Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electrical Mechanical
energy Motor energy
20/06/2016
Rotor and stator magnetic fields 3
Brot
Rotation
Bsta
θ
20/06/2016
Magnetic field generation 4
𝑩 = 𝒌𝑰𝒑𝒉
B
Iph
20/06/2016
Torque 5
Brot
Rotation
Bsta
θ
20/06/2016
Back electro-motive force 6
The rotation of the Brot magnetic field causes a variation of the magnetic
flux in the solenoid.
Brot
Rotation Bsta
𝑽𝑩𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
20/06/2016
Basic principle 7
• The phase relation between the rotor and stator magnetic field (i.e.
the load angle) must be always greater than 0° in order to keep the
motor in motion (negative angles reverse the rotation).
• Output torque depends on both the solenoid current and load angle.
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor basics 9
D
A The stator
magnetic field is
generated by a
permanent
magnet
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor basics 10
N S
D
D
A
Bsta
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor basics 11
Iph
The brushes connect
the motor leads to the
next coil (B), keeping
the load angle almost Brot
equal to 90° during
rotation
B
N S
E
E
B
Bsta
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor basics 12
Iph
Changing the
direction of the
current reverses Brot
the direction of
the motor B
N S
E
E
B
Bsta
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor basics 13
Phase impedance
𝐙𝐩𝐡 = 𝐑 𝐩𝐡 + 𝐣𝛚𝐋𝐩𝐡
+
Zph BEMF
Back electromotive
force generator
𝑽𝑩𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
20/06/2016
Voltage mode driving
The brush DC motor is driven by directly applying a voltage to the
motor leads.
Iph
+
Brush
V DC Tqload
20/06/2016
Voltage mode driving 15
Tqload
Operating Speed
speed
20/06/2016
Voltage mode driving 16
20/06/2016
Voltage mode driving
At maximum torque limit, the current into the motor is maximum.
Iph
+
Zph BEMF
+
V
Speed = 0 BEMF = 0
Iph = Vph/Rph
20/06/2016
Voltage mode driving
At maximum speed limit, the current into the motor is minimum
(in theory it is zero)
The maximum speed is limited by the supply voltage of the motor driver:
Iph
+
Zph BEMF
+
V
BEMF = Vph
Iph = (Vph – BEMF)/Rph = 0
20/06/2016
Extending maximum speed 19
Motor current
rating
Vph = 8 V
Vph = 5 V
Speed
20/06/2016
Extending maximum speed 20
Speed
20/06/2016
Brush DC motor summary 21
• The magnetic field intensity is proportional to the current forced into the motor leads.
• The magnetic field rotation is automatically obtained commutating the active coil
through mechanical switches (brushes).
• The load angle is almost constant and it is about 90° allowing the maximum efficiency
(current vs. torque proportion).
• The motor is controlled by applying a voltage to the motor leads. The higher the
voltage, the higher the speed. The direction is changed by reversing the polarity on the
leads.
• The maximum torque is limited by the current rating of the motor and it is obtained at
zero speed (start-up).
• The maximum speed is limited by the supply voltage and it is obtained when no load
torque is present.
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor
20/06/2016
Brushless motors overview
There are different types of brushless motors:
• Single-phase
• Two-phase
• Three-phase
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor basics 24
N S
The windings are
connected by one
of the sides.
W The sum of the
currents is zero.
V
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor basics 25
W V
Bsta
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor basics 26
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor basics 27
Back electromotive
Phase impedance
force (BEMF)
𝐙𝐩𝐡 = 𝐑 𝐩𝐡 + 𝐣𝛚𝐋𝐩𝐡 generators
are three sinewave
voltages(*) delayed
+ from each other by
U Zph
120°.
The sinewave
+ amplitude is
V Zph proportional to the
motor speed:
+ 𝑽𝑩𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
W Zph
(*) Some motors have a BEMF with trapezoidal shape instead of sinusoidal 20/06/2016
6-step driving 28
6-step driving imposes a current between two of the three phases leaving the
third one floating.
In this way the stator magnetic field can be positioned in 6 discrete directions.
