Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215

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Computers in Human Behavior

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Full Length Article

An empirical investigation of users’ voluntary switching intention for mobile T

personal cloud storage services based on the push-pull-mooring framework
Shuang Chenga, Sang-Joon Leea,∗, Beomjin Choib
a
School of Business Administration, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, South Korea
b
College of Business Administration, California State University, Sacramento, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Mobile personal cloud storage services (PCSSs) have become increasingly common among mobile users in recent
Mobile personal cloud storage services years. Prior studies largely focused on understanding users' early adoption of mobile PCSSs, but attention to post-
Voluntary switching intention adoption switching behavior is still rare. Based on the push-pull-mooring framework of migration theory, to
Push-pull-mooring framework explore the factors that influence the voluntary switching intentions of mobile PCSS users in the Chinese market,
Risk
we developed a model around three effects: pushing, pulling, and mooring. The results show that two push
Network externality
factors (privacy risk and security risk), six pull factors (referent network size, complementarity, usefulness,
Compatibility
technical compatibility, lifestyle compatibility, and enjoyment), and two mooring factors (habit and switching
cost) have significant effects on switching intention. Moreover, referent network size, total network size, com-
plementarity, technical compatibility, lifestyle compatibility and enjoyment are significant to usefulness, and
usefulness mediates between them and switching intention. The findings will help practitioners devise proper
strategies for retaining current users and attracting new users.

1. Introduction
Cloud computing technology has recently become an important
milestone in the area of information systems (IS) development. Cloud
storage is a new business service mode (Yang & Jia, 2012) that has
become a prevalent storage scheme in recent years. Users can store and
share files in the cloud anywhere, anytime, and using any device
through an Internet connection (Buyya, Yeo, Venugopal, Broberg, &
Brandic, 2009). It has become a ubiquitous trend in data access and has
revolutionized how users access their personal data by eliminating the
need to maintain external storage devices (Yeo, Phang, Lee, & Lim,
2014). Personal cloud storage services (PCSSs) refer to infrastructures
that users can access on different devices (e.g., smart phones, tablets,
PCs) anytime and anywhere.
Mobile device is a computing device small enough to hold and op-
erate in the hand, such as smartphone or tablet. Following the increase
in mobile device use, mobile data volume has increased drastically in
recent years (Aminzadeh, Sanaei, & Ab Hamid, 2015). One of the main
contributors to this volume increase is cloud storage services (Widodo,
Lim, & Atiquzzaman, 2017), this is mainly because of users' expectation
of having continuous access to their data and to their increasing desire
to share content using mobile devices. However, these devices are
characterized by storage constraints, limited processing, and short
battery spans (Aminzadeh et al., 2015); limited storage and high energy
consumption are critical characteristics of resource-constrained mobile
devices. Despite advances in augmenting mobile device storage in-
cluding flash drives and Secure Digital cards, current rich mobile ap-
plications (Abolfazli, Sanaei, Gani, Xia, & Yang, 2014) demand higher
storage capacity. Traditionally, most users might use their mobile de-
vices to edit documents, play music or video files, and share files with
others, and all these files would have to be stored in the users’ own
devices. As media quality continues to improve, limited mobile device
storage has become an ongoing issue. Today, it is possible to mitigate
the above problems by using mobile PCSSs, which allow users to ma-
nipulate and share files over a virtual storage system. Ubiquitous
wireless access to mobile PCSSs allows users to rely on cloud storage as
the main repository for their growing media collections and allows for
retrieving these files in any condition. This high public interest has
pushed various providers to enter the mobile PCSS market. In China,
some popular PCSSs are Baidu Cloud, Fang Cloud, Tianyi Cloud, Nut-
store Cloud, 115 Cloud, and Tencent Cloud. These services can operate
across different mobile operating systems (OSs) including Android and
iOS. In our study, mobile PCSSs refer to data storage services in the
cloud where users can back up, revise, access, or share files over their
mobile devices. In the Chinese market, the functionalities of mobile
PCSS include not only data storage services, but also many additional

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 138466@jnu.ac.kr (S. Cheng), s-lee@jnu.ac.kr (S.-J. Lee), choib@csus.edu (B. Choi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.10.035
Received 9 February 2018; Received in revised form 30 August 2018; Accepted 28 October 2018
Available online 29 October 2018
0747-5632/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Cheng et al.
functions and services. They vary in terms of features and performance.
Mobile device ownership has recently experienced substantial
growth, and in the process, use of mobile PCSSs has emerged as a sig-
nificant research domain. As competition and the costs of attracting
new customers increase, companies primarily require focusing their
strategic efforts on preventing users from switching (Chang, Liu, &
Chen, 2014). Therefore, it is important to gain an understanding of
what factors influence users’ switching intentions in the context of
mobile PCSSs.
Compared with prior studies on mobile PCSS and IT switching, the
interesting aspects of this study are as follows.
• Most previous studies on IT switching focused on PC-based IT or
software (see Appendix A for a summary of previous studies).
However, this study investigates users' switching behavior focusing
on mobile PCSSs, a service that has been widely adopted by in-
dividuals as a convenient and reliable tool to store, share and
manage files on mobile devices (Cui, Lai, & Dai, 2016). Additionally,
mobile PCSS is unique from other IT systems and services in several
ways. First, mobile PCSS is considered as a server rental service that
can be offered for free or as paid, whereas prior studies dealt with IT
services that were fully offered for free. That is, providers can
generate revenue directly from paid users. Although most users in
China are free users, they will be the foundation for the growth of
paid users in the future for mobile PCSSs. Second, mobile PCSSs can
serve as a bridge for data transfer among different IT services by
aggregating users' data in the same place. For example, the files
from WeChat can be stored in mobile PCSS first, and then sent by E-
mail in mobile PCSS. Therefore, mobile PCSS play an important role
among various IT services. Third, mobile PCSS can serve as an in-
tegrated platform with various functions and services (e.g., online
notebooks, cloud printing, e-wallets, news, group spaces, music
listening, video watching) and hence showing a great commercial
value. Thus, IT services providers compete fiercely to retain and
acquire customers by developing new functionalities or releasing
new versions of mobile PCSSs. In short, these differences may imply
a significant change in the implications for user switching predictors
and switching intention of mobile PCSSs, and hence a fresh look at
mobile PCSSs user acquisition and retention strategies through a
separate investigation on mobile PCSSs is essential. As Venkatesh,
Thong, and Xu (2012) indicated, different research contexts could
cause changes to the theories and inspire new knowledge.
• Issues about understanding mobile PCSS users' motivations have
attracted a recent surge of interest, but most researchers have fo-
cused on understanding users' early adoption of mobile PCSSs.
However, limited attention has been paid to users' switching beha-
vior. It is especially critical when users' pre-adoption beliefs do not
consistently predict post-adoption behavior (Karahanna, Straub, &
Chervany, 1999), such as switching behavior.
• Privacy and security risk are the most important factors in PCSS use.
Previous studies only measured mixed perceptions regarding
privacy and security risk as direct predictors of users' intentions and
behaviors (Lai & Wang, 2015; Wu, Vassileva, & Zhao, 2017). In this
study, we divided risk into two clear dimensions and attempted to
highlight their differences. This clear distinction and understanding
of privacy- and security-risk can help IT providers develop more
efficient and effective solutions for achieving excellence in the
competitive IT market (Takabi, Joshi, & Ahn, 2010).
• Network externality is an important factor that is caused by file
sharing in mobile PCSSs. Studies on the issues with network ex-
ternality in PCSSs are still rare; for instance, Wu et al. (2017), one of
the earliest researchers on PCSS users' switching intentions, only
measured general network externality (critical mass), whereas we
explored multiple dimensions of network externality and attempted
to highlight their differences in the context of mobile PCSSs. A
deeper understanding of the relationships among these factors
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
would provide insights into research and practice (Lin &
Bhattacherjee, 2008).
• We enriched the knowledge base on perceived compatibility and
switching costs in the mobile PCSS context, which may position
researchers to better understand them and provide a broader per-
spective for future research.
2. Literature review
2.1. User IT switching behavior
Users' post-adoption behavior is one of the most mature streams of
information technology (IT) research, as it determines the ultimate
success of an IT. The studies on users' post-adoption behavior have been
classified into two streams: continued usage and switching (Ye, Seo,
Desouza, Sangareddy, & Jha, 2008). Post-adoption usage is in-
dependent of the initial adoption decision because users' pre-adoption
beliefs have not been found to consistently predict post-adoption use
(Karahanna et al., 1999). Users' experience with IT usage grants them
new input they can use to reevaluate the value of a specific IT (Kim &
Malhotra, 2005). Most previous studies on IT post-adoption behavior
focused on users’ continued usage after initial adoption of a specific IT.
Switching is defined as consumers' choices from among alternatives
to replace previously adopted service providers (Bansal & Taylor,
1999). It is usually associated with users' dissatisfaction with the in-
cumbent product or service, along with their perceptions of the relative
advantage of substitutes (Hsieh, Hsieh, Chiu, & Feng, 2012). However,
the central role of long-term customer relationships for marketing and
the harmful effects of consumer switching highlight the need to in-
vestigate the factors that influence consumers to switch services, par-
ticularly in online environments (Hsieh et al., 2012). In other words, IT
users might discontinue a previously adopted IT if a substitute appears,
so IT providers must pay special attention to their competitors and the
possibility of user migration among different service platforms. In
mobile devices market where the amount of new software has increased
greatly with mobile applications having higher update speeds than PC-
based software, users are more likely to switch services in mobile ap-
plications. Considering the potential negative consequences for IT
companies of consumers' switching services, thorough investigation of
what factors might motivate consumers to switch is essential. However,
IT switching behavior is somewhat different from other services and
products. Users’ IT switching behavior towards substitute does not in-
dicate that they necessarily discontinue using incumbent (Keaveney &
Parthasarathy, 2001), so it usually implies a partial switching that IT
users use both the incumbent and substitute IT at the same time, but
rely more on the latter.
Although the number of studies on IT switching has increased in
recent years, the studies on this topic are still few. Previous IT switching
studies are summarized in Appendix A. Among these prior studies on
users' IT switching behavior, four fields have not received sufficient
attention:
• Switching among mobile applications;
• Critical factors such as learning cost and mobile OS;
• Detailed classification of structures such as privacy and security risk,
compatibility, and network externality;
• Enjoyment in not only online games and interactive IT (e.g., IM,
SNS) but also in mobile PCSS contexts.
These studies' authors have concentrated on the impacts of specific
aspects, but their results are not sufficient to fully explain mobile PCSS
users' switching decisions. In sum, with this study we seek to fill gaps by
integrating a push-pull-mooring (PPM) framework from migration
theory and extending IS research related to users’ mobile PCSS
switching behavior.
S. Cheng et al.
2.2. Migration theory and the PPM framework
Migration reflects “the movement of a person (a migrant) between
two places for a certain period of time” (Boyle, Halfacree, & Robinson,
1998). The types of migration can be divided into two pairs:
• Temporary (maintain permanent place of residence but are away for
a time) or permanent (leave place of origin forever) (Jackson, 1986),
depending on the length of time involved.
• Voluntary (freely decide to migrate) or involuntary (have no choice
but to migrate) (Lee, 1966), depending on their attributes.
However, migration must have clearly defined originating and
destination locations, and have some permanence (Lee, 1966). The
process of human migration is analogous to the phenomenon of service
provider switching (Bansal, Taylor, & James, 2005) in that migrants
(consumers) move (switch) from one country (service provider) to an-
other.
In marketing, consumer switching behavior is divided into volun-
tary and involuntary switching (Keaveney & Parthasarathy, 2001).
Voluntary switching refers to consumers may freely choose to switch
between service providers. Conversely, involuntary switching refers to
a situation in which consumers have no choice but to switch when, for
example, their current service provider is closing.
The PPM framework is a dominant paradigm in migration research
(Bansal et al., 2005). The push-pull factor of the PPM framework are
derived from the paper ‘Laws of Migration’ published by Ravenstein
(1885), which are regarded as the foundations of the push-pull model.
The mooring factor was introduced by Longino (1992), which Moon
(1995) then incorporated into a push-pull framework to explain the
migration. The PPM framework suggests that migration is influenced by
the PPM factors (Moon, 1995). Push factors show the forces that drive
people away from their original place, while pull factors reflects the
forces that attract people to a destination (Moon, 1995). Mooring fac-
tors refer to personal, situational and contextual constraints that facil-
itate or hamper the migration decision (Moon, 1995). However, mi-
gration theory does not specify push, pull, or mooring factors that drive
migration. As Lee (1966) stated, “We can never specify the exact set of
factors which impels or prohibits migration for a given person, we can,
in general, only set forth a few which seem of special importance.
Needless to say, the factors that hold and attract or repel people are
precisely understood neither by the social scientist nor the persons di-
rectly affected” (p. 50).
Based on migration theory, Bansal et al. (2005) built a unifying PPM
framework for explaining consumer service switching and advised re-
searchers to use the framework to improve the understanding of
switching behavior. Recent migration literature acknowledges that the
PPM framework can help explain and predict switching decisions in
diverse off-line contexts (Bansal et al., 2005) and that it has been ex-
tended to online contexts (Cheng, Yang, & Lim, 2009).
According to Keaveney and Parthasarathy (2001), users switching
behavior of mobile PCSSs may be voluntary or involuntary. In mobile
PCSSs, voluntary switching refers to freely choosing to switch between
mobile PCSSs; conversely, involuntary migrants may have no choice but
to switch because their current mobile PCSS is discontinued. For our
study, empirically examining factors that influence the voluntary
switching intention of mobile PCSS users applying the PPM framework
has theoretical and practical implications. We investigate the relation-
ships between push, pull, and mooring factors to specify effective cus-
tomer retention and acquisition strategies for mobile PCSS providers.
2.3. Current studies on mobile personal cloud storage services
In the field of mobile PCSSs, researchers have mainly focused on
exploring the motivations of users’ early adoption. Park and Kim
(2014), Arpaci (2016) and Kim and Kim (2018) have examined user
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
motivation for early adoption of mobile PCSSs. Park and Kim (2014)
built their model based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and
show that user adoption of a mobile PCSS is affected by perceived
mobility, perceived usefulness, perceived connectedness, perceived se-
curity, service and system quality, and satisfaction. Arpaci (2016)
proposes a research framework based on the TAM and shows that
perceived usefulness, subjective norm, and trust have positive effects on
attitude, which in turn significantly influence adoption intention of
mobile PCSSs. Kim and Kim (2018) propose a model from the principal-
agent perspective of agency theory. They found that trust and con-
venience are motivators while perceived uncertainty is a demotivator
for adopting mobile PCSSs.
However, despite the achievements of previous studies, there is a
gap in understanding users' mobile PCSS switching intentions. To fill
this gap, we aim with the present study to identify the key factors in
users’ intentions to switch mobile PCSSs.
3. Research model and hypotheses
The purpose of this study was to explore the push, pull, and mooring
factors that influence users’ intentions to voluntarily switch from in-
cumbent mobile PCSSs to substitutes. Based on the PPM framework, we
developed the research model shown in Fig. 1.
3.1. Push factors
For this study, we adopted perceived privacy risk and perceived
security risk regarding incumbent mobile PCSSs as push factors because
they are the negative factors that compel users to leave their incumbent
providers. The promotion and optimum use of privacy and security are
important elements for supporting the increasing usage of information
technology. Many researchers (Cheng & Lai, 2012; Takabi et al., 2010)
have indicated that privacy and security are among the top-most con-
cerns in users' cloud computing adoption decisions, although security
can be confused with privacy (Shin, 2010). This conceptual confusion is
often followed by discussions of which IT product or service features
(privacy or security or both) maximally reduce users' fears, in addition
to how to place and convey these features in the product or service
(Woodlock, 2000). The confusion between privacy and security can
hinder an IT provider's efficiency in achieving excellence in the com-
petitive IT market. However, studies on the effects of dividing perceived
privacy and perceived security risks are still rare, even though the lit-
erature (Belanger, Hiller, & Smith, 2002) has consistently shown that
they are different from each other and have particular characteristics
that enable us to clearly distinguish between them. Very few prior
studies have revealed the respective effects of perceived privacy and
Fig. 1. Research model.
S. Cheng et al. Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215

