M.

Alif Prizarky
04011381419173
Gamma

I. Body Fluids

A. Fluid Compartments

 Intracellular Fluid (ICF) - fluid found in the cells (cytoplasm, nucleoplasm) comprises
60% of all body fluids.
 Extracellular Fluid (ECF) - all fluids found outside the cells, comprises 40% of all body
fluids
1. Interstitial Fluid - 80% of ECF is found in localized areas: lymph, cerebrospinal
fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous
humor and vitreous body of eyes, between serous and visceral membranes,
glomerular filtrate of kidneys.
2. Blood Plasma - 20% of ECF found in circulatory system

B. Composition of Body Fluids

 Water is a universal solvent and dissolves various ionic and covalent bonded compounds
that are classified as either an electrolyte or nonelectrolyte
 Nonelectrolytes contain covalent bonds that prevent them form dissociating in solution
and therefore have no electrical charge (egs. glucose, lipids, and urea)
 Electrolytes dissociate into ions (ionize) in water; ions are charged particles and conduct
an electrical current
 Electrolyte examples --> Mg+, Na+, Cl-, K+
 Dissolved solutes increase osmotic activity of a fluid; electrolytes have higher osmotic
power than nonelectrolytes because each electrolyte molecule dissociates into at least two
ions
 NaCl ---------> Na+ + Cl-
 MgCl2 ---------> Mg2+ + Cl- + Cl-
 glucose ---------> glucose

II. Electrolyte Balance

A. Role of Sodium in Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

 Sodium most abundant cation in the ECF and is the only one exerting a significant
osmotic pressure
 Sodium does not easily cross cellular membranes, it must be pumped across; therefore,
abundance, osmotic effect, and transport of sodium are controlling factors of ECF volume
and water distribution
  While the sodium content of the body may be altered, its concentration in the ECF
remains stable because of immediate adjustments in water volume; WATER FOLLOWS
SALT
 Because all body fluids are in osmotic equilibrium, a change in plasma sodium levels
affects not only the plasma volume and blood pressure (intravascular compartment), but
also the fluid volumes of the other two compartments (ICF and ECF)

B. Regulation of Sodium Balance (and sodium-water balance, BP, and Blood Volume)

i. Influence of Aldosterone

 75-80% of sodium (NaCl) in renal filtrate is reabsorbed in proximal tubules of kidneys

 Aldosterone aids in actively reabsorbing remaining Na+Cl- in distal convoluted
tubule/collecting tubule by increasing tubule permeability; therefore aldosterone
promotes both sodium and water retention
 Mechanism:
 increase in K or decease in Na in blood plasma renin-angiotensin Mechanism
 stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
 aldosterone targeted towards the kidney tubules
 increase in Na reabsorption increase in K secretion
 restores homeostatic plasma levels of Na and K
 Influences on aldosterone synthesis and release:
 Elevated potassium levels in ECF directly stimulates adrenal cells to secrete
aldosterone
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus of renal tubes release renin in response to:
1. decreased stretch (due to decrease in blood pressure)
2. decreased filtrate osmolarity
3. sympathetic nervous system stimulation

ii. Cardiovascular system

 As blood volume (and pressure) rises, the baroreceptors in the heart and in the large
vessels of the neck and thorax (carotid arteries and aorta) communicate to the
hypothalamus
 Sympathetic nervous system impulses to kidneys decrease, allowing afferent arterioles
to dilate; as the glomerular filtration rate rises, sodium and water output increases
(causing pressure diuresis)
 Reduced blood volume and pressure results

iii. Influence of ADH

 Amount of water reabsorbed in the distal segments of the kidney tubules is proportional
to ADH release (increase in ADH secretion = increase in water resorption)
 Osmoreceptors of the hypothalamus sense the ECF solute concentrations and trigger or
inhibit ADH release from the pituitary
 Mechanism:
  decrease in sodium concentration in plasma (decreased osmolarity)
 stimulates osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
 stimulates posterior pituitary to release ADH
 ADH targeted toward distal and collecting tubules of kidney
 the effect is increased water resorption
 plasma volume increases, osmolarity decreases
 scant urine produced

iv. Influence of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF)

 Reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting nearly all events that promote
vasoconstriction and sodium and water retention
 In essence, inhibits ADH and Aldosterone production

C. Regulation of Potassium Balance

 Potassium is the chief intracellular cation

 Relative intracellular-extracellular potassium concentrations directly affects a cell's
resting membrane potential, therefore a slight change on either side of the membrane has
profound effects (egs. on neurons and muscle fibers)
 Potassium is part of the body's buffer system, which resists changes in pH of body fluids;
ECF potassium levels rise with acidosis (decrease pH) as potassium leave cells and fall
with alkalosis (increase pH) as potassium moves into cells
 Potassium balance is maintained primarily by renal mechanisms (i.e. influenced by
Aldosterone)
 Potassium reabsorption from the filtrate is constant - 10-15% is lost in urine regardless of
need; because potassium content of ECF is low (compared to sodium concentration),
potassium balance os accomplished by changing amount of potassium secreted into the
filtrate; therefore regulated by collecting tubules

D. Regulation of Calcium Balance

 99% of calcium found in bones as an apatite

 Calcium needed for blood clotting, nerve transmission, enzyme activation, etc...
 Calcium ion concentration is regulated by interaction of two hormones: parathyroid
hormone and calcitonin
 Calcium ion homeostasis: effects of PTH and calcitonin
 PTH - released by the parathyroid cells, promotes increase in blood calcium
levels by targeting...
 Bones - PTH activates osteoclasts, which breakdown the matrix
 Small intestines - PTH enhances intestinal absorption of calcium ions
indirectly by stimulating the kidneys to transform vitamin D to its active
form which is a necessary cofactor for calcium absorption
 Kidneys - PTH increases calcium reabsorption by renal tubes while
simultaneously decreasing phosphate ion reabsorption
  Calcitonin - targets bone to encourage deposition of calcium salts and inhibits
bone reabsorption (therefore an antagonist of PTH and decreases blood calcium
levels)

E. Other Major Electrolytes: Magnesium and Chloride

 Magnesium - cation, cofactor of many enzymes and is need for both sodium-potassium
pump and calcium ion channel function
 Chloride - anion, part of hydrochloric acid (chemical digestion) and involved in chemical
digestion and blood chemistry (e.g. chloride shift in oxygen/carbon dioxide circulation)

ELECTROLYTE DISTRIBUTION
Extracellular Intracellular
Electrolyte Function
meq/liter meq/liter
Sodium 142 10 Fluid balance, osmotic
pressure
Potassium 5 100 Neuromuscular excitability
acid-base balance
Calcium 5 - Bones, blood clotting
Magnesium 2 123 Enzymes
Total Positive ions 154 205

ELECTROLYTE DISTRIBUTION
Extracellular Intracellular
Electrolyte Function
meq/liter meq/liter
Chloride 105 2 Fluid balance, osmotic
pressure
Bicarbonate 24 8 Acid-base balance
Proteins 16 55 Osmotic pressure
Phosphate 2 149 Energy storage
Sulfate 1 - Protein metabolism
Total Negative ions 154 205
 Minerals are important nutrients found in foods. Alone, they are inactive chemical elements,
whether in a rock as calcium or in a cast iron pan. But in the body they become operational, either
structurally as bone, for example, or functionally as an electrolyte or hormone. Minerals are the most
permanent part of a living organism, responsible for muscle responses, the transmission of messages
through the nervous system, the maintenance of pH and the metabolism of food. Because the body is
unable to manufacture them, minerals must come from the diet.
The body needs many minerals; these are called essential minerals. Essential minerals are sometimes
divided up into major minerals (macrominerals, body requires more than 100mg/day) and trace minerals
(microminerals, body requires less than 100 mg/day). These two groups of minerals are equally
important. The amounts needed in the body are not an indication of their importance.

