RUNNING HEAD: THEORY TO PRACTICE SYNTHESIS 1

Theory to Practice Synthesis

Patrick Watson

Colorado State University

Adult Teaching and Learning

April 1, 2018
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Information Processing Theory

The main focus of this paper is to apply the information processing theory and how it

effects memory to athletic training students so that they will be able to become better problem

solvers with better memory retention. Athletic Training students in particular are of interest,

this is the case because at the end of their college career they must pass the Board of

Certification Exam (BOC) to then be able to practice Athletic Training. This one exam

encompasses every topic that was ever taught in the four years within the program. So,

students must be able to study and retain information throughout all four years to be able to

pass the BOC. The information processing theory “is concerned with how people view their

environment, how they put that information into memory, and how they retrieve that

information later on. Approach is based on the idea that humans process information they

receive instead of simply responding to external stimuli” (Zhou & Brown, 2015). Connections

can be made for the purpose of being able to identify where better facilitation techniques that

incorporate the information processing theory can possibly better prepare athletic trainers for

the BOC and then into their professional career.

Memory is a large part of the information processing theory, of which there are three

distinctive types of memory. These three include; sensory memory, working memory, and long-

term memory (Zhou & Brown, 2015). All three types of memory can be utilized by the facilitator

to better incorporate memory retention which can have an effect on problem solving.

Problem Solving/ The Problem

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One of the most significant obstacles for students in athletic training majors is the

complication of problem solving. An athletic trainer is required on a daily basis to problem solve

and the specific style of problem solving athletic trainers adhere to is unique. How and what the

students learn is vital to how they will tackle problem solving. Once the problem is identified

the athletic trainer must then take all of the information that he/ she has acquired, and then

with that information retrieved from their memory apply it to solve the problem in the most

effective manner possible.

Essentially with the use of the information processing theory, the facilitator can affect

the way students test, study, and engage in class. Understanding this theory and the three

different types of memory by the facilitator might lead to improved problem solving. Which is

such a critical skill for athletic trainers, as well as having access to such information that was

previously learned to solve a problem. Success as a student is achieved through their ability to

pass the BOC, as it serves as a bench mark for students. How students code information into

their memory bank, to then be utilized at a later date could be critical for their development as

an athletic trainer. This is what makes memory so vital to the success of an athletic trainer.

Working Memory

Working memory is a specific category of short term memory, which is the first type of

memory associated with this learning theory that will be discussed. “Working memory refers to

the mental process of maintaining and manipulating information online during the execution of

ongoing tasks and activities. Working memory thus plays a critical role in higher-order cognitive

functions such as abstract thinking, reasoning, and learning” (Lazar, 2017). The goal is to better
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understand working memory and how it can achieve higher order cognitive function, as it

relates to the student.

A key aspect of the working memory is the fact that is has a very limited capacity (Lazar,

2017). Students use working memory when they are presented with new information, then

apply that learned memory to the exam for that specific content. Once the exam is over they

often discard that information to then focus on what will be presented on the next exam. “To

capture more of the “working” aspect of the working memory, more complex span tasks are

usually employed, in which spans are assessed in the presence of distracting or interfering

stimuli” (Lazar, 2017). If the facilitator can take advantage of the working memory, then it

might be possible for the capacity of the working memory to grow.

A founding father of working memory and short-term memory is American psychologist

George Miller (2016) who proclaimed that humans can only process about seven units of

information at a time. This can place a significant amount of stress on the ability to recode such

information. If you are able to recode that information then one will be able to increase the

quantity of data that one can process effectively (Doorey, 2016). Which can lead to improved

cognitive function.

When you are conducting problem solving activities all of the initial information of the

problem is initially presented to you. This allows you to identify the problem and then start to

work on the solution, “the limited information temporarily accessible for such daily activities as

language processing and problem solving” are essential components to working memory

(Cowan, 2016). It is also understood that working memory performance improves with
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development, meaning as you become more mature the working memory becomes more

refined (Cowen, 2016).