U U U
Iph Iph
V W V W V
W
Iph
U U U
Iph Iph
W V W V W
Iph
V
20/06/2016
6-step driving 29
20/06/2016
6-step driving 30
1 2 3 4 5 6
IU
IV
IW
20/06/2016
6-step driving 32
U When the
magnetic field of
the rotor crosses
Bsta the unloaded
Iph phase, the
respective BEMF
Brot voltage changes
polarity (zero-
crossing)
20/06/2016
6-step driving 33
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑽𝑩𝑬𝑴𝑭𝑽 + 𝑽𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓
Iph
+
U Zph
20/06/2016
Sinusoidal driving 34
By applying three sinusoidal voltages with a delay of 120° in the motor phases it
is possible to obtain three sinusoidal currents generating a rotating magnetic
field.
This method, named sinusoidal driving, allows a smoother operation
compared to the 6-step method.
20/06/2016
Sinusoidal driving 35
6 1 2 3 4 5
H3
VUV
VU
VWU
VV H1
W H2 V
VW
VVW
20/06/2016
Sinusoidal driving 36
5
6 1 2 3 4 5 U
H3
4 6
VU
VV H1
W V
3 H2
1
VW
20/06/2016
Sinusoidal driving 37
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 38
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 39
Field Oriented Control (FOC) can be represented through this block diagram
θλr
id
Park Clark
iq transf. transf.
iα,iβ iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 40
STEP 1) Using the Clark transformation, the currents of the 3-phase system
(U,V,W) are projected in an orthogonal system (α,β).
β
W
𝑖𝛼𝑠 = 𝑖𝑈
1 2
Iβs 𝑖𝛽𝑠 = 𝑖𝑈 + 𝑖𝑉
3 3
Iαs NOTE: Considering iU + iV + iW = 0, the projection
can be obtained using only two currents
α=U
iq + PI Vd,Vq Vα,Vβ VU,VV,VW
Inverse Space
id + PI Park Vector
θλr
id
V iq
Park
transf.
Clark
transf.
iα,iβ iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 41
q β
θλr
id
Park Clark
iq transf. transf.
iα,iβ iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 42
STEP 3) The direct (d) and quadrature (q) components of the current can be
controlled using a standard PI system.
The direct component gives information about the load angle of the motor.
The maximum efficiency is obtained when id = 0.
θλr
id
Park Clark
iq
transf. iα,iβ transf. iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 43
STEP 4) Using the inverse Park transformation, the output of the PI controller,
which are the direct and quadrature voltages, are re-projected on the
orthogonal system (α,β).
θλr
id
Park Clark
iq
transf. iα,iβ transf. iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 44
STEP 5) The voltages projected on the (α,β) system are converted to (U,V,W)
voltages using the space vector modulation.
θλr
id
Park Clark
iq transf. transf.
iα,iβ iU,iV,iW
20/06/2016
Field Oriented Control 45
Pros Cons
Can control the efficiency of the Implies complex calculations which
system imposing a load angle cannot be performed by low-level
(direct component of the current) microcontrollers
20/06/2016
Three-phase brushless motor summary 46
• The magnetic field rotation is obtained driving in the proper way the
phases.
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor
20/06/2016
Stepper motors overview
There are different types of stepper motors:
• Three-phase
• Five-phase
The presentation will describe the basics of the bipolar stepper motor
because it is one of the most common versions.
In most cases, the considerations can be extended to the other types.
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor basics 49
The stator is B+
composed of two coils, A permanent
named phases, magnet generates
positioned at 90° from the magnetic field
each other of the rotor
A+ A-
N S
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor basics 50
Each step represents a stable position where the motor shaft can be
easily kept forcing the proper current into the phases.
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor basics 51
B-
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor basics 52
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor basics 53
Back electromotive
Phase impedance
force (BEMF)
𝐙𝐩𝐡 = 𝐑 𝐩𝐡 + 𝐣𝛚𝐋𝐩𝐡 generator are two
sinewave voltages(*)
delayed from each
+ other by 90°.