 Macrominerals

Mineral Function Sources

Sodium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve
transmission, and muscle contraction
Chloride Needed for proper fluid balance, stomach acid
Potassium Needed for proper fluid balance, nerve
transmission, and muscle contraction
Calcium Important for healthy bones and teeth; helps
muscles relax and contract; important in nerve
functioning, blood clotting, blood pressure
regulation, immune system health
Phosphorus Important for healthy bones and teeth; found in
every cell; part of the system that maintains
acid-base balance
Magnesium Found in bones; needed for making protein,
muscle contraction, nerve transmission, immune
system health
Sulfur Found in protein molecules
Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts
in processed foods; small amounts in
milk, breads, vegetables, and
unprocessed meats
Table salt, soy sauce; large amounts
in processed foods; small amounts in
milk, meats, breads, and vegetables
Meats, milk, fresh fruits and
vegetables, whole grains, legumes
Milk and milk products; canned fish
with bones (salmon, sardines);
fortified tofu and fortified soy milk;
greens (broccoli, mustard greens);
legumes
Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
processed foods (including soda pop)
Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy,
green vegetables; seafood; chocolate;
artichokes; "hard" drinking water
Occurs in foods as part of protein:
meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk,
legumes, nuts
  Trace minerals (microminerals)

Mineral Function Sources

Iron Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found in red Organ meats; red meats; fish;
blood cells that carries oxygen in the body; poultry; shellfish (especially clams);
needed for energy metabolism egg yolks; legumes; dried fruits;
dark, leafy greens; iron-enriched
breads and cereals; and fortified
cereals
Zinc Part of many enzymes; needed for making Meats, fish, poultry, leavened whole
protein and genetic material; has a function in grains, vegetables
taste perception, wound healing, normal fetal
development, production of sperm, normal
growth and sexual maturation, immune system
health
Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, which helps regulate Seafood, foods grown in iodine-rich
growth, development, and metabolism soil, iodized salt, bread, dairy
products
Selenium Antioxidant Meats, seafood, grains
Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for iron Legumes, nuts and seeds, whole
metabolism grains, organ meats, drinking water
Fluoride Involved in formation of bones and teeth; helps Drinking water (either fluoridated or
prevent tooth decay naturally containing fluoride), fish,
and most teas
Chromium Works closely with insulin to regulate blood Unrefined foods, especially liver,
sugar (glucose) levels brewer's yeast, whole grains, nuts,
cheeses
Molybdenum Part of some enzymes Legumes; breads and grains; leafy
greens; leafy, green vegetables; milk;
liver

Daily Requirements

Minerals cannot be made in the body and must be obtained in our diet. The daily requirements of
minerals required by the body can be obtained from a well balanced diet but, like vitamins,
excess minerals can produce toxic effects.

Minerals Men Women

Calcium 700 mg 700 mg
Iodine 0.14mg 0.14mg
Iron 8.7mg 14.8mg
Beta-carotene 7mg 7mg
Boron <6mg <6mg
Chromium 0.025mg 0.025mg
Cobalt 0.0015mg 0.0015mg
Copper 1.2mg 1.2mg
 Magnesium 300mg 270mh
Manganese <0.5mg <0.5mg
Phosphorus 550mg 550mg
Potassium 3,500mg 3,500mg
Selenium 0.075mg 0.06mg
Sodium Chloride <6g <6g
(salt)
Zinc 9mg 7mg

Problem Analysis

5. How does dehydration lead to fatigue?

When dehydrated, the fluid loss causes a drop in blood volume, which makes the heart work
harder to push oxygen and nutrients through the bloodstream to the brain, skin, and muscles

Sources:
http://www.highlands.edu/academics/divisions/scipe/biology/faculty/harnden/2122/notes/fluelect.htm
http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/250fluidbal.html
http://www.austincc.edu/apreview/EmphasisItems/Electrolytefluidbalance.html#elecbalance
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/minerals_their_functions_and_sources-health/article_em.htm
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/minerals.htm#ref