perceived security risk on attitudes and trust in one proposed model from using a particular service. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume
(Arpaci, 2016; Shin, 2010), and authors did not assess the effects of the that perceived security risk would reduce users' intention to continue
two constructs on post-adoption intention, an outcome variable. Parti- using incumbent mobile PCSSs and motivate users to switch to alter-
cularly in the SNS context, users' perceptions of privacy and security natives with lower perceived security risk. Therefore, we hypothesized:
risk focus on personal information (e.g., name, gender, age, occupation)
H2. Users' perceived security risk with their incumbent mobile PCSSs is
they must provide to service providers when they register rather than
positively related to their intentions to switch to a substitute.
the materials associated with their voluntarily using the service itself
(e.g., photos uploaded and stored, comments left). Our study focused on
the latter in a mobile PCSS context (e.g., personal files uploaded, stored, 3.2. Pull factors
and shared). For this study, we applied perceived privacy risk and
perceived security risk as two clearly distinct constructs, although it is For this study we adopted network externalities (referent network
unknown whether users in fact see these as distinct issues. size, total network size, complementarity), innovation attributes (sim-
plicity, usefulness, technical compatibility, lifestyle compatibility), and
3.1.1. Perceived privacy risk enjoyment from substitute mobile PCSSs as pull factors because they
Privacy is generally defined as individuals' ability to control the are positive factors that attract users to switch to substitutes.
terms by which their personal information is acquired and used
(Metzger, 2004). Prior literature that recognizes the importance of
3.2.1. Network externalities
controlling information includes a study by Hoffman, Novak, and
Network effects refer to the increased utility that users obtain from
Peralta (1999), who identified the significance of “control over sec-
products or services that increases with the number of users who are in
ondary use of information” concerns by consumers involved in Internet
the same network (Katz & Shapiro, 1985). The sources of this utility are
transactions. In the mobile PCSS context, control over secondary use of
called network externalities, and products or services that display these
personal data stored in mobile PCSSs relates to users' concerns that once
effects are called network effects goods (Lee & O'Connor, 2003). In ad-
their data are uploaded, they have little or no control over the further
dition, network externality refers to the fact that the value of a tech-
sharing of that information with third parties. For instance, mobile
nology for a user increases as its number of users increases (Hsu & Lu,
PCSS users might be concerned that their service providers could il-
2004); once the scale of users reaches a critical number, external ben-
legally record or monitor their personal data. For our study, we defined
efits emerge and attract more users to join (Lin & Bhattacherjee, 2008).
perceived privacy risk as the degree to which mobile PCSS users wor-
It is evident that network externalities are important in producing and
ried about their data being used by these services providers without
diffusing technical change (Kathuria, 1999). Lin and Bhattacherjee
authorization. Mobile PCSS providers allow users to store their personal
(2008) highlighted two types of network externalities in IT: direct and
files on networks, but if the service providers fail to provide good
indirect. Because measuring network externality in one single construct
privacy protection, the personal files stored in the network space are in
is insufficient, we assessed both direct and indirect externalities.
fact exposed to privacy risk (Liu, Wang, & Wu, 2012; Wei et al., 2014;
Direct network externalities pertain to the number of participants in
Yeo et al., 2014). Users' intentions to continue using PCSSs will largely
a given network and are unique to network-based goods. A number of
decrease if their personal data are at risk of being illegally used without
authors of previous studies who measured direct network externality
their knowledge (Yang & Lin, 2015). Li, Wu, Gao, and Shi (2016) ar-
used referent network size (Lin & Bhattacherjee, 2008; Zhou & Lu, 2011)
gued that individuals’ perceived privacy risk negatively affected their
or total network size (alternate terms include network effects and cri-
intentions to adopt wearable health care devices. Therefore, it is rea-
tical mass) (Lin & Huang, 2014), but a more detailed nomological net-
sonable to assume that perceived privacy risk would reduce users' in-
work that incorporates referent and total network size may shape in-
tention to continue using their incumbent mobile PCSS and motivate
dividual usage decisions (Lin & Bhattacherjee, 2008). Although Lin and
them to switch to an alternative with lower perceived privacy risk.
Lu (2011) considered these two constructs (number of peers and number
Therefore, we hypothesized:
of members) simultaneously in an SNS context, related studies in cloud
H1. Users' perceived privacy risk with their incumbent mobile PCSS is service contexts are still rare, although Wu et al. (2017) did evaluate
positively related to their intention to switch to a substitute. critical mass as a predictor of users’ cloud service switching intentions.
In our study, we defined referent network size as users' numbers of
friends, colleagues, relatives, or others in their social circles who adopt
3.1.2. Perceived security risk
the same substitute mobile PCSS. In modern society, mobile devices
The cloud is on the Internet, and therefore, all of the security pro-
have been popularized and are now used frequently. One of the key
blems associated with the Internet can happen in the cloud (such as
functionalities of mobile PCSSs that are closely related to mobile device
attacks by hackers); in fact, the problems become more significant be-
users’ needs is providing users with the ability to share files with se-
cause cloud services make heavy use of the Internet (Cheng & Lai,
lected others in their mobile IM social networks (e.g., QQ, WeChat,
2012). Online, security risk includes not only technical aspects but also
SMS) over mobile devices. Users can directly access the shared items if
the user's comprehensive sense of security and well-being (Shin, 2010).
they are on the same mobile PCSS platform rather than needing to
It can be said of mobile PCSSs that individuals' perceptions of security
download and join new platforms. In particular, the primary challenges
can differ from real security levels. Although scientific assessments of
of mobile devices are their limited bandwidth, computing power, and
security are based on technological solutions, it is the customers' per-
storage (Dinh, Lee, Niyato, & Wang, 2013), but as referent network size
ceptions of security that influence their intentions (Linck, Pousttchi, &
increases, users can share and communicate with more peers, which can
Wiedemann, 2006). Our definition of security is similar to that of
generate more network benefits and network effects.
Hoffman et al. (1999), who identified environmental control as users'
In the area of PCSSs, a significant effect of total network size can be
concerns with storing and sharing information online due to expected
explained from both resources and user perspectives. The three PCSS
threats to online security, including fear of hackers and information
features described by Wu et al. (2017), such as mechanisms to verify the
theft. In our study, we defined perceived security risk as the degree to
uniqueness of a file in the PCSS,1 the file-sharing process itself, and
which mobile PCSS users worried about threats to their data stored in
mobile PCSSs. Cheung, Chan, and Limayem (2005) examined barriers to
mobile payment adoption and argued that the lack of subjective security 1
If a file has been uploaded to the cloud by a user, the process of uploading
surfaced as the most frequent reason for refusal to use. Pousttchi (2003) the same file by other users can finish instantly, as the service just added an
argued that infringements on subjective security will prevent consumers internal link from the uploaded file to the user.

