Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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The Idea of City and City Planning
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Learning Objective
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RELATED THEORIES .
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2. TO DEVELOP UNDERSTANDING OF CITY PLANNING AS WELL AS CITY
MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND THEIR RELEVANCE .
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3. TO EXPLORE THE CONCEPTS OF LIVABLE AND SUSTAINABLE THEIR
IMPORTANCE IN URBAN DEVELOPMENT .
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4. TO DEVELOP A THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING ABOUT URBANIZATION
PATTERNS AND POTENTIALS OF INDIAN CITIES .
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The Idea of City and City Planning 2015
Table of Contents
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1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 5
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1.1.1 Background and concept ..................................................................................................... 5
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1.1.1.1 Historical Perspective and definition............................................................................... 5
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1.1.3 Theories of Urbanisation ................................................................................................... 11
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1.1.3.2 Urban Primacy ............................................................................................................... 13
1.2.1
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Priorities of cities ............................................................................................................... 14
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1.5.5 A Challenge: Urban Poverty............................................................................................... 11
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1.1 Introduction
Urbanization is not only associated with economic development but over the time it started
aspiring people to better quality of life. Cities are seen as solutions for boosting economy,
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generating employment, creating skills, providing better health services and many more
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things. Expression of change from being habitat to providing such breadth of services was not
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brought in a day; cities have eventually developed into these dimensions.
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To say a country or region is urbanising implies that it is becoming more urban.
Demographers have interpreted this to mean that a growing share of the population lives in
urban settlements (Poston and Bouvier 2010, pp 307–311), with the level of urbanisation
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being the urban share, and the rate of urbanisation being the annual growth rate of this
urban share (United Nations Population Division 2014).
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Urbanisation is often used more loosely, however, to refer to a broad-based rural-to-urban
transition involving population, land use, economic activity and culture, or indeed any one of
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these. Thus, it is frequently used to refer to changes in land-use for specific areas (usually on
the periphery of urban concentrations) as this land becomes ‘urbanised’ and is sold and
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developed for urban use (e.g. the sale of plots for housing).
It is commonly pointed out that shift from rural to urban should be understood as a
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continuum rather than a dichotomy, but it is not really a continuum either. At the very least,
there are two continua. One extends in a transect from the very urban centre, through the
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ambiguous periphery into the rural hinterland. The second extends across settlement sizes
from the very urban megacity, through the ambiguous small towns and down to the isolated
rural hamlets and farmhouses.
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that people move from rural areas to urban areas. In this process the number of people living
in cities increases compared with the number of people living in rural areas. Natural increase
of urbanization can occur if the natural population growth in the cities is higher than in the
rural areas. This scenario, however, rarely occurs. A country is considered to urbanize when
over 50 per cent of its population live in the urban areas (Long 1998). Other way to
understand it is as; An urban area is spatial concentration of people who are working in non-
agricultural activities. The essential characteristic here is that urban means non-agricultural.
Urban can also be defined as a fairly complex concept. Criteria used to define urban can
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include population size, space, density, and economic organization. Usually, however, urban
is simply defined by some base line size, like 20,000 people. Anyway this definition varies
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alone regions and countries (Long 1998).