Working memory has been shown to increase the effectiveness of problem solving with

attributes such as attention span, insight, and sustaining a larger cognitive system at work

(Marci & Stockum, 2017). Some research has concluded that working memory is an underlying

process to insight problem solving (Marci & Stockum, 2017). To achieve this insight a student

must first be able to sequence that event properly to effectively use all of their working

memory (Kalm & Norris, 2017).

When facilitating working memory, it is essential to be cognizant of how you are

teaching. As this is the first impression a student will receive of this new information being

presented during a class. Not only can one improve working memory by chunking information,

sequencing information, and recoding that information, a facilitator can also increase working

memory by using visual stimuli instead of verbal stimuli. “For short-term memory, auditory

presentation is consistently superior to visual presentation, with the difference restricted to

recently presented items” (Penney, 1975, p. 68). When the facilitator is presenting information

to a class of students selecting a visual stimulus over a verbal stimulus can be the first barrier to

improving working memory.

Sensory Memory

Sensory memory includes all of the things that you experience through your five senses;

hearing, vision, taste, smell, and touch. This category of memory will take in stimuli and then

process what is the most important, at that point when the brain has decided that it is indeed
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important you will retain that specific information (Zhou & Brown, 2015). This is the first

process when it comes to memory retention, as your senses are the first to be stimulated.

Capacity for sensory memory is great, but the duration is very limited, usually only for

about one to three seconds (Zhou & Brown, 2015). Researchers agree that information

processing in sensory memory usually occurs too quickly for people to consciously control what

they attend to. Rather, attention allocation and sensory processing are fast and unconscious

(Zhou & Brown, 2015). Essentially stating that sensory memory is not something that is

purposefully remembered. A student can vividly remember that sensory stimuli but only for a

short duration of time.

Sensory memory plays a critical role when giving instruction as a facilitator. Practical

hands on skills are a large part of athletic training and all of those hands-on skills are taught in a

lab classroom setting. They are often introduced in front of the class, from there the students

practice and then are tested on the material. Practical examinations and skills unlike written

exams include much more stimuli. On the contrary some research has included information on

how sensory memory, when properly understood, cannot provide the kind of visual content

required to support a level of richly detailed phenomenal experience, or a pictorial account of

perception (Irvine, 2011). Therefore, it is important to practice these hands-on skills to

incorporate more memory retention. Without the practice the students will not be able to

perform these hands-on skills proficiently. Working on these skills is a good example of

organizing the thought process and elevating that cognitive function. Creating a more vivid

memory when that seed of information is called upon for utilization.

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Long Term Memory

Unlike sensory and working memory, long-term memory is not constrained by capacity

or duration of attention limitations. The role of long-term memory is to provide a seemingly

unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge within memory (Zhou & Brown, 2015). This

is essentially a permanent storage holding area, in contrast to working and sensory memory

where they are held for a shorter period of time. Long term memory would be ultimately

utilized for the BOC exam, information learned throughout an athletic training student’s college

career would have to essentially become transcribed into long-term memory.

Both working and sensory memory can feed into long term memory over time while

maintaining those memories. As “the development of certain skills depends on the operation of

systems that enable the short-term maintenance and manipulation of information in order to

enable long-term learning” (Jones & Macken, 2018). Without establishing memories that are

first created within the working or sensory memory you essentially will not possess any long-

term memories. A student must first become introduced to a topic before that student codes

that information into memory. When the information is initially introduced it is created as a

memory by either the working or sensory memory and then it may be stored as a long-term

memory after organizational methods are introduced. Encoding and retrieval of information in

long-term memory is increased due to efficient organizational strategies (Zhou & Brown, 2015).

These organizational strategies can be established by the facilitator when concepts are

introduced. If established early, then the students can possibly better utilize them as long-term

memories.
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One particular research study revealed that “EEG (electroencephalogram) measures can

track the process of retrieving and combining two long-term memories acquired separately into

one working-memory representation (Thus, our results not only provide direct neural support

for a long-assumed theory of memory retrieval but also demonstrate how flexible retrieval

allows for creative thought” (Fukuda & Woodman, 2017).