201
S. Cheng et al.
stable and long-term service, rely heavily on user group size; with large
user groups on a platform, potential users will have confidence in the
quality of service. Therefore, as the total network size of PCSS users
increases, users can obtain more network resource and service quality,
which can generate more network benefits and effects.
Indirect network externalities result from the availability of com-
plementary goods and services that create additional network benefits
for users in addition to the network user base (Lin & Bhattacherjee,
2008). Similar to Lin and Bhattacherjee (2008), we applied perceived
complementarity to measure indirect network externality. In mobile
PCSS contexts, perceived complementarity refers to the availability of
complementary goods, services, functions, or applications that com-
plete the mobile PCSS. As a network grows, it becomes increasingly
attractive to IT providers and third-party vendors as a method of selling
complementary goods and services of potential interest to network
users or of locking in existing users. Thus, as the user base expands,
users can acquire more complementary functions and services (Strader,
Ramaswami, & Houle, 2007), which brings them additional value. With
mobile PCSSs, as the specific total service network increases, mobile
PCSS developers may introduce new services and features to increase
users’ network benefits and thus contribute to the network effects.
Overall, the three abovementioned constructs represent the network
externalities of the substitute mobile PCSS, that is, the pull factors that
attract users to switch to the substitute. Thus, we proposed the fol-
lowing hypotheses:
H3. The referent network size of the substitute mobile PCSS is
positively related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
H4. The total network size of the substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
H5. The perceived complementarity of the substitute mobile PCSS is
positively related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
3.2.2. Innovation attributes
Rogers (1995) diffusion of innovations theory (IDT) is a funda-
mental technique for examining how new technology adoption spreads.
Previous literature on the subject (Moore & Benbasat, 1996, pp.
132–146; Rogers, 1995) provided a set of characteristics that could
affect the rate at which innovations are adopted: relative advantage,
image, compatibility, complexity, trialability, visibility, and result de-
monstrability. A meta-analysis by Tornatzky and Klein (1982) indicated
that relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity were the most
relevant constructs for adoption. Moore and Benbasat (1996, pp.
132–146) also examined the effects on the use for all innovation
characteristics simultaneously and showed that relative advantage,
compatibility, and ease of use were the most influential for continued
usage of an IT. Therefore, for our study we employed these three im-
portant determinants of IDT as the predictors of users’ switching in-
tention in the mobile PCSS context.
3.2.2.1. Usefulness and simplicity. Rogers (1995) defined relative
advantage as the “degree to which an innovation is seen as being
superior to its predecessor” and complexity as the “degree to which an
innovation is seen by the potential adopter as being relatively difficult
to use and understand” (p. 320). Davis (1989) developed the
technology acceptance model (TAM) that is similar to IDT in the
sense that it included two constructs, such as perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use. In TAM, perceived usefulness is the degree to
which an individual believes that using a particular system would
enhance his or her performance, and perceived ease of use is the degree
to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be
free of physical and mental effort.
Some researchers have suggested that perceived usefulness and re-
lative advantage are the same construct (Carter & Bélanger, 2005;
Karahanna et al., 1999; Venkatesh, Morris, Davis, & Davis, 2003), but
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
Moore and Benbasat (1991) noted that the relative advantage construct
has not been well explained or measured, which has led to its becoming
a “garbage can” into which a variety of advantages can be incorporated
and is not a clear construct. In contrast, given that users typically de-
velop IT switching intentions with certain purposes in mind, they must
perceive that the to-be-adopted technology will fulfill their intended
purposes better than its precursors; thus, relative advantage is an ex-
tensive concept with significant intuitive appeal. For all these reasons,
Davis's “usefulness” might seem to be a better name for this construct
than relative advantage, and thus we opted to adopt perceived useful-
ness instead of relative advantage for this study. In our study, we de-
fined perceived usefulness as the degree to which a user believes that
using the substitute mobile PCSS will be more effective and efficient
than using the incumbent service. Moore and Benbasat (1991) noted
that complexity in IDT is similar to ease of use in the TAM. Because of
the negative impact of complexity on behavior intention, and to ease
the interpretation of the results, we followed Davis (1989) and sub-
stituted complexity with its opposite, simplicity. That is, we opted to
use the well-tested simplicity to represent complexity in the discussion
of users' intention to switch mobile PCSSs. In our study, we defined
perceived simplicity as the degree to which a user understands the
substitute mobile PCSS to be easy to use. Perceived usefulness and
perceived ease of use of a substitute have been validated as good po-
tential elements of pull effects on users' IT switching intentions and on
attracting users to adopt substitute IT services (Hsieh et al., 2012; Lin &
Bhattacherjee, 2008; Ye & Potter, 2011). Thus, we developed the fol-
lowing hypotheses:
H6. Perceived simplicity of a substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
H7. Perceived usefulness of a substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
3.2.2.2. Compatibility. Rogers (1995) defines compatibility as the
degree to which an innovation is seen to be compatible with existing
values, current needs, and present lifestyle of the potential adopters.
van Rijnsoever, van Hameren, Walraven, and van Dijk (2009) noted
that compatibility can be considered to be both an entity property
(technical compatibility) and a situational property (lifestyle
compatibility). Most previous research has considered compatibility
from the perspective of lifestyle, referring to the degree to which
adopting an IT innovation is compatible with what people do
(Karahanna et al., 1999). Preceding studies haves shown that if a
specific product or service does not match a user's current needs, the
user may perceive a switching barrier (Hong, Kim, & Lee, 2008; Liu,
2006) and show less intention to switch to the specific product or
service; in contrast, perceiving more lifestyle compatibility may
promote the user's switching intention. For this study, we defined
perceived lifestyle compatibility as the degree to which a user perceived
the substitute mobile PCSS to be compatible with his or her lifestyle. In
addition, some researchers have considered the compatibility construct
as technical compatibility, measuring how compatible a technology is
with existing software and hardware systems (Schultz & Slevin, 1975);
the easier it is to integrate new IT with existing systems and software,
the greater the chances of realizing benefits (Tornatzky & Klein, 1982).
Thus, an innovation that connects easily to other products to perform
tasks has greater technical compatibility than a product that does not.
With mobile PCSSs, mobile devices, OSs, and applications must
integrate with the cloud service. For this study, we defined perceived
technical compatibility as the degree to which users perceived the
substitute mobile PCSS to integrate with their mobile devices, OSs, and
applications. In short, we divided compatibility into technical and
lifestyle compatibility as pull factors that attract users to switch to a
substitute and proposed the following hypotheses:
H8. Perceived technical compatibility of the substitute mobile PCSS is
S. Cheng et al.
positively related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
H9. Perceived lifestyle compatibility of the substitute mobile PCSS is
positively related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
3.2.2.3. Simplicity, compatibility and usefulness. The effect of perceived
simplicity (perceived ease of use) on perceived usefulness has been
supported in previous research (Davis, 1989). For technical
compatibility, Hu, Clark, and Ma (2003) found that the greater the
degree to which teachers' considered that PowerPoint was compatible
with existing computer hardware and software, the more positive their
perceptions of PowerPoint's usefulness. Bradford and Florin (2003)
revealed a positive relationship between technical compatibility with
retained technical systems and enterprise resource planning
implementation success. Pagani (2004) examined the determinants of
intention to use a mobile multimedia service and found that perceived
technical compatibility had an influence on perceived usefulness. For
lifestyle compatibility, if a product or service matches a user's lifestyle,
the user will perceive a better fit and be inclined to judge the product or
service more positively. Additionally, providers who have a target
lifestyle group in mind have an incentive to target their products or
services toward members of that group, which leads to the effect that
those products or services have greater perceived usefulness for people
with the target lifestyle. The effect of perceived lifestyle compatibility
on perceived usefulness has also been supported in previous research
(Wu & Wang, 2005). Accordingly, we inferred positive relationships
between the three constructs (simplicity, technical compatibility, and
lifestyle compatibility) and usefulness and developed the following
hypotheses:
H10. Users' perception of simplicity is positively related to the
substitute's perceived usefulness.
H11. Users' perception of technical compatibility is positively related to
the substitute's perceived usefulness.
H12. Users' perception of lifestyle compatibility is positively related to
the substitute's perceived usefulness.
3.2.3. Network externalities and usefulness
The large numbers of people in mobile PCSS users’ social media
circles (e.g., QQ, WeChat, SMS) help users effectively share files stored
on the services. In addition, when more members join the services,
more resources can be shared, and larger network sizes (referent and
total) produce more benefits from mobile PCSS platforms. This can
increase the perceived usefulness of mobile PCSSs.
When customers share the use of a product or service, the benefits
increase not only with increased numbers of users but also with in-
creases in complementary products or services. In our study context, as
mobile PCSSs expand, developers may introduce new services and
features (e.g., rich office, study, or entertainment applications) to in-
crease user network benefits. These ancillary services will advance
users' perceptions of the substitute's utility because they can access
various services via a single platform. Accordingly, we developed the
following hypotheses:
H13. Referent network size of the substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' perceptions of its usefulness.
H14. Total network size of the substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' perceptions of its usefulness.
H15. Perceived complementarity of the substitute mobile PCSS is
positively related to users' perceptions of its usefulness.
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
3.2.4. Enjoyment
Perceived enjoyment can be defined as the extent to which an ac-
tivity is perceived to be enjoyable in its own right and is an intrinsic
motivation in predicting the adoption of IT products and services
(Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1992). Mobile PCSS applications include
utilitarian services such as data storing and sharing as the primary
services as well as many ancillary utilitarian functions such as online
notebooks, cloud printing, and e-wallets that allow users to achieve
personal goals. Moreover, many PCSSs offer entertainment functions
such as allowing users to watch the news, play in group space, listen to
music, and watch videos via a single platform. Therefore, users can use
these PCSSs not only to effectively store and share files, but also to have
fun and enjoyable experience. Users with more positive enjoyment
beliefs about a specific system or technology express more positive
feelings about using it than do users with less positive enjoyment beliefs
(Ahn, Ryu, & Han, 2007).
Moreover, previous researchers (Liaw & Huang, 2003; Liu & Li,
2011) verified that the individual perceived enjoyment of IT will have a
positive influence on the individual perceived usefulness of an IT. Ac-
cordingly, we formulated the following hypotheses:
H16. Perceived enjoyment of the substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' intention to switch to the substitute.
H17. Perceived enjoyment of the substitute mobile PCSS is positively
related to users' perception of its usefulness.
3.3. Mooring factors
Existing research on mooring effects has primarily focused on cog-
nitive-based factors such as switching costs. However, subconscious
components such as habit may also need to be taken into consideration.
For this study, we adopted users' habit and switching cost as mooring
factors.
3.3.1. Habit
Researchers have defined habit from different perspectives. For in-
stance, Triandis (1980) defined it as “situation-behavior sequences that
are or have become automatic … the individual is usually not conscious
of these sequences,” while Verplanken and Aarts (1999) defined it as
“learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to
specific cues, and are functional in obtaining certain goals or end
states.” In general, these definitions reveal that habit is gradually laid
down in the procedural memory through repeated performance and is
learned, goal-directed acts. Developing habit requires a certain amount
of repetition or practice (Aarts, Verplanken, & Knippenberg, 1998). In
this study, we defined habit as the extent to which individuals’ use of a
particular mobile PCSS has become automatic in response to certain
situations.
Most habitual behaviors arise and proceed efficiently, effortlessly,
and unconsciously (Aarts et al., 1998), and habit can increase the
continuance of existing behavior in IT contexts (Liao, Palvia, & Lin,
2006). For online service switching, when users have habituated to the
use of a certain service, they will be less likely to carefully compare the
relative advantages among different alternatives but tend to simply
follow their existing habitual behavioral patterns (Sun et al., 2017).
Furthermore, users who seek to avoid the stress from change will find it
comfortable to engage in habitual behaviors that require few cognitive
resources and continue with the status quo (Wood & Quinn, 2004).
Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
H18. Users' habit regarding an incumbent mobile PCSS is negatively
related to their intention to switch to a substitute.
S. Cheng et al.
3.3.2. Switching cost
Switching cost refers to the one-time cost associated with changing
service providers (Dick & Basu, 1994), and it can be thought of as a
barrier related to constraint-based consumer relationships (Lin &
Huang, 2014). IT switching costs have been widely considered, and
researchers have identified multiple types of costs. Jones,
Mothersbaugh, and Beatty (2002) proposed that switching costs could
be grouped into three categories on six dimensions, namely, continuity
(lost performance and uncertainty costs), learning (pre-switching
search and evaluation, post-switching behavioral and cognitive, and
setup costs), and sunk. Regarding sunk costs, it should be noted that
switching PCSSs is different from switching other online applications.
Specifically, sunk costs may be low because most mobile PCSSs users
are free users in China, and when users have moved their files, there is
little irrecoverable investment left in the platform (Wu et al. (2017).
Burnham, Frels, and Mahajan (2003) categorized switching costs into
three groups on eight dimensions: procedural (economic risk, evalua-
tion, setup, and learning costs), financial (benefit loss and monetary
loss costs), and relational (personal and brand relationship loss costs).
Among the three groups of switching costs, financial costs are believed
to be irrelevant in the context of mobile PCSSs because in China, most
mobile PCSSs users are free users. In addition, researchers consider
relationship loss costs to be irrelevant because of the lack of face-to-face
or user-employee interactions (Ghazali, 2011), which clearly do not
exist in mobile PCSSs.
Thus, for our study, we excluded sunk costs as well as financial and
relational switching costs to conform to mobile PCSS usage in China.
Risk cost and continuity cost are interchangeable (Guiltinan, 1989).
Post-switching behavioral and cognitive costs refer to consumer per-
ceptions of the time and effort needed to acquire and adapt to these new
procedures and routines (Jones et al., 2002). This construct appeals to
logical reasoning and is similar to learning cost. Therefore, following
Jones et al. (2002) and Burnham et al. (2003), we reintegrated and
conceptualized switching cost as a four-dimensional construct to match
our study: continuity cost, evaluation cost, learning cost, and setup cost.
The description of these costs are as follows:
• Continuity cost is the cost of accepting uncertainty with the poten-
tial for a negative outcome when adopting a new provider about
which the consumer has insufficient information (Burnham et al.,
2003). In the mobile PCSS context, cloud service users switch to
different services, and they may lose advantages (e.g., higher sto-
rage capacity, richer additional functions) of their incumbent ser-
vice.
• Evaluation cost is the cost associated with the time and effort to
research and analyze options and make a switching decision
(Burnham et al., 2003). In the mobile PCSS context, users' evalua-
tion cost cannot be neglected because the functions and services are
dissimilar among different services.
• Learning cost is the time and effort cost of acquiring new skills in
order to use a new product or service effectively (Burnham et al.,
2003). Learning investments are often provider-specific, meaning
new investment must be made to adapt to a new provider
(Klemperer, 1995). Because PCSS providers supply different func-
tions in mobile versus PC service versions, mobile PCSS users need
to spend much time to learn the functions of new mobile PCSSs to
find suitable substitutes.
• Setup cost is the cost of the time, effort, and expenses to start a
relationship with a new service, including setting up a new account
(Burnham et al., 2003). In the mobile PCSS context, setup cost could
be important because users must not only register for a new account
but also spend much time transferring their cloud files from the
incumbent to the new mobile PCSS platform.
In sum, when mobile PCSS users switch from incumbent services to
substitutes, they may incur these four switching costs, and when they
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
perceive these costs to be high, they may feel constrained from
switching to a substitute. Accordingly, we formulated the following
hypothesis:
H19. Users' switching cost is negatively related to their intention to
switch to the substitute mobile PCSS.
3.4. Control variables
To test the research model, following Peng, Zhao, and Zhu (2016),
we also included four control variables: gender, age, education, and
mobile OS. We added the latter variable considering that the same
mobile PCSS can appear differently depending on the operating system.
We focused on Apple's iOS (19.7%) and on Android (73.1%) because
these have the largest market shares in mobile devices in China
(IiMedia, 2016). However, we did not propose formal hypotheses for
these variables.
4. Methodology
4.1. Measurement
We devised 49 measurement items to describe the 16 constructs in
our research model (see Appendix B). We revised the majority of these
items from prior studies to fit this research context. We developed
ourselves the scale items for complementarity and technical compat-
ibility because there were no appropriate existing references, given that
these constructs’ meanings in the mobile PCSS context could have dif-
ference from those in other online services. Each item was measured on
7-point Likert scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree). In addition, we considered four control variables: age, gender,
education, and mobile OS.
For switching cost, we followed Podsakoff, Shen, and Podsakoff
(2006) suggestion that social researchers should employ second-order
models when a construct is complex because these models regard each
dimension as a critical component of the construct. Specifically, we
modeled switching cost as a second-order construct (formative) jointly
reflected by four first-order dimensions: continuity cost, evaluation
cost, learning cost, and setup cost. The rationale for operationalizing
switching cost as a formative second-order construct was fourfold
(Petter, Straub, & Rai, 2007): (1) according to its conceptual definition,
switching cost is formed from its four sub-components (continuity cost,
evaluation cost, learning cost, and setup cost) rather than the other way
around; (2) switching cost is inherently a composite measure of con-
tinuity, evaluation, learning, and setup costs; (3) continuity, evaluation,
learning, and setup costs are clearly unique, distinguishable, and not
interchangeable and they do not necessarily share a common theme;
and (4) continuity, evaluation, learning, and setup costs are theoreti-
cally independent such that a change in one type of switching cost (e.g.,
continuity) is not necessarily associated with changes in the other
types—that is, they are not highly correlated.
Because the measures we used were originally in English but we
conducted the current study in a Chinese-speaking context, we trans-
lated the survey instrument from English into Chinese following the
procedure recommended by Brislin (1993). Specifically, two PhD stu-
dents independently translated the original English items into Chinese
and agreed on the Chinese versions, and then another bilingual student
translated the items back into English again to ensure the translation
equivalence. The back-translated text was then compared with the
original text. Where discrepancies existed, the Chinese version and the
original English version were examined, and if necessary, the final
translation was amended. Then we reached consensus on the final
versions for the questionnaire.
Before we conducted the primary survey, we conducted both a
pretest and a pilot test to validate the measurement items. The pretest
involved 10 long-term (more than one year) Chinese mobile PCSS users
S. Cheng et al. Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215