To locate the origin of urbanization today, we go back in time to identity the earliest form of
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urban life as beginning in the Middle and Near East. In other words, the oldest urban
communities known in history began approximately 6,000 years ago and later emerged with
the Maya culture in Mexico and in the river basins of China and India. By as early as the
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thirteenth century, the largest cities in the world were the Chinese cities of Chang’an (Xi’an
today) and Hangzhou, which had over one million people. And London didn’t reach one
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million people until the 1700s. However, until the nineteenth century, constrained by the
limits of food supply and the nature of transportation, both the size and share of the world’s
urban population remained very low, with less than three percent of the world’s population
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Sparse and often ambiguous archaeological and historical record (Grauman, 1976) indicates
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that the urban population fluctuated between four and seven percent of total population
from the beginning of the Christian era until about 1850. In that year, out of a world
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population of between 1.2 and 1.3 billion persons, about 80 million or 6.5 percent lived in
urban places. While 80 million was a large number then, they were dispersed over hundreds
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of urban places worldwide. In 1850, only three cities, London, Beijing, and Paris, had more
than a million inhabitants; perhaps 110 cities had more than 100,000 inhabitants (Golden,
1981). Of the 25 largest cities then, 11 were in Europe, eight in East Asia, four in South Asia,
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During the century 1850-1950, there was, for the first time in human history, a major shift in
the urban/rural balance. In his classic work The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century
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(1899), A. Weber provided a historical account for the limited level of urbanization at the
global scale. Only three regions in Great Britain, North-West Europe, and the USA were more
than 20 percent urban in 1890. Urbanization in the first half of the twentieth century
occurred most rapidly and extensively in Europe, the Americas, and Australia. The number of
large cities (city has more than 100,000 inhabitants) in the world increased to 946, and the
largest city – New York—had a population of 2.3 million in 1950, while urbanization
proceeded very slowly in much of the rest of the world. Although only a quarter of the
world’s total population lived in urban places in 1950, urbanization in the developed
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countries had largely reached its peak (Davis, 1965).
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Despite this rapid change, urbanization is not out of control: in terms of population growth
rates, the “worst” is over. Urban population growth rates peaked at 3.7 percent a year in
1950–75 and slowed notably thereafter (National Research Council 2003). Nevertheless,
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given the growing base of people living in cities, annual population increments in absolute
numbers are very large—and to many, alarming. UN projections predict that urban
populations in developing countries will be growing by more than 65 million people a year
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between 2000 and 2030 (UN 2006).
• 3000 BC- several Sumerian city states, with tens of thousands population, witnessed
elaborate religions, political and military class structure, advanced technology and extensive
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trading.
• Cities located on tells, clearly defined man-made settlement mound.
• Ur, a typical Sumerian state capital: Three elements – the walled city, the religious precinct,
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shaped structure.
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2. Egyptian Civilization
• Egyptian civilization, taking form in the Nile Valley and Delta, was a united state.
• Menes, the historic king, founded Memphis in around 3100 BC.
• Comparatively advanced society- reflects through the monumental construction programme
of Great Pyramids- Khufu, Khafre & Mencaure- at Giza.
• Pharaoh reside near the site chosen for his tomb. The place was abandoned after the death
of Pharaoh.
• El-Amarna
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- Linear development along east bank of the Nile
- Not fortified, except walls enclosing temple and palace.
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- Administrative and storage buildings in the centre, with nearby palace, government
offices, barracks.
- Neighborhood units connected to city centre through wide thoroughfares.
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- Houses of all types were found in a single residential quarter.
- Buildings having rectangular plan, is considered to be reason for certain regularity in
overall layout.
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3. Indus Valley Civilization
•
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Excavations reveal the approx. period of civilization around 3000 BC.
• The Indus plains have low rainfall, but have fertile alluvial soil.
• Villages on higher plains around 5000-4000 BC, which later started moving to the flood-plains
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Aryans.
• Earliest known ‘Planned Towns’ in history.
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• Citadel contained neither palace of an absolute ruler, nor any dominating religious buildings.
• Hosts mix of civic-religious purposes: Granaries, administrative offices, large assembly hall,
Great Bath.
Housing
• Entrances from minor lanes, mostly at right angles.
• Single-room tenements to large houses having several rooms and several courtyards.
• flat-roofed, two-story, mud-brick houses lined the streets
• Stairways leading to upper floors, or flat roofs.
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• Most of the houses have bathrooms. Some of the bathrooms on upper floor.
Drainage System
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• An elaborate drainage system which emptied into the river.
• Chief Glory- "only the Romans, more than two thousand years later, had a comparable
drainage system”
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• Clay pipes carried dirty, used water from buildings to the main sewer that ran along the main
streets.