Even with all three types of memory playing into the processing learning theory, they

should all be regarded as separate. One type of memory does not automatically translate to

another, in the sense that if you achieve one then it will become another. All three types of

memory discussed are still different and should be facilitated differently with the intention of

achieving a certain goal. In fact, when you are trying to retrieve information within your

working memory, there is no guarantee that you are not also putting your long-term memory

to work (Cowen, 2009). Working memory is often used to plan and carry out behavior,

compared to long term memory which is mostly a record of prior events (Cowen, 2009). The

working memory that just carried out a behavior can than lead to a long- term memory.

As stated by Cowen (2009), “it would be difficult to deny that each normal person has at

his or her command a rich, although not flawless or complete, set of long-term memories.”

When it comes to sitting for the BOC exam a student might be pulling from all three types of

memory. When it comes to answering the nuts and bolts of the question that must be

answered, the long-term memory should be most valuable. With a detailed understanding of

the concept to which a question is asking and if that that piece of information lives within the

long-term memory, the student should be successful. Not to mention that students should be
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coding information into their long-term memory as this information they untimely might use

for the remainder of their professional career.

Facilitating the Theory

Two of the three types of memories that are involved with the informational learning

theory are only capable of storing information for a short duration of time. Which would

indicate that for the facilitator a lesson plan that utilized long term memory could be more

effective. Zhou and Brown (2015) present four implications for proper instruction when

implementing the information processing learning theory;

a. The two main strategies that effective learners use to cope with limited capacity

are selectively focusing their attention on important information and engaging in

as much automated processing as possible.

b. Relevant prior knowledge facilitates encoding and retrieval processes. This

knowledge guides information processing in sensory and working memory by

providing easy-to-access retrieval structures in memory. It also serves as the

basis for the development of expertise.

c. Automated information processing increases cognitive efficiency by reducing

information processing demands.

d. Learning strategies improve information processing because learners are more

efficient and process information at a deeper level. Elaboration refers to

increasing the meaningfulness of information by connecting new information to

ideas already known.

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Psychologist George Miller (1956) instituted a concept for facilitating the informational

processing theory that included chucking information. This chunking of information would take

place while working memory was being processed. Along with this chunking of information

Miller (1956) also presented information on the best way to test students on information, with

a test, operate, test, exit strategy. This format is designed to test a “goal”, if the goal is not

achieved then an operation is performed to achieve that goal and then tested again. Essentially

setting the foundation for problem solving strategies that athletic training students not only can

be tested on, but also able to adopt into their own practice.

The information processing theory is a fluid or continuous pattern of development,

which is an indication that it should not be facilitated or developed in stages (Zhou and Brown,

2015). Teaching athletic training as a whole can be similar to learning language and

mathematics. When learning language, you must first learn about the letters and sounds of that

language. In athletic training you must first learn about the anatomy and the language of

anatomy to then be able to solve the variables within the equations of diagnosing injuries.

Therefore, it is essential for the students to become automated at these basic skills such as

anatomy (Zhou and Brown, 2015). This relevant prior knowledge facilitates the encoding and

memory retrieval process that has been previously organized (Zhou and Brown, 2015). This

process of organization and prior knowledge provides the genesis of expertise. From that

expertise, problem solving at a high level can become achievable.

The particular situation of athletic training students discussed in this paper meets all of

the implications presented. If the information processing theory is carried out with the
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utilization of the three different types of memory, then students might achieve more academic

success. With the BOC as the standard for athletic training students, better scores on this exam

could be an indicator that students are indeed improving in their problem-solving strategies. By

utilizing the information processing theory as the facilitator, you incorporate exceptional

problem-solving techniques that can lead to improved athletic training students and athletic

trainers.
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