who had switched cloud services. We asked these 10 users to review the Table 1
questionnaire for item wording, format, ease of understanding, logical Demographic statistics.
inconsistencies, item sequence, and contextual relevance. Following the Variables Levels Frequency Percentage (%)
suggestions of the pretest study participants, we made revisions to
eliminate ambiguity and focus more clearly on the mobile PCSS Gender Male 160 58.2
Female 115 41.8
switching. In addition, we conducted a pilot test to reduce potential
Age < 20 17 6.2
ambiguity in the questions and confirm the measurement properties of 20–29 156 56.7
the final items. The results for the pilot test showed that the Cronbach's 30–39 59 21.5
α of each construct exceeded the standard of 0.8, confirming each > 39 43 15.6
item's acceptability (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). We pilot tested the Education High school or below 19 6.9
College's degree 50 18.2
questionnaire with a group of 50 Chinese mobile PCSS users who had
Bachelor's degree 131 47.6
multiple mobile PCSS accounts, and they were not included in the Master's degree or higher 75 27.3
primary survey. Mobile OS Android 214 77.8
IOS 61 22.2
4.2. Data collection

In order to test the research model, we conducted an online survey
using WJX (http://www.wjx.cn/), a professional online survey site in
China, to collect the data. We began the survey in early April 2017 and
kept it open for one month. We adopted convenience and snowball
sampling to collect the data, first inviting a population of student mo-
bile PCSS users from a university located in Central China to answer the
questionnaire by sending them an invitation message with the URL to
the questionnaire on WJX. At the same time, we asked them to spread
the invitation message with the URL to their friends and family mem-
bers who used mobile PCSSs. We stated that qualified participants
should fit three criteria: using multiple mobile PCSSs (including an
incumbent and a substitute), using an incumbent mobile PCSS that the
provider would not terminate if an account was canceled, and using
either Android OS or Apple iOS mobile devices.
The questionnaire had two parts: the demographic profile and the
construct items. At the beginning of the survey, a simple task was de-
signed to help participants to reflect on their voluntary switching in-
tentions considering some might not have been considering switching.
Screening questions assessed the potential participants to ensure that
they were qualified. Respondents were required to answer all mea-
surement items according to their mobile PCSS usage experience rather
than their perceptions based on product advertisements or other in-
formation. WJX collected a total of 367 questionnaires and prescreened
them based on the three qualification criteria. All surveys were com-
plete because we deployed a missing-data-detection function that
forced participants to respond to every question. Among these, we ex-
cluded 92 surveys for the following reasons: (1) the surveys were
completed within 3 min and because we estimated that the ques-
tionnaire would take 10–15 min to complete, such fast responses sug-
gested that participants had not completed their questionnaires re-
sponsibly (Peng et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2017); (2) the respondents gave
the same score to all questions (e.g., all 7s). In addition, WJX recorded
and checked all IP addresses to exclude duplicate respondents. Finally,
we obtained a sample of 275 valid responses for the formal data ana-
lysis.
The demographic characteristics of the final survey sample are
shown in Table 1. We compared the demographic information of our
sample with the population of China's mobile device users using po-
pulation data we obtained from a report published by iiMedia Research
Group (IiMedia, 2016), and we found no differences between them.
However, the education levels in our sample were somewhat higher
than reported, which could have been because of our sampling location
and strategy (i.e., near a university and using snowball sampling of
university students). Overall, our sample was representative of mobile
device users in China and was suitable for further statistical analysis.
4.3. Data analysis and results
We employed partial least squares (PLS) using SmartPLS 3 (Ringle,
Wende, & Becker, 2015), following the two-step approach
recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) to evaluate both the
measurement (first step) and structural (second step) models. We chose
variance-based PLS-SEM rather than covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM)
for the following reasons. First, PLS-SEM is more suitable than CB-SEM
for conducting both exploratory and confirmatory research (Ringle,
Sarstedt, & Straub, 2012), and our study was both exploratory and
confirmatory. We examined the measurement items for four latent
variables that we developed such as complementarity and technical
compatibility, and we were the first to divide compatibility into two
different constructs (technical and lifestyle) in one empirical study ra-
ther than testing only a single construct. Second, PLS-SEM is more
suitable than the CB-SEM for estimating causal models, especially
complex models (e.g., many constructs and many indicators) (Ringle
et al., 2012). Third, PLS-SEM can easily address statistical identification
and convergence problems with formative constructs (Petter et al.,
2007; Ringle et al., 2012). Fourth, PLS-SEM places minimal restrictions
on measurement scales, sample sizes, and residual distribution (Chin &
Newsted, 1999). Fifth, the primary focus of this research was under-
standing each specific path coefficient and variance explained rather
than overall model fit (Chin, Marcolin, & Newsted, 2003).
4.4. Measurement model
We evaluated the measurement model for the reliability, dis-
criminant validity, and convergent validity of the construct measures.
First, we evaluated the reliability using two criteria, composite relia-
bility (CR) and Cronbach's α as seen in Appendix B. CR and Cronbach's
α for each construct were above the recommended threshold of 0.7
(Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006), ensuring the internal
consistency of all constructs.
Second, discriminant validity is confirmed when the square root of
the AVE had to be higher than all other cross-correlations between that
construct and the other construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) (see
Table 2). The results suggest sufficient discriminant validity.
Third, the convergent validity of the reflective and formative con-
structs was examined in different ways. For reflective constructs, we
assessed the convergent validity with two criteria (Fornell & Larcker,
1981): (1) all indicator loadings needed to be significant and exceed
0.7, and (2) the average variance extracted (AVE) between the con-
structs and their measures had to exceed 0.50. As seen in Appendix B,
all indicator loadings were significant and exceeded 0.70 on their re-
spective constructs, and the lowest AVE among all reflective constructs
was 0.635, suggesting satisfactory convergent validity.
For the formative constructs, the item weights were evaluated.
Following the molar model (Petter et al., 2007), we developed the
second-order formative model to reflect the relationship between the
first- and second-order constructs in PLS. We approximated the second-
order construct (switching cost) using the repeated indicators approach
suggested by Chin et al. (2003). In this approach, a second-order con-
struct is directly measured via the observed variables for all of the first-