Great Bath
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• One of the largest precinct of the town.
• The pool- 39’ x 23’ in plan, 8’ deep.
•
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Bitumen, and burnt bricks used for waterproofing.
• The structure is likely to be linked with some ritual bathing.
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5. Ancient China
• Settled agriculture followed by towns in middle reaches of Hwang Ho (Yellow River) valley.
• Ancient China is also referred as Shang China.
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• Wall- 4.5 miles long, 30’ high, enclosing 1.5 sq. miles.
• It contained administrative and ceremonial centres.
• Political and religious elite lived in the fortified area.
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• Rather than the concentrating activities in centre-city areas, cities were more diffused.
6. Greece
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• Greek polis, or city-state, did not follow Sumer and Egypt, where power of elite was
magnified at expense of others.
• Cities were more egalitarian.
• Though, the land-owning nobles, merchants and empowered through commercial influence.
• Cities were thriving as trade centres.
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• Principles of Law were sound basis for social conduct.
• Democracy evolved around 500 BC.
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7. Rome
• Civilization was centred, more than any other cultural system ever, on a single city ‘Rome’.
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“Rome! Everything is found here. If something can’t be found here, then it simply doesn’t
exist!”
• Rome contained 1 million pop. at the time of Christ. The empire covered half the world’s
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population for some 500 years.
• More than 50,000 miles of road, connecting Rome to provincial outposts of London, York,
Vienna, Paris, etc.
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• Around 300-200 BC, built 11 separate aqueducts, which could together deliver 264 gallons
per person to its 1 million inhabitants.
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• Also constructed aqueducts for about 200 provincial towns across Europe.
Technical achievement juxtaposed with human debasement and militaristic cruelty.
After decline in 5th cen. AD, it shrank to a town of mere 20,000 by 6th Cen. AD.
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and intersect with theories that also pertain to cities, industrialization, and more recently,
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globalization. At the risk of being subjective and circumvent, we introduce and discuss such
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theories, which provide both earlier and recent explanations for why and how urbanization
occurs. First, there is what may be labeled the theory on self-generated or endogenous
urbanization. This theory suggests that urbanization requires two separate prerequisites—
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the generation of surplus products that sustain people in non-agricultural activities (Childe,
1950; Harvey, 1973) and the achievement of a level of social development that allows large
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communities to be socially viable and stable (Lampard, 1965). From a long temporal
perspective, these changes took place simultaneously in the Neolithic period when the first
cities emerged in the Middle East (Wheatley, 1971) as mentioned earlier. A much later period
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in which these two preconditions interacted strongly was the late eighteenth century when
the rise of industrial capitalism led to the emergence of urban societies in Great Britain,
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North-West Europe and North America (Pred, 1977).
In a demographic sense, this theory focuses on the rural-urban population shift as the
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foundation of urbanization but it identifies industrialization as the basic driver behind the
movement of rural population to urban areas for factory jobs. The historical evidence
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undoubtedly bears this out. Before the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, no society could
be described as urban or urbanized. And all countries, primarily in the West, that began to
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industrialize rapidly after Great Britain became highly urbanized by the mid-twentieth
century, which was followed by accelerated industrialization and then urbanization in the
rest of the world through the last century and into the present. If we focus on cities instead
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of urbanization, this theory accounts for the endogenous conditions that facilitate the
transition from pre-industrial to industrial cities, first in the West and then in the rest of the
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world, in an uneven manner. Perhaps the first theoretical perspective that remains relevant
today in light of the close relationship between industrialization and urbanization, it suffers
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from the drawback of focusing narrowly on the rural-urban shift within countries as the key
to urbanization. Besides the authors cited above, this theoretical tradition was enriched by
scholars like Kinsley Davis in the 1950s through the 1970s (Davis, 1951, 1965, 1969, 1972).
