AP Review #6: Nation States (Ch. 22) & Mass Society (Ch.

23)
Nation States: 1850-1871 (The “Age of Realism”)
Crimean War: 1853-56
 Causes: Russia wants to occupy the Ottoman Empire; OE declares war after RUS entered and tried to
intervene in the protection of Christian shrines in Palestine; GB/FR declare war on RUS (to protect the
balance of power and defend their interests in the E Med)
 Austria & Prussia stay neutral; high death toll; poorly fought; first professional nurses (F Nightingale)
 Treaty of Paris (1856): RUS had to surrender territory & protection rights in the OE, recognized the
neutrality of Black Sea; Concert of Europe was dissolved (Aus & Rus became enemies)
Italian Unification
 Unification movement strengthened under leadership of Count Cavour (PM of Piedmont) who advocated
constitutional monarchy; sought the help of Nap III to fight against Austria (proved not very helpful) but
nationalism grew stronger; eventually Northern Italy would be unified by Piedmont
 In the South, Garibaldi led the Red Shirt Army & marched up the peninsula; they wanted to invade the Papal
States (being protected by FR) but Cavour convinced them not to; Garibaldi accepts the leadership of Victor
Immanuel II, and the Kingdom of Piedmont ruled all of Italy (except Papal States)
 When FR left the Papal States, they were annexed into Italy and the capital became Rome
German Unification
 Unity came through membership in the Zollverein (trade union that facilitated trade b/t the GR states) and
Bismarck was tasked with quieting calls for liberal reform
 Bismarck used realpolitik (the politics of reality) in which decisions are made on everyday reality (versus
ethics/morality); he was an extremely crafty politican that allowed his enemies to “win” at times if he
thought it best for the good of the state; launched an aggressive foreign policy campaign in order to distract
domestic liberals; believed that GR would be unified through “iron and blood”
 Unification came through THREE wars and resulted in the creation of the North German Confederation and
the emergence of William I as emperor of Germany and espoused militarism combined with authoritarian
rule. Nationalism won out over liberalism!
o War with Denmark (1864): held many GR-speaking nationalities in Schleswig/Hollstein and
refused to turn them over completely to Denmark; Prussia won
o Austro-Prussian War (1866): Austria still area of contention as some wanted it included in unified
GR; others, including Bismarck, did not; Austrian defeat ousts them from unification
o Franco-Prussian War (1870): Bismarck knows France stood in way of GR unification so tricked Nap
III to declare war on GR (Ems Telegram) that way GR appears to just be defending itself; Prussian
army blasted the French; Paris and Nap III were captured; France paid indemnity and relinquished
Alsace and Lorraine (2 valued territories) to Germany
Austrian Reforms
 Rise of an urban proletariat put pressure on authoritarian rule of the Hapsburgs; military defeat in Italy
and Prussia also increased calls for reform.
 Response was the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary (Compromise of 1867 or Augsleich)
and prompted Czechs and other nationalities to be granted autocratic rule
Russian Reforms
 Defeat in Crimean War showed that Russia was continuing to lag behind the Western powers.
 Tsar Alexander II (“Great Liberator”) abolished serfdom in 1861, created local gov’t assemblies, Zemstovs,
which were allowed limited self-government.
 Violence against Russian officials grew and culminated in the assassination of Alex II by The People’s Will;
his son and successor, Alexander III reverted to repressive policies as a result

2nd French Empire (1852-70)

 France voted Louis Napoleon to rule as emperor (reminded them of the glory under Napoleon)
 Napoleon III considered “first modern dictator” and served as a model to other authoritarian rulers
  Succeeded domestically (helped industrialized FR; redesign of Paris, implemented urban infrastructure to
advance public health) BUT failed in foreign affairs (Mexico, Italy, Franco-Prussian War ends in his capture by
Bismarck)…THIRD Republic created in his place
Marxist Socialism Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital
 Origins: educated in radical politics/economics; exiled; teamed up with Engels (whose father owned a factory;
The Conditions of the Working Class in England- an expose of industrial life);
 Differed from utopians in that he rejected reform and called for an all-out revolution of the over the
bourgeoisie (“working men of the world unite…”) b/c current political framework not strong enough to bring
about successful reforms…radical revolution the only solution!!
 Basis of conflict is social disparity (capitalism to blame) so argued for the creation of a classless society, one in
which no class benefits at the expense of another)
 Led to establishment of the First International (organization to strengthen socialism across national borders &
promoted the interests of working-class organizations for the first time)

Mass Society: The “Age of Progress”

2nd half of 19th c. is characterized by the 2nd Industrial Revolution, which led to the creation of ‘mass society’ and ‘mass
politics.’ Many thought progress would result from new technology (fixing problems that plagued the continent for
centuries) & gov’ts became receptive to liberal policies & took larger role in lives of their citizens.
2nd Industrial Revolution Dominated by chemicals, electricity, oil (not coal/textile like the 1st)
 Improved technology (i.e. Bessemer Process) led to even faster/increased industrial production; overseas
markets will be flooded with European goods; creation of the modern consumer economy with the increase of
real wages (made possible by cheaper production of goods)
 By 1870, Germany surpassed GB as leading industrial power (emphasis on domestic goods and use of high
protective tariffs aided by increased innovative efforts)
 Job opportunities were created for women with the invention of white-collar jobs (secretaries, sales clerks,
tellers, etc) and prostitution was still high as young girls searched for opportunities in cities
Mass Society Social disparity still a large issue to contend with, but mass education resulted in the virtual
elimination of adult illiteracy by the turn of the century and improved urban transportation fed recreational activities
to city centers; professional sports inspired nationalism and recreational tourism beyond one’s country helped spur
economies
 Population growth: 1850= 266 million & 1910= 447 million; massive emigration (Europeanization of the
world; America becomes “melting pot”); rural and urban areas could not sustain this rapid growth. Urban areas
were left with a high supply of workers struggling to find work; led to increased demands for the gov’t to solve
urban problems (sanitation, over crowing, etc.); many cities were rebuilt as a result (ex. Paris, London, Vienna)
 Upper Class: (5%) emergence of the bourgeoisie creates competition with traditional aristocrats; will merge to
form a new elite (income from landed estates decreased as industrial wealth increased)
 Middle Class: (15%) diverse group (white collar, professionals) who valued hard work; most employed
domestic servants and lived outside the city (suburbs); leisure activities (for children also) expanded; concept
of the “weekend” began; inspired working class to imitate life-style & values
 Lower Class: (80%) trade unions evolved into political parties (GR SPD) and promoted socialist policies to
better the lives of the working class; benefitted greatly from universal primary education
 Women: separate spheres still practiced as women were in charge of managing households and men worked
outside the home; this shifted from economic necessity as practiced in the previous century; wages still the
property of her father/husband and legally considered ‘minors’ and to be obedient; wages and skill level of jobs
were kept low; divorce very difficult; little sexual reproductive rights