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Table 2
Correlation among constructs and the square root of the AVE.
Construct VIF RNS COC PS LEC PC HAB PLC PE EVC PPR PU TNS SEC SWI PSR PTC

RNS 1.701 0.797

COC 2.173 0.396 0.899
PS 2.120 0.379 0.325 0.924
LEC 1.927 0.455 0.372 0.432 0.915
PC 1.810 0.236 0.360 0.374 0.330 0.856
HAB 1.961 0.315 0.255 0.329 0.267 0.263 0.801
PLC 1.950 0.318 0.213 0.085 0.420 0.384 −0.166 0.807
PE 1.851 0.453 −0.162 0.341 −0.177 0.483 0.381 0.466 0.909
EVC 2.187 0.316 0.277 0.358 0.397 0.236 0.367 0.201 −0.199 0.879
PPR 2.445 0.308 0.324 0.308 0.382 0.306 0.250 0.286 0.207 0.298 0.902
PU 2.201 0.485 0.302 0.456 0.219 0.382 0.296 0.597 0.432 0.524 0.348 0.883
TNS 1.673 0.298 0.226 0.340 0.361 0.210 0.288 0.345 0.333 0.313 0.319 0.367 0.903
SEC 1.812 0.270 0.422 0.221 0.357 0.315 0.116 0.575 −0.187 0.246 0.302 0.393 0.389 0.909
SWI – 0.413 −0.355 0.122 −0.356 0.291 −0.410 0.494 0.272 −0.384 0.481 0.561 0.178 −0.428 0.873
PSR 2.698 0.323 0.383 0.206 0.230 0.340 0.336 0.205 0.245 0.302 0.575 0.364 0.419 0.252 0. 626 0.920
PTC 2.541 0.366 0.340 0.348 0.429 0.369 0.303 0.371 0.521 0.303 0.407 0.475 0.312 0.439 0.292 0.214 0.906

The bold numbers in the diagonal row represent the square roots of the AVE.

included in the PLS measurement model a common method factor

whose indicators included all 16 principal first-order constructs' in-
dicators, and the indicators of all constructs were associated reflectively
with the method factor. CMB is unlikely to be a serious concern if the
following two criteria recommended by Williams (2003) are fulfilled:
(1) the method factor loadings are insignificant and (2) the indicators'
substantive variances are substantially greater than their method var-
iances. As shown in Table 3, the results demonstrated that the average
substantively explained variance of the indicators was 0.742 and the
average method-based variance was 0.012. The ratio of substantive to
method variance was approximately 61.8:1. In addition, most method
factor loadings were not significant (43 of the 49 were insignificant).
Given the small magnitude and insignificance of the method variance,
we concluded that CMB was unlikely a serious concern.
In addition, we assessed multicollinearity using VIFs. The analysis
showed that the VIFs ranged from 1.673 to 2.698 (as shown in Table 2),
which were all lower than the acceptable cut-off of 3.33 (Cenfetelli &
Bassellier, 2009), implying no significant multicollinearity problem.

4.6. Structural model

Fig. 2. PLS results for the structural model.

We used the PLS algorithm and bootstrapping re-sampling with 275

order constructs (continuity, evaluation, learning, and setup costs). We
analyzed the second-order formative model in the PLS model simulta-
neously with the entire structural model. As shown in Fig. 2, the
weights were significant for all the four first-order constructs: con-
tinuity cost (w = 0.376, p < 0.001), evaluation cost (w = 0.327,
p < 0.001), learning cost (w = 0.291, p < 0.001), and setup cost
(w = 0.345, p < 0.001). Taken together, both reflective and formative
constructs have satisfactory convergent validity.
4.5. Testing for common method bias and multicollinearity
As with all self-administered survey data collected from a single
source at the same time, common method bias (CMB) could have
threatened the validity of the study (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &
Podsakoff, 2003). We thus used two approaches to test this issue. First,
we used SPSS 22.0 (Corp, 2013) to conduct a Harman's single-factor test
(Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). This test required that we run an ex-
ploratory, unrotated factor analysis on all of the first-order constructs
with the 49 measurement items, and our data showed that all items
combined accounted for 71.2% of the total variance but that the first
factor accounted for only 25.08%. This suggests that CMB was not a
serious issue in this study. Second, we examined CMB by following the
recommendation of Podsakoff et al. (2003) and the analytical proce-
dure used by Liang, Saraf, Hu, and Xue (2007). Specifically, we
cases and 1000 re-samples to estimate the full structural model. In order
to eliminate the confounding effects from specific individual char-
acteristics, we included respondents' age, gender, education, and mo-
bile OS as control variables. The results of the structural model esti-
mation, including standardized path coefficient, path significance and
the variances explained (R2), are presented in Fig. 2. The explained
variances of perceived usefulness and switching intention were 63.7%
and 54.6%, respectively. The path coefficients from the lower-order to
the higher-order construct are weights, which indicate each lower-order
construct's relative importance.
An important issue with formative measurement is the relative in-
variance of a construct's weights when the construct is used in different
nomological networks (Cenfetelli & Bassellier, 2009), although the
same degree of variance should always be expected (Diamantopoulos &
Siguaw, 2006). Thus, interpretational confounding needs to be ex-
amined when using formative measurement (Kim, Shin, & Grover,
2010). Given the focus of this study on switching cost, which we op-
erationalized as a formative second-order construct and approximated
using repeated indicators, we changed the nomological network of
switching cost in a revised model by adding a path from switching cost
to a reflectively measured construct (simplicity) as the switching cost
outcome variable. The comparison between the original entire model
(see Fig. 2) and the revised model with the changed switching cost
nomological network (see Fig. 3) shows that changes of the relative

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Table 3
Common method bias analysis results.
Construct Item R1 R12 R2 R22 Construct Item R1 R12 R2 R22

PPR PPR 1 0.831∗∗∗ 0.690 0.021 0.000 PE PE 1 0.817∗∗∗ 0.668 0.021 0.000
PPR 2 0.940∗∗∗ 0.884 0.045 0.002 PE 2 0.828∗∗∗ 0.686 −0.033 0.001
PPR 3 0.865∗∗∗ 0.748 0.019 0.000 PE 3 0.932∗∗∗ 0.868 0.014 0.000
PSR PSR 1 0.849∗∗∗ 0.721 0.010 0.000 HAB HAB 1 0.781∗∗∗ 0.610 0.048 0.002
PSR 2 0.938∗∗∗ 0.880 0.023 0.001 HAB 2 0.800∗∗∗ 0.639 −0.313∗∗∗ 0.098
PSR 3 0.822∗∗∗ 0.675 −0.033 0.001 HAB 3 0.823∗∗∗ 0.677 −0.032 0.001
RNS RNS 1 0.818∗∗∗ 0.669 0.039 0.002 COC COC 1 0.894∗∗∗ 0.799 −0.040 0.002
RNS 2 0.824∗∗∗ 0.679 −0.056 0.003 COC 2 0.838∗∗∗ 0.702 0.054 0.003
RNS 3 0.821∗∗∗ 0.674 −0.339∗∗∗ 0.115 COC 3 0.847∗∗∗ 0.717 0.306∗∗∗ 0.094
TNS TNS 1 0.859∗∗∗ 0.737 0.019 0.000 EVC EVC 1 0.886∗∗∗ 0.785 0.048 0.002
TNS 2 0.955∗∗∗ 0.912 −0.023 0.001 EVC 2 0.879∗∗∗ 0.773 0.019 0.000
TNS 3 0.897∗∗∗ 0.804 0.213∗∗ 0.045 EVC 3 0.814∗∗∗ 0.663 0.021 0.000
PC PC 1 0.831∗∗∗ 0.690 0.025 0.001 LEC LEC 1 0.857∗∗∗ 0.735 0.015 0.000
PC 2 0.847∗∗∗ 0.718 0.034 0.001 LEC 2 0.809∗∗∗ 0.654 −0.014 0.000
PC 3 0.896∗∗∗ 0.803 0.061 0.004 LEC 3 0.934∗∗∗ 0.872 0.027 0.001
PS PS 1 0.927∗∗∗ 0.860 0.032 0.001 SEC SEC 1 0.822∗∗∗ 0.676 −0.037 0.001
PS 2 0.834∗∗∗ 0.696 0.326∗∗∗ 0.106 SEC 2 0.849∗∗∗ 0.720 0.038 0.001
PS 3 0.913∗∗∗ 0.834 0.039 0.002 SEC 4 0.911∗∗∗ 0.830 0.023 0.001
PU PU 1 0.936∗∗∗ 0.877 0.050 0.003 SWI SWI 1 0.875∗∗∗ 0.766 0.045 0.002
PU 2 0.839∗∗∗ 0.705 −0.014 0.000 SWI 2 0.860∗∗∗ 0.740 0.054 0.003
PU 3 0.772∗∗∗ 0.595 0.224∗∗ 0.050 SWI 3 0.967∗∗∗ 0.936 0.034 0.001
PTC PTC 1 0.902∗∗∗ 0.814 0.011 0.000 SWI 4 0.791∗∗∗ 0.626 0.012 0.000
PTC 2 0.930∗∗∗ 0.864 −0.041 0.002 Average 0.860 0.742 0.019 0.012
PTC 3 0.814∗∗∗ 0.662 0.031 0.001
PLC PLC 1 0.848∗∗∗ 0.720 −0.029 0.001
PLC 2 0.768∗∗∗ 0.590 −0.104 0.011
PLC 3 0.834∗∗∗ 0.696 0.026 0.001

p < 0.01; ∗∗∗p < 0.001.

∗∗

R1: Substantive factor loading; R2: Method factor loading.

R12: The percent of indicator variance caused by its substantive factor.
R22: The percent of indicator variance caused by method factor.