The second theory on urbanization actually emerged from a broader theoretical school
known as the modernization theory that became prevalent and influential from the 1950s
through the 1970s. While overlapping with the first theory in the timing of development,
modernization theory had a wider set of assumptions and scope of influence (see So, 1990
for a comprehensive critique of modernization theory). Looking at urbanization through the
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lens of modernization, first, the present state of urbanization in any given society is set by its
initial state at the onset of modernization. Secondly, technology is fundamentally more
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important than a society’s social organization in shaping urbanization. Finally, the path and
pattern of urbanization within and between developed and developing countries are most
likely to converge through cultural diffusion, despite breeding inevitable social disequilibria
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(Kasarda and Crenshaw, 1991). We could trace the intellectual underpinning of the
modernization view on urbanization in developing countries to an even earlier theoretical
paradigm, namely, human ecology. While developed to describe the structure and evolution
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of the American city, primarily Chicago in the 1920s-1930s by Robert Park and others, human
ecology is based on strong assumptions about the interactive role of population dynamics,
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market competition, material technology (e.g., transport infrastructure), and the built
environment in making and remaking urban life (Hawley, 1981; Orum and Chen, 2003). These
assumptions became the predictive elements in how modernization theory would view
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accelerated urbanization in the developing world, but only to be challenged by the more
depressing reality of economic and spatial inequalities, as well as other social problems from
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The second important theories are based on geography and development, these theories
give and instruments to understand spatial pattern of urbanisation
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sized settlements increases. As you can see from the diagram above, there are more cities
than conurbations, more towns than cities and more villages than towns.
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The number of services that a settlement provides increases with settlement size. Small
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settlements will only provide low-order services such as a post offices, doctors and
newsagents. Large towns, cities and conurbations will provide low and high-order
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services such as leisure centres, chain stores and hospitals. Larger settlements and
conurbations have a much larger sphere of influence than smaller ones. This means they
attract people from a wider area because of the facilities they offer. Cities such as London
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have a global sphere of influence, whereas a small hamlet or village may only have a sphere
of influence of a couple of kilometres.
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Services such as department stores selling high order goods have a higher threshold than
those selling low order goods such as newsagents. This means they need a higher number of
people to support them and make them profitable, therefore they will only be found in larger
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settlements. It also means that there are fewer big department stores than small
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newsagents. The range of a service or product is the maximum distance people are prepared
to travel to purchase it. The range of a newspaper is much lower than an item of furniture.
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above, by their size within the spatially bounded hinterland surrounding them. The
advantage and disadvantage of the theory is
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Advantages • Magnetic attraction for businesses, services and people (cumulative effect) •
Can attract international trade and business • Centralize transportation and communication
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• Enhanced flow of ideas and information among larger populations • Ability to offer high-
end goods due to increased threshold
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Disadvantages • Urban-rural inequalities • Imbalance in development • Concentration of
Power • has a parasitic effect, sucking wealth, natural and human resources into city. •
Become centres for unemployment, crime, pollution
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1.2 Cities and Planning
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City planning has always been of chief concern since times immemorial. Evidence of planning
has been unearthed in the ruins of cities in China, India, Egypt, Asia Minor, the
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Mediterranean world, and South and Central America. Early examples of efforts towards
planned urban development include orderly street systems that are rectilinear and
sometimes radial; division of a city into specialised functional quarters; development of
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commanding central sites for palaces, temples and civic buildings; and advanced systems of
fortification, water supply, and drainage. Most of the evidence is in smaller cities that were
built in comparatively short periods as colonies. Often the central cities of ancient states
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grew to substantial size before they achieved governments capable of imposing controls.
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infrastructure and efficiency, and should also put the needs of its citizens at the forefront of
all its planning activities. Poor urban planning and management can have grave results for
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the urban economy, the environment and society. Poorly managed urban settlements will be
unable to keep pace with urban expansion, and unserviced slums will proliferate, bringing
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with them poor health, poverty, social unrest and economic inefficiency. Environmental
hazards are responsible for the most common causes of ill-health and mortality among the
urban poor.