A+ Zph A-
The sinewave
amplitude is
+ proportional to the
B+ Zph B- motor speed:
𝑽𝑩𝑬𝑴𝑭 = 𝐤 𝐞 ⋅ 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
20/06/2016
Step angle 54
4
This effect is obtained through a proper
2
shaping of the rotor and stator cores: as
a consequence, at each position of the
magnetic field, more mechanical
positions correspond. 3
20/06/2016
Full step 55
Forcing the phase currents according to the following sequence, the motor rotates
performing one step at a time.
This is named Full-step 1 phase on driving or Full-step wave mode.
B+ B+ B+ B+
A+ A- N A+ A-
S
A+ A- S N A+ A-
N S
N
S
B- B- B- B-
1 2 3 4
IphA = + IphA = 0 IphA = - IphA = 0
IphB = 0 IphB = + IphB = 0 IphB = -
20/06/2016
Full step 56
It is also possible to perform the sequence forcing the same current in both
phases. In this case, the stator magnetic field is the geometric sum of two
components and is √2 times stronger.
This is named Full-step 2 phase on driving or Full-step normal mode.
B+ B+ B+ B+
A+ A- A+ A- A+ A- A+
A-
B- B- B- B-
1b 2b 3b 4b
IphA = + IphA = - IphA = - IphA = +
IphB = + IphB = + IphB = - IphB = -
20/06/2016
Half step 57
subsequent steps. 1 1b
Half-step is performed.
1ph ON 2ph ON Half-step
1 1
N S
1b 1b
2 2 2 2b
2b 2b
3 3
N S
3b 3b
4 4 3 3b
4b 4b
B+
20/06/2016
Microstepping 59
The pairs of currents which are applied to the phases depends on the number of
microsteps in which the step is divided:
𝝅 𝒏
𝐈𝐩𝐡𝐀 (𝒏) = 𝐈𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∙
𝟐 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑𝒔
𝝅 𝒏
𝐈𝐩𝐡𝐁 (𝒏) = 𝐈𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 ∙ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∙
𝟐 𝑵𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑𝒔
20/06/2016
Microstepping 60
𝑇𝑞𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 = 2 ∙ 𝑇𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝
This is because in microstepping the motor phases are driven with the
maximum current one at a time (the sine peak corresponds to the
cosine zero-crossing and vice-versa), whereas in full-step, both phases
can be driven at maximum current at the same time.
20/06/2016
Torque vs Angle characteristic 61
The torque vs displacement angle (i.e. the angle between the ideal step position and the
actual rotor position) is sinusoidal:
Torque
4 x θSTEP
Displacement
θL θSTEP
20/06/2016
Torque vs Angle characteristic 62
When a step is performed, the displacement is abruptly increased by 90° because the
stator magnetic field moves one step away from the current rotor position.
As a consequence, the torque increases and the rotor moves to the next position.
Torque
TqMAX
Unstable region
TqLOAD
4 x θSTEP Displacement
θL
θL+θSTEP
20/06/2016
Torque vs Angle characteristic 63
If the starting displacement is about one step angle (i.e. the load torque approaches the TqMAX), the
output torque after the step could be lower than the load and the new stable position will be a 4-step
angle away from the target position.
This is a step-loss condition which could also cause the de-synchronization of the motor (stall).
Torque
TqMAX
Unstable region
TqLOAD
4 x θSTEP Displacement
4 x θSTEP + θL
θL θL+θSTEP
20/06/2016
Stall and step-loss 64
When the stepper motor is loaded with a torque exceeding its torque
vs. speed characteristic, a stall or a step-loss event could occur.
When a step-loss occurs, the motor loses the synchronism for a short
period and then resumes.
As result, the rotor continues its rotation, but the actual position is
different from the ideal one.
20/06/2016
Torque vs. Speed characteristic 65
Holding torque
The maximum torque the
motor can sustain when Pull-out torque
Torque stopped The maximum output
Holding torque vs speed when the
Pull-out curve
torque motor is in motion
Slew region
Max speed
Pull-in curve The maximum speed the
motor can reach when
unloaded
Start-Stop region
NOTE: The curves change with driving method and phase current.
Most manufacturers provide the curve @ rated current in full-step.
20/06/2016
Resonances 66
20/06/2016
Resonances 67
20/06/2016
Bipolar stepper motor summary 68