• Among the pull factors, as expected, referent network size

Fig. 3. A changed nomological network for switching cost.
magnitude of indicator weights were small. We found a similar pattern
when we used other reflectively measured constructs as the switching
cost outcome variable in the changed nomological networks, suggesting
the formative measurement's construct portability (Cenfetelli &
Bassellier, 2009). Therefore, interpretational confounding was not a
major problem relative to switching cost.
Our research findings are summarized as follows.
• For push factors, both perceived privacy risk (β = 0.178,
p < 0.001) and perceived security risk (β = 0.248, p < 0.001) had
significant positive effects on switching intention, supporting H1
and H2.
(β = 0.125, p < 0.01), perceived complementarity (β = 0.158,
p < 0.001), perceived usefulness (β = 0.204, p < 0.001), per-
ceived technical compatibility (β = 0.163, p < 0.001), perceived
lifestyle compatibility (β = 0.181, p < 0.001), perceived enjoy-
ment (β = 0.165, p < 0.001) had significant positive direct effects
on switching intention, supporting H3, H5, H7, H8, H9 and H16.
Contrary to our expectation, total network size (β = 0.057,
p > 0.05) and perceived simplicity (β = 0.069, p > 0.05) had no
significant direct effects on switching intention, rejecting H4 and
H6.
• Perceived simplicity (β = 0.126, p < 0.01), perceived technical
compatibility (β = 0.285, p < 0.001), perceived lifestyle compat-
ibility (β = 0.374, p < 0.001), referent network size (β = 0.189,
p < 0.001), total network size (β = 0.124, p < 0.01), perceived
complementarity (β = 0.169, p < 0.001), perceived enjoyment
(β = 0.288, p < 0.001) had significant positive effects on perceived
usefulness, supporting H10, H11, H12, H13, H14, H15 and H17.
• For mooring factors, both habit (β = −0.139, p < 0.01) and
switching cost (β = −0.130, p < 0.01) had significant negative
effects on switching intention, supporting H18 and H19.
4.7. Additional analyses (mediation test)
The results of our entire PLS structural model analyses signified that
the seven pull factors (referent network size, total network size, com-
plementarity, simplicity, technical compatibility, lifestyle compat-
ibility, and enjoyment) have positive and significant impacts on use-
fulness. In addition, usefulness had positive and significant impacts on
switching intention. However, we do not rule out the possibility that
the seven factors’ effects on switching intention were mediated by
usefulness. In order to further our understanding regarding the me-
chanism, we conducted mediation analysis to examine whether or not

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Table 4 5.2. Pull effects

Mediation analysis.
Path Direct effect Indirect effect Remark 5.2.1. Network externalities and switching intention
Our findings show that in contrast with the other two network ef-
RNS → PU → SWI 0.125(2.629) 0.039(4.147) Partial Mediation fects constructs (i.e., referent network size and perceived com-
∗∗ ∗∗∗

TNS → PU → SWI 0.057(1.103) 0.025(3.328) Full Mediation

plementarity), total network size was not directly related to users' in-
∗∗∗

PC → PU → SWI 0.158(3.306) ∗∗∗

0.034(3.996) ∗∗∗
Partial Mediation
PS → PU → SWI 0.069(1.391) 0.026(3.439) ∗∗∗
Full Mediation
PTC → PU → SWI 0.163(3.354) ∗∗∗
0.058(4.413) ∗∗∗
Partial Mediation
PLC → PU → SWI 0.181(3.872) ∗∗∗
0.076(5.780) ∗∗∗
Partial Mediation
PE → PU → SWI 0.165(3.516) ∗∗∗
0.059(4.609) ∗∗∗
Partial Mediation
∗∗
p < 0.01; ∗∗∗p < 0.001.
• If the indirect effect coefficient is significant while it is not in direct effect,
then PU (perceived usefulness) fully mediates the impact of the independent
variable on SWI (switching intention).
• If both the coefficients of direct and indirect effect are significant, then PU
partially mediates the impact of independent variable on SWI.
the effects were mediated by usefulness, performing the mediation tests
with bootstrapping (1000 re-samples). We summarize our mediating
effect testing results in Table 4.
5. Discussion
The point of departure for this study was evaluating the factors that
affected the users' voluntary switching intention among mobile PCSSs
based on the PPM framework from migration theory. Our study em-
ployed a relatively complex model to explain the phenomenon of users'
switching intention in the context of mobile PCSS. In comparison with
simpler models, complex models can provide more and deeper insights
on possible causes underlying such phenomenon. Nevertheless, this
could result in a non-parsimonious model and end up with a theory of
everything. For simpler models, it is easier to implement and to inter-
pret by focusing on the most important criteria for making decisions,
but it may ignore some potential and interesting findings. Instead of
focusing on the most important criteria for understanding users'
switching behavior, this study attempted to examine the phenomenon
without ignoring some potential and interesting predictors and re-
lationships. Therefore, we employed a complex model to gain more
comprehensive predictors and relationships for providing more and
deeper insights on possible causes underlying mobile PCSSs users’
switching intention. The key findings from the results are discussed
below.
5.1. Push effects
Our findings show that perceived privacy risk and perceived se-
curity risk regarding the incumbent mobile PCSS had significant posi-
tive effects on users' intention to switch to a substitute. This finding
confirmed previous research that indicated that perceived privacy and
security risk had negative impacts on users' adoption of current IT
products (Li et al., 2016) while having positive impacts on users'
switching intentions (Lai & Wang, 2015; Wu et al., 2017), although
these authors researched the risk as a composite variable. When users
perceive high potential threats to their privacy and security, they are
motivated to find substitutes that offer better protection. Interestingly,
the effect of security risk (0.248) was much greater than that of privacy
risk (0.178), indicating that mobile PCSS users care more about the
security of their personal data stored in the cloud than the privacy of
their data. This is likely because the Chinese government proposed
strict regulations against pornography and illegal publications in early
2016 (Cappella, 2016), and many users found that all of the cloud
storage service providers were monitoring users’ stored data to co-
operate with the government. This situation could have weakened the
predictive effect of perceived privacy risk on the switching intentions in
our study.
tentions to switch to a substitute mobile PCSS. This phenomenon can be
explained from both user and resource perspectives. First, users do not
matter how many people in total are using a mobile PCSS; it appears
that users are just concerned if the person they want to share their files
with have the service. Although there is a lack of knowledge in the
mobile PCSS area to support this explanation, this result is consistent
with those found in prior studies on continued SNS use intention (Lin &
Lu, 2011). Second, the files backed up by the users to the mobile PCSS
are mainly from their personal mobile devices, such as pictures, videos,
or private documents, that no one else has access to and to share them
with preferred persons rather than to upload files that others have al-
ready uploaded. In other words, mobile PCSS users probably won't
consider the cloud service's certain mechanisms of verifying the un-
iqueness of a file, in which benefit from the size of total users. In ad-
dition, perceived complementarity is more important than the other
two network externality constructs in the context of voluntary
switching to a substitute mobile PCSS. This finding makes sense because
mobile PCSS applications are well equipped with rich complementary
functions and services, and this result suggests that users care more
about the complementarity in mobile PCSSs than about other criteria,
especially in the voluntary switching case.
5.2.2. Innovation attributes and switching intention
Our results show that usefulness has a significant influence on
switching mobile PCSSs, but simplicity does not appear to do so. That
is, the effectiveness of managing personal files on mobile PCSSs appears
to be meaningful to users; if people perceive and anticipate that they
will be able to manage personal files more successfully through a sub-
stitute mobile PCSS platform, they will switch. The lack of significant
impact of perceived ease of use may reflect the characteristics of the
functions and interfaces of the mobile PCSS platforms provided by the
only large operators in the Chinese market. Although they differ, they
all have been optimized well, making them simple for users to learn and
operate, and thus, users perceive no significant difficulty in using any of
the different mobile PCSSs. This finding confirms academic arguments
that perceived ease of use, regardless of its strong impact on pre-
adoption beliefs, does not consistently predict post-adoption behavior
(Bhattacherjee, 2001; Karahanna et al., 1999). Moreover, prior research
also revealed that perceived ease of use was a significant influence on
adoption intention in the pre-implementation stage when users had
little or no experience with a system but that its effect diminished as
users became more familiar with the system (Venkatesh & Davis, 1996,
2000).
Few research have divided and empirically tested compatibility into
two constructs (technical and lifestyle), even though the literature (van
Rijnsoever et al., 2009) has consistently shown that the two constructs
have different properties (entity and situational) and their separation is
warranted. Our findings show that technical (0.163) and lifestyle
(0.181) compatibility have direct, significant, and fairly equal effects on
users’ switching intentions. One potential explanation is that the mobile
PCSSs about which potential users develop beliefs are designed not only
for optimal functionalities (e.g., compatibility with mobile devices,
mobile OSs, and legacy apps) but also for emotional appeal (e.g.,
compatible with daily life). In terms of the influence strength, the latter
is slightly stronger than the former. Overall, this strengthens the impact
of the two compatibility types on post-adoption switching intention.
5.2.3. Enjoyment and switching intention
Our finding shows that perceived enjoyment also has a relatively
strong influence (0.165) on switching intention, although a weaker