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more attractive to investors and workers by promoting the sustainable development of the
urban environment. Sustainable development is multi-dimensional. It requires an
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understanding of complex and often conflicting relationships. These issues call for an
integrated approach and an integration culture. Indeed for cities priorities never differ
irrespective of the geography, size and development policies, they are
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1 A competitive economy in order to attract investments and provide jobs;
2 A sustainable environment because the city has to survive with limited natural resources,
especially in terms of land and water; and
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3 A high quality of life, including the social and psychological well-being of the population.
help to mediate between demand and supply, increasing land utilization and optimizing the
development of constructed floor area.
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Need to Coordinate land management with infrastructure, natural resources, and hazard
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risk. Cities need policies to govern the intensity of land use and to manage its integration
with infrastructure development—especially transport.
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Efforts are needed to alleviate slum growth and unsafe conditions with improved housing
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should not have the unintended effect of reducing workers’ access to labor markets. Setting
rules for land and infrastructure coordination can connect generations of workers to jobs—
and earn city leaders the right to say that their policies have transformed urban living
conditions.
Establish clear and consistent rules for service provision to increase effectiveness, efficiency,
and equity.
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Ensure sustainability through full cost recovery from tariffs and/or transfers.
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Need to Value and develop the city’s creditworthiness. Creditworthiness can be
demonstrated by securing cash flows through user fees and taxes—and, where necessary, by
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raising revenue through leveraged assets. It is also possible to tap capital markets, either by
issuing bonds or by borrowing from specialized financial institutions and intermediaries.
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Coordinate public and private finance using clear and consistent rules. With enough
assurance that commitments are firm, PPPs can reduce the fiscal burden of infrastructure
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improvement projects.
Leverage existing assets to develop new ones, linking both to land use planning. Leveraging
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can include land and property taxes; land sales and leases; charges for impact and for
development (developer extractions); betterment levies (land value capture taxes); and tax
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increment financing.
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To achieve a greater mix of land uses and densities in the urban structure that provide a full
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range of urban functions – housing, employment and services – in a pattern which minimizes
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the need to travel great distances to work, shop or conduct business. The efficient use of
land needs to be compatible with the social well-being and healthy environment objectives.
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• To enhance broad participation, improve community involvement and build support for
sustainable planning policies and programmes; to promote community identity through
creation of meeting places, public spaces, pedestrian networks, preservation of historic
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buildings and attractive streetscapes.
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• To provide a range of cultural and recreational opportunities that correspond to diverse
needs through efficient use of natural areas for passive recreation and cultural purposes; to
maintain a system of integrated and interconnected open spaces, parks, river valleys and
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waterfronts; to protect the natural habitat and resources in these areas.
• To provide water and sewerage infrastructure that accommodates the needs of the local
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community, while meeting the healthy environment objectives; to undertake considerable
improvement of existing infrastructure in order to reduce the amount of untreated urban
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runoff and waste water discharge; to increase the capacity of the existing infrastructure to
accommodate urban growth and intensification.
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• To improve and expand the transport system to meet the challenges of readjustment in the
urban economy and to sustain the competitiveness of public transport. To maximize
efficiency, supplement conventional public transit with specialized services directed at
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specific market segments; to promote energy efficiency and alternative modes of transport.
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Most planning instruments are process-oriented and used to regulate and structure. Legally
binding planning instruments are mainly provided by national governments and applied at
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regional and global level. A master plan is an instrument for territorial spatial development.
The public control of the use of land is a main asset for municipal management. The social
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and environmental functions of land are increasingly recognized in the legal frameworks of
master plans and other instruments that allow local governments to manage private land.
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Development plan
The DP is a macro strategic plan document that defines the direction of growth and envisions
the citywide infrastructure for the entire development area. It is a comprehensive document
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that looks at all components of development and makes specific proposals