentence 26-8, 87-8, 93, 133, 136-7
(s.a. c1ause; complex and simple
sentence): - adverb 49-50; - adverbial
76-7,98, 165; - boundary 136-7, 142,
154; - complexity 10i, 137-8, 185;
incomplete - 27n, 136,139,152,155,
223
160 (s.a. ellipsis);-Iength 138,152,
185-6
sentential relative c1ause 98
shall vs will 172
simple adjective 48, 65
simple sentence 28,77,87-90,93, 185-6
simple structure: s. complexity
simplicity (style) 184-90
singular: s. number; singular verb 68
situation: s. context; author-reader/
character-character/character-reader
- 164
skeleton analysis xvi, 105-10
speaker 9, 139, 143, 145-6
speech 4,8-10,133-43,154: - sounds
(s. phonology)
split constituents: s. discontinuous
split infinitives 171
spoken discourse 140-3: - language
(s. speech)
standard language 7-8,11-12,134,174
statement: s. declarative
stranded preposition 64,99, 124
structure, grammatical 60ff. S.a. basic
and derived structure
style 9,12-15,158-66,193
stylistic analysis 158-66
stylistic transformation 125-8
subject 12,34,47,60-1,73,75-6,
80-7,167: Jor - 86; genitive - 86,
176; logical - 121,125; - of non-finite
c1ause 86-7; pronoun substitution test
75; - raising 121-3; subject-verb
concord 75-6,78-9,81-2. S.a. inversion
subject complement 47,83. S.a.
complement
subject pronouns 73,175-7
subjectless c1ause 87,96,99, 99n
subordinate c1ause 59-60,78-9,93-107:
functions of - 94-5,100-1; - object
fronting 128, 211; - structure 95-6
subordinate phrase 58-9, 13 7, 149
subordinating conjunction 52-3, 95-9
subordination 58-60,63,93-107,137-8,
140, 149, 152, 155, 194-5: direct vs
indireet - 103-5; grammatical
markers of - 95; - in composition
186-7;
sufferer 34, 76
suffixes 43-9, 58
superlative adjective 47-8, 65:
- adverb 49
'swapping horses' 180
tag question 119, 211
tenor of discourse 9, 133, 145-50, 153-5
224
tense, pastjpresent 26,47,53,68,
78-82, 164-5. S.a. aspeet; modality:
historie presen t - 164
test, grammatical 30--2,43-4
tests: eoneord 75,78; expansion 30-1;
finiteness 81-2; movement 31-2,
,76-7; substitution 31, 75-{i; subtraction
31, 75-{i; that-insertion 96
tests/eriteria for: adjeetive 47-8'
adjeetive phrase 65-6; adverb'
49-50; adverb phrase 66; adverbial
76-7; adverbial type 77; auxiliary
66; eomplement 47,76,83;
finiteness 81-2; genitive phrase 65;
head 57; indireet objeet 82; main
verb 66; modifier 57; noun 44-5;
noun ~h!ase 60-1; objeet 76,82;
prepoSltional phrase 64; subjeet
75, 82-3; verb 46-7; verb phrase 66
than 99, 117
that 96-101,126: - insertion test
96
that-clauses 96, 98, 101
the: s. definite article
there: s. adverb; existential particle;
prop subjeet
to: indireet objeet 82,128,211-12;
infinitive particle 78-9, 86
to be: s. be
transformation 114-16, 125-8:
obligatoryjoptional - 115-16. S.a.
basic and derived strueture
transformation and style 125-{i, 190
transformations: adverbial movement
115-20; clefting 126; eoordination
reduetion 119; da-support 210--11'
elliptieal eomparative 211; emphati~
211; existential sentenee 127'
extraposition 127; fronting of
adverbial/eomplementjobjeet 115-
16; imperative 81; indireet objeet
postponement 128,211-12;
negation 211; passive 121; post-
mOd!fier postponement 128,212;
relative pronoun deletion 116-17'
i
sub~eet--{)perator inversion 120, 2 1;
subJect-predicator inversion 115-
16; subject-raising 123; subordi-
nate clause object fronting 128, 211;
tag question 211; wh-element fronting
115: yes/no interrogative 80, 211
tree diagram 28-9,33,36, 59-{i0,
88-90,93-4, 105, 120; abbreviated
-. 30,137-8; fully labelIed - 30
90; three-dirnensional - 115;
unlabelled - 30. S.a. bracketing;
skeleton analysis
INDEX
typical speech vs writing 136-40, 142-3
unattached non-finite clause 181
ungrammaticality 33, 33n, 37,67,
113-14,116-17,122,129
unit, grammatical: s. grammatical units
unlinked coordination 109, 119, 167
unmarked order 84, 116: - pronoun
177; - structure 82. S.a. basic
structure; marked
use 6,9-10
user 6-8
variation: in language 6-12; stylistic
- 194-5
verb 23-{i, 32, 41-3, 46-7, 53, 62,
64-8, 84-{i, 167: eompound/phrasalj
prepositional - 64-5, 65n; - -en
(Ven)j-ing (Ving) 46,68; - forms
46,67-9; irregular - 46,53,68.
S.a. auxiliary; fuH verb; operator;
predicator; primary verb
verb phrase 27,29,32,35,46,53,
58,66-70,75,78-9,86 165-6
vertical eomplexity 137. S.a. com-
plexity
very 48, 65-{i
vocabulary: s. lexis; eoining of - 41-2
vocative 83-4
vöice, activejpassive 67-8 82 84 86-7
121-2,125,167,189 ' " ,
wh-adverb 81: --clause 96-8'
--determiner 63, 81; --ele~ent
95-{i, 100, 115; --interrogative 80-1,
115; --pronoun 63,81; --question
(s. wh-interrogative); --word 80--1
95-{i, 98 '
wh-word fronting 81, 115
will vs shall 172
word 26-7,35,41-54,93,107 (s.a.
adjective; adverb; closed classes; noun;
parts of speech; verb): compound
- 27n,62,64,104
word class: s. closed and open classes;
parts of speech
word order: s. phrase order
word-within-word: s. direct subordi-
nation
writing 4,9-10, 133-43, 184-95:
- system 5, 134-5
written discourse 140-3: - language
(s. writing)
yes/no interrogative 80,96, 211
, - question (s. yes/no interrogative)
zero clauses ~6-9