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effect than that of usefulness (0.204), on switching intention. This result
differs somewhat from previous findings that enjoyment contributes
more to user adoption than usefulness in interactive IT and online
gaming (Hsieh et al., 2012; Lin & Bhattacherjee, 2008; Liu & Forsythe,
2011). Our findings show that although mobile PCSSs are not oriented
toward pleasure, enjoyment offers an appropriate predictor of mobile
PCSS post-adoption behavior. This is likely because mobile PCSS pro-
viders offer many ancillary utilitarian (e.g., online notebooks, cloud
printing, e-wallets) and entertainment (e.g., news, group spaces, music
listening, video watching) functions within their platforms, and thus,
users are likely to switch to the platforms that offer more fun and en-
joyment.
5.3. Mooring effects
As expected, the mooring effects, here habit and switching costs,
had negative influences on switching intentions, and the effect of habit
(−0.139) was slightly stronger than that of switching costs (−0.130).
These findings suggest that users' habit and switching costs may help
lock them into their relationships with their incumbent mobile PCSS
providers. The habit findings imply that users will still be reluctant to
use the substitute PCSS despite its numerous relative advantages; that
is, users' past behaviors will have a large impact on their current as-
sessment of whether to switch a service in the future. This result is in
accordance with earlier results that indicated that habit has a sig-
nificant impact on users' continued IT use (Chiu, Hsu, Lai, & Chang,
2012) and switching intentions (Lai & Wang, 2015; Ye & Potter, 2011).
For switching costs, high switching costs will impede users’ mobile
PCSS switching because of their concerns about the necessary effort to
switch. Although the effect of switching costs on users' switching in-
tention was relatively weak among the accepted factors, the gap was
not large, and thus, it can still be said that switching cost was also a
strong influence on switching intention. This finding differs slightly
from those of previous studies in the context of involuntary switching
(Fang & Tang, 2017) in which authors found that the effect of switching
costs on switching intention was marginally significant. A possible ex-
planation is that switching costs in the context of voluntary switching
may play a more important role than they do in involuntary switching.
Moreover, the effects of the four switching cost dimensions were all
significant, indicating that users were concerned with the time and
effort potentially spent on evaluating performance, learning new
functions, and setting up new accounts as well as the loss of existing
advantages. Our results show an interesting finding that learning cost
played a less important role than did the other three costs. Excluding a
number of common basic services (such as storing and sharing files),
mobile PCSSs offer many different ancillary services both utilitarian
(e.g., online notebooks, cloud printing, e-wallets) and entertainment-
based (e.g., news, group spaces, music listening, video watching). Thus,
users need to expend much time and effort to acquire new skills in order
to use new mobile PCSSs effectively. However, just as we found that
simplicity had an insignificant effect on switching intention because all
of China's mobile PCSSs have been optimized well for both operational
interface and functionality, learning cost may have had a weak pre-
dictive effect on switching intention.
5.4. Perceived usefulness
Our results show that referent network size, total network size,
complementarity, simplicity, technical and lifestyle compatibility, and
enjoyment had significant positive effects on usefulness. These findings
are consistent with those from previous IT adoption studies (Agag & El-
Masry, 2016; Liaw & Huang, 2003; Lin & Lu, 2011; Wu & Wang, 2005;
Zhou & Lu, 2011). For this study, we also examined the mediation ef-
fects of perceived usefulness and found that it had full mediation effects
in the relationships between total network size and switching intention
and between simplicity and switching intention. That is, total network
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
size and simplicity influence switching intentions not directly but
through the effects of usefulness. In addition, the perceived usefulness
of the substitute PCSS partially mediated the effects of referent network
size, complementarity, technical and lifestyle compatibility, and en-
joyment on intentions to switch to the new service. These findings can
assist mobile PCSS providers in increasing potential users’ switching
intentions by better understanding how to improve the usefulness of
their products.
6. Implications
6.1. Theoretical implications
This study makes several theoretical contributions to the IS litera-
ture.
First, as IT switching has emerged to be a fertile and potentially
insightful area of research, it has attracted more and more attention
from IS researchers. IT switching is an instance of adopting an incre-
mental innovation, in contrast to first-time adoption of a new IT
(Bhattacherjee, Limayem, & Cheung, 2012). Although extant research
has focused on users' intentions to adopt mobile PCSSs (Arpaci, 2016),
it has seldom considered users’ intentions to switch PCSS providers.
This study complements the literature in this field from a migration
perspective and is in fact one of the first to attempt to explain users'
mobile PCSS switching behaviors.
Second, for this study we applied the PPM framework that origi-
nated from human migration literature as the conceptual framework for
understanding users’ intentions to switch mobile PCSSs. The PPM
model highlights the importance of push, pull, and mooring variables as
drivers of human migration, and our study is an example of adapting a
theory from other fields focusing on an off-line phenomenon to study
the similar phenomenon in a mobile online context. In addition, our
findings support the general conception of the migration theory by
providing empirical support for it.
Third, as we discussed previously, there is very scarce empirical
evidence of perceived privacy risk and perceived security risk in mobile
PCSSs, although the literature does suggest that privacy and security
are two different constructs. For our study we divided the two con-
structs into perceived privacy risk and perceived security risk as two
push factors and found positive significant effects of both on users’
mobile PCSS switching intentions. However, we addressed different
types of perceived privacy and security risk and provided a set of va-
lidated measurement scales that can be used in future studies on mobile
PCSSs.
Fourth, we utilized the migration theory, network externality theory
and innovation diffusion theory to refine the pull factors to fit the
mobile PCSS context, and thus our findings contribute to an enhanced
understanding of the impacts of pull factors on switching behavior. As
we discussed previously, this study is one of the earliest academic
studies that divides direct network externalities into referent and total
network size in cloud storage research, and we are also the first to
consider the effect of indirect network externalities (perceived com-
plementarity) on switching intention in a mobile PCSS context.
Particularly, for our study we developed the perceived com-
plementarity measurement items to fit mobile PCSSs, because com-
plementarity may differ in this context from its meanings in other on-
line services such as IM, SNS, or online auctions for example. These
validated measurement items can be used in future mobile PCSS stu-
dies.
Fifth, our study enriches the knowledge base on perceived com-
patibility in the context of mobile PCSSs. Although the literature (van
Rijnsoever et al., 2009) has consistently shown that perceived com-
patibility can be considered from both technical and lifestyle perspec-
tives and that the two constructs differ from each other, studies on the
different effects of technical and lifestyle compatibility are still rare.
Ours might be one of the earlier studies to aim at understanding the
S. Cheng et al.
differences between the effects of technical and lifestyle compatibility
on switching behavior in the mobile PCSS context.
Finally, our study contributes to the knowledge on switching costs
in a mobile PCSS context. In a previous study on switching cloud sto-
rage platforms, Wu et al. (2017) did not consider learning cost as one of
the formative factors for switching cost as a second-order construct; it is
possible that because the functions are similar among different plat-
forms, Wu et al. did not focus on mobile PCSSs whose functions and
services are richer and different from each other. However, we in-
corporated learning cost as a switching cost to fit mobile PCSSs, and our
results suggest that although learning cost played a less important role
than the other three switching costs, its effect on switching cost was still
significant. Thus, learning cost cannot be overlooked as a component of
switching costs in the mobile PCSS context.
In sum, we believe our work contributes to building a more com-
prehensive understanding of voluntary switching of mobile PCSSs
through our examining the antecedents of switching intention and their
effects on users’ switching decisions.
6.2. Practical implications
This study also offers several practical implications for mobile PCSS
providers.
First, our results confirmed that the intention to switch from one's
incumbent mobile PCSS to another can be influenced by the different
levels of privacy and security risk, and mobile PCSS providers can de-
velop sensitive privacy and security mechanisms for different levels of
tolerance for breaches. In addition, mobile PCSS providers must be able
to provide more comprehensive protection mechanisms and other as-
sistance measures (e.g., on-line personal assistance) to protect users'
personal files and information stored in the cloud so that users do not
have to concern themselves with such security and privacy breaches.
For example, mobile PCSS providers can implement free encryption
mechanism for users to encrypt the files stored in the cloud. Moreover,
notification mechanism can be implemented so that mobile PCSS pro-
viders might be able to notify users in timely manner (via SMS or e-
mail) when their files in the cloud are attempted to access by any
strange device.
Second, in terms of network externalities, it is not possible for
mobile PCSS providers to directly control referent network size, but
they could influence perceived complementarity by adding ancillary
functions to platforms. For example, providers can enhance interactions
and exchanges between members of social circles by sponsoring in-
centives and promotional activities to intensify users' intention to
switch to their PCSSs. For example, a mobile PCSS user could share the
advertisement provided by the provider with a friend through other
ways such as SNS, SMS, E-mail. They can then obtain corresponding
rewards (such as e-voucher, etc.) after the friend joins the cloud service
through the advertisement. With respect to total network size, we found
that its effect on switching intention was fully mediated by perceived
usefulness, meaning that total network size did not directly influence
switching intention but did so through the effects of usefulness. Thus,
for mobile PCSS, the size of the platform's user group also is an im-
portant factor to attract users.
Third, in terms of innovation diffusion attributes, we found that the
effect of perceived simplicity on switching intention was fully mediated
by perceived usefulness, meaning, again, that perceived simplicity af-
fected switching intention not directly but through the effects of use-
fulness. Thus, mobile PCSS providers may want to improve users' per-
ceptions of their services' simplicity by making it easy to navigate
through menus, select titles, and manage the personal files stored
through their services. Mobile PCSS providers must clearly focus on
usefulness as the most important pull factor in switching intention, and
they can utilize advances in technology to facilitate the convenience,
enjoyment, and performance of using their mobile PCSSs. For instance,
mobile PCSS providers can offer more ancillary functions and services
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Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215
(e.g., full text search, automatic file classification, more file preview
support, detailed shared file permissions control, file strongbox, etc.),
through which users would perceive the usefulness of their PCSSs, thus
increasing potential users' willingness to switch. Furthermore, they
need to optimize their mobile PCSS functionalities to be compatible
well with existing mobile devices, mobile OSs, and legacy apps. In
terms of lifestyle compatibility, mobile PCSS providers should match
their services to users' needs so they become integral parts of users'
everyday lives. Our findings also suggest that mobile PCSSs can achieve
superior hedonic attributes. Therefore, to retain their existing users and
attract more potential users, mobile PCSS providers should consider
more customized strategies and add playfulness elements that enhance
users’ perceived enjoyment, especially to services intended for young
adults (20–29 years).
Finally, our findings suggested that habit negatively influenced
users' switching intentions. Therefore, it is imperative for mobile PCSS
providers to weaken new users' old habits and develop their habitual
usage of the providers' own mobile PCSSs based on the three major
antecedents of habit development identified by Limayem, Hirt, and
Cheung (2007), such as frequent repetition of the behavior in question,
the extent of satisfaction with the outcomes of the behavior, and rela-
tively stable contexts. Our study suggests that mobile PCSS providers
can offer attractive packages for new users in the initial stages of joining
a mobile PCSS to encourage users to repeatedly use the service; for
example, providers can offer rewards for continued service usage such
as extra storage space or e-shopping certificates. Users' satisfaction with
a new mobile PCSS will strengthen their habituation toward using the
new services. In terms of switching cost, which also had a negative
relationship with users' switching intention, of the four first-order fac-
tors, continuity had the greatest influence (0.376), followed by setup
(0.345), evaluation (0.327), and learning (0.291) costs. Thus, to reduce
new users' continuity costs for switching from their incumbent mobile
PCSS, mobile PCSS providers can offer product demos or feature com-
parisons with the existing services to promote that the features of in-
cumbent mobile PCSSs are supported in the new one. It is important to
know that it is the more useful features in a new mobile PCSS that give
users a reason to switch. For setup cost, mobile PCSS providers can also
reduce new users' setup costs by simplifying their account setup pro-
cesses and increasing the initial speed of file uploads. For evaluation
cost, providers can show new users a brief description of the superiority
of their product's performance and comparison with other products,
along with quick trial demo guides, to reduce users' time and effort in
evaluating new product performance. For setup cost, mobile PCSS
providers can simplify their account setup processes and increase the
initial speed of file uploads to reduce new users' setup costs. For eva-
luation cost, providers can show new users a brief description of the
superiority of their product's performance and comparison with other
products, along with quick trial demo guides, to reduce users' time and
effort in evaluating new product performance. For learning cost, mobile
PCSS providers can offer simple and detailed product operation video
introductions to decrease the time and effort costs of using their ser-
vices effectively.
7. Limitations and future research
As with all research, our study also has certain limitations despite a
carefully designed plan executed with prudence.
First, the sample population was restricted to China. Considering
that the factors that affect users’ mobile PCSS switching intentions may
vary in different countries, cultures, or regions, it would be desirable to
conduct cross-cultural investigations on this subject from a global
perspective. Studies on cultural differences in switching behavior
should provide cross-cultural references for mobile PCSS companies to
cater to different individuals. Further, most respondents in this study
(56.7%) were aged 20–29 years, and thus whether the conclusions here
can be applied to other users also needs to be further investigated in
S. Cheng et al. Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215

future research.
Second, we constructed the dependent variable to measure
switching intention rather than actual behavior. Because it is not ne-
cessary for users to completely stop using their incumbent mobile PCSSs
if they switch to an alternative, there may be a gradual transition period
during which users intend to try the new service while simultaneously
using the incumbent one. Our research is limited to multi mobile PCSSs
users who have not terminated the current service. In addition, because
this variable measured self-reported intention, readers are cautioned
not to generalize the findings as an assurance of actual switching.
Future research can simultaneously consider the switching intention
and actual behavior of mobile PCSSs users for comparing the predictors
of them, which can help mobile PCSS providers more accurately grasp
the users’ switching intention and behavior and formulate the corre-
sponding strategies.
Finally, the current study focused on free-users of mobile PCSSs, and
as such we did not consider the financial aspect of potential switching
costs. As the number of paid users increases, future research may need
to pay close attention to the financial loss aspect, such as VIP monthly
or annual expenses for using the dedicated functions and services of
mobile PCSSs to explore the switching behavior of paid users who are
inclined to switch.

Appendix A. Summary of prior studies on predicting IT switching.

Study Context PPM Predictors of switching (push, pull, or mooring following the PPM framework)

Push Pull Mooring

Ranganathan, Seo, and Babad (2006) Mobile service No Relational investments (service usage, relationship duration service bundling)
Kim, Shin, and Lee (2006) Email No Satisfaction (design, stability, spam blocking, storage capacity), Setup cost, Continuity cost,
Availability of attractive alternatives
Ye et al. (2008) Web browser No Breadth of use, Satisfaction, User experience, Relative advantage, Perceived relative ease of use,
Perceived relative security, Computer self-efficacy, Social influence, Risk aversion
Cheng et al. (2009) SNS Yes Dissatisfaction (tech- Attraction (attractiveness, peer in- Switching costs (setup cost,
nical quality, infor- fluence) continuity cost)
mation quality, com-
munity support,
member policy),
Zhang, Lee, Cheung, and Chen (2009) Blog No Satisfaction, Sunk costs, Attractive alternatives
Chuang (2011) Mobile phone No Subscriber satisfaction (customer service, call quality), Attractive alternative, Switching costs
(procedural, financial, relational), Habit
Hou, Chern, Chen, and Chen (2011) Online gaming Yes Low enjoyment, Low Attractiveness Low switching costs, Weak so-
satisfaction, cial relationships, High need for
Insufficient partici- variety, Prior switching experi-
pants ence
Ye and Potter (2011) Web browser Yes Satisfaction Relative advantage, Perceived re- Subjective norms, Switching
lative ease of use, Perceived rela- costs, Habit
tive security
Hsieh, Hsieh, and Feng (2011) Blog to SNS No Switching cost, Relative Usefulness, Effectiveness of expression, Relative Playfulness,
Subjective norms, Prior behavior
Hsieh et al. (2012) Blog to SNS Yes Weak connection, Enjoyment, Relative Usefulness, Past switching experience
Writing anxiety, Relative Ease of use
Switching cost
Lai, Debbarma, and Ulhas (2012) Online shopping (PC to mobile) Yes Inconvenience Peer influence, Alternative attrac- High switching cost, Low trust,
tiveness Low security and privacy
Bhattacherjee et al. (2012) Web browser No Satisfaction, Habit, Relative advantage
Lin, Cheng, Wang, and Chang (2012) Online auction No Switching costs (procedural, financial, relational), Design qualities, Information qualities,
Network effects (size, future expectation), Cost advantage
Choi, Jung, and Lee (2013) SNS (Local to global) No Switching cost, Sunk cost, Size of social network, Expected benefit, Entertainment, Cultural
differences, Curiosity, Self-expression, Relationship maintenance
Xu, Li, and Heikkilä (2013) Social network games No Satisfaction, Subjective norms, Attractiveness, Need for variety
Park and Ryoo (2013) Microsoft Office to Google Apps No Expected switching costs (satisfaction with and breadth of use of incumbent IT), Expected
switching benefits (omnipresence, collaboration support), Social Influence, Personal innova-
tiveness
Wu, Tao, Li, Wang, and Chiu (2014) SNS No Satisfaction, Switching barriers
Fei and Bo (2014) SNS Yes Dissatisfaction (tech- Socialization value, Social image Switching costs (lost perfor-
nical quality, infor- value, mance, uncertainty, pre-
mation quality, com- Escapism value, Self-improvement switching searching and eva-
munity support, value, Entertainment value, luation, post-switching beha-
member policies) Information-seeking value vioral and cognitive costs, setup
cost, sunk cost)
Chang et al. (2014) SNS Yes Regret, Attractiveness Switching costs (sunk, setup,
Dissatisfaction continuity)
Hsu (2014) Smartphone No Satisfaction, Switching benefits (price, quality, social, emotional), Switching value, Switching
costs (uncertainty, sunk, transition, loss)
Tseng and Teng (2014) Online auction No Procedural switching cost, Financial switching cost, Relational switching cost, Usefulness, Ease
of use, Enjoyment, Network externality
Lin and Huang (2014) Smartphone (between android Yes Disconfirmation, Low Relative advantage Inertia, Switching cost, Network
and iPhone) satisfaction effects, Unfavorable subjective
norms
Bhattacherjee and Park (2014) Traditional IT to cloud computing Yes Dissatisfaction, Relative Usefulness, Switching cost
Omnipresence,
Security concerns, Subjective
norms

211
S. Cheng et al. Computers in Human Behavior 92 (2019) 198–215

Goode (2015) Cloud storage service
Yao, Phang, and Ling (2015) SNS
Lai and Wang (2015) Cloud healthcare service
Zhou (2016a) Mobile store
Zhou (2016b) Store (online to mobile)
Peng et al. (2016) Mobile instant messaging
Lim and Choi (2017) SNS
Fang and Tang (2017) MSN messenger
Sun et al. (2017) Mobile instant messaging
Wu et al. (2017) Cloud storage service
Chang, Wong, and Li (2017) Shopping channel (physical to
mobile)
No Usefulness, Satisfaction, and service quality
No Switching costs, Overload, Dissatisfaction, Social monitoring concerns, Attractiveness, Peer
influence, Trend-seeking tendency
Yes Low satisfaction, Low Ubiquitous care, Responsiveness, Habit, Low trust, Low govern-
commitment Personalized care ment support, Low privacy and
security, Low switching costs
Yes Dissatisfaction with Alternative attractiveness Switching costs, Social influ-
system quality, infor- ence
mation, service
quality
No Switching barriers, Trust transfer, Flow
No Networks of obligation, Transfer trust, Functional deprivation, Monetary deprivation
No Stress (privacy, social overload, social comparison, biased opinion), Avoidance coping,
Approach coping (active coping, support seeking, emotional venting)
Yes Regret Referent network size, Future ex- Switching costs (setup cost,
(Dissatisfaction with pectations, Perceived complemen- continuity cost)
technical and infor- tarity, Perceived compatibility,
mation quality of the Similarity, Innovativeness,
migration plan) Enjoyment, Ease of Use,
Convenience
Yes Fatigue, Alternative attractiveness, Inertia (affective commitment,
Dissatisfaction Subjective norm switching costs, habit)
Yes Perceived risk (so- Transfer trust, Critical mass Low switching costs (search and
cial, performance, fi- evaluation, setup, continuity),
nancial, time, Favorable social norms toward
privacy, psycholo- the substitute
gical)
Yes Information Attractiveness and perceived Self-efficacy, Switching costs
searching (benefits of quality of mobile store (procedural, relational)
search, costs of
search), Perceived
value (service
quality, price)

Appendix B. Measurement items.

Constructs items Loadings

Perceived privacy risk (PPR) (Kim, Steinfield, & Lai, 2008) (AVE = 0.794; CR = 0.920; Cronbach's α = 0.887)
I am worried that my data stored in the incumbent mobile PCSS …
PPR1 will be used by my incumbent mobile PCSS provider without my authorization. 0.889∗∗∗
PPR2 will be recorded or monitored by my incumbent mobile PCSS provider without my authorization. 0.919∗∗∗
PPR3 will be sold to some profit-seeking organizations by my incumbent mobile PCSS provider without my authorization. 0.864∗∗∗
Perceived security risk (PSR) (Shin, 2010) (AVE = 0.798; CR = 0.922; Cronbach's α = 0.901)
I am worried that …
PSR1 my incumbent mobile PCSS provider does not implement security measures to protect my stored data. 0.908∗∗∗
PSR2 my incumbent mobile PCSS provider does not have effective mechanisms to ensure that my data are protected from being altered or destroyed accidentally 0.875∗∗∗
during transmission and storing.
PSR3 my data stored in the incumbent mobile PCSS will be manipulated by unauthorized third parties such as hackers. 0.897∗∗∗
Referent network size (RNS) (Fang & Tang, 2017) (AVE = 0.757; CR = 0.904; Cronbach's α = 0.835)
RNS1 A large percentage of my friends are using the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.847∗∗∗
RNS2 Most of my peers (at work or school) are using the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.861∗∗∗
RNS3 A large percentage of my personal circle are using the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.902∗∗∗
Total network size (TNS) (Lin & Lu, 2011) (AVE = 0.823; CR = 0.933; Cronbach's α = 0.921)
TNS1 I think a good number of people use the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.918∗∗∗
TNS2 I think most people are using the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.897∗∗∗
TNS3 I think there will still be many people joining the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.906∗∗∗
Perceived complementarity (PC; developed by the authors) (AVE = 0.762; CR = 0.906; Cronbach's α = 0.848)
PC1 a wide range of applications is available on the substitute mobile PCSS (e.g., music player, video player, PDF reader, MS Office apps). 0.916∗∗∗
PC2 a wide range of supporting tools is available on the substitute mobile PCSS (e.g., file sharing and space sharing channels). 0.865∗∗∗
PC3 a wide range of friend-finding tools is available on the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.836∗∗∗
Perceived simplicity (PS) (Davis, 1989) (AVE = 0.803; CR = 0.925; Cronbach's α = 0.909)
PS1 Learning to operate the substitute mobile PCSS would be easy for me. 0.915∗∗∗
PS2 It would be easy for me to become skillful at using the substitute mobile PCSS. 0.904∗∗∗
PS3 I find that the substitute mobile PCSS is easy to use. 0.869∗∗∗
Perceived usefulness (PU) (Davis, 1989) (AVE = 0.810; CR = 0.927; Cronbach's α = 0.911)
Using the substitute mobile PCSS …
PU1 would more improve my performance in file management than using the incumbent. 0.935∗∗∗
PU2 would more improve my effectiveness in file management than using the incumbent. 0.899∗∗∗
PU3 is easier for managing my personal data than using the incumbent. 0.863∗∗∗
Perceived technical compatibility (PTC; developed by authors) (AVE = 0.815; CR = 0.930; Cronbach's α = 0.917)
The substitute mobile PCSS is compatible with …
PTC1 my mobile devices hardware (smartphone, PAD, etc.), such as NFC, Bluetooth, camera, screen resolution. 0.897∗∗∗
PTC2 my mobile devices' legacy OS, such as PCSS app halt or crash, mobile OS halt, function of mobile OS. 0.917∗∗∗
PTC3 my mobile devices' legacy applications, such as the jump between PCSS app and other applications (QQ, WeChat, email, blog, browser, etc.) associated with 0.894∗∗∗
functionality.
Perceived lifestyle compatibility (PLC) (Moore & Benbasat, 1991) (AVE = 0.747; CR = 0.898; Cronbach's α = 0.821)
The substitute mobile PCSS …

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S. Cheng et al.
PLC1 is compatible with all aspects of my life.
PLC2 fits into my lifestyle.
PLC3 fits with the way I like to live.
Perceived enjoyment (PE) (Hsieh et al., 2012) (AVE = 0.810; CR = 0.928; Cronbach's α = 0.914)
PE1 Using the substitute mobile PCSS gives me enjoyment.
PE2 Using the substitute mobile PCSS gives me fun.
PE3 Using the substitute mobile PCSS keeps me happy.
Habit (HAB) (Sun et al., 2017) (AVE = 0.77; CR = 0.913; Cronbach's α = 0.871)
HAB1 Using the incumbent mobile PCSS has become automatic to me.
HAB2 Using the incumbent mobile PCSS is natural to me.
HAB3 When I need to use a mobile PCSS, the incumbent is an obvious choice for me.
Continuity cost (COC) (Burnham et al., 2003) (AVE = 0.825; CR = 0.934; Cronbach's α = 0.924)
COC1 The incumbent mobile PCSS provides me with particular privileges I would not receive elsewhere.
COC2 By continuing to use the incumbent mobile PCSS, I receive certain benefits that I would not receive if I switched to a new one.
COC3 There are certain benefits I would not retain if I were to switch from my incumbent mobile PCSS.
Evaluation cost (EVC) (Burnham et al., 2003) (AVE = 0.772; CR = 0.910; Cronbach's α = 0.854)
EVC1 It will cost me a great deal of time and effort to find a suitable mobile PCSS.
EVC2 I will need some time to experience and evaluate a substitute mobile PCSS.
EVC3 It will take me some time to finally decide to choose another mobile PCSS.
Learning cost (LEC) (Burnham et al., 2003) (AVE = 0.818; CR = 0.931; Cronbach's α = 0.919)
LEC1 Learning to use the features offered by the substitute mobile PCSS provider as well as I use my incumbent mobile PCSS would take time.
LEC2 Getting used to how the substitute mobile PCSS works would be difficult.
LEC3 Even after switching, it would take effort to “get up to speed” with the substitute mobile PCSS.
Setup cost (SEC) (Burnham et al., 2003) (AVE = 0.843; CR = 0.941; Cronbach's α = 0.927)
SEC1 Setting a new account in another mobile PCSS platform will take much time.
SEC2 Moving my files to a new mobile PCSS platform is annoying.
SEC3 Moving files between different mobile PCSS platforms will take me much effort.
Switching intention (SWI) (Wu et al., 2017) (AVE = 0.802; CR = 0.942; Cronbach's α = 0.931)
SWI1 I prefer to consider the substitute mobile PCSS my primary mobile PCSS platform.
SWI2 I am considering increasing time on the substitute mobile PCSS and decreasing time on my incumbent mobile PCSS.
SWI3 The likelihood that I will switch to the substitute mobile PCSS is high.
SWI4 I am determined to switch to use the substitute mobile PCSS.
∗∗∗
p < 0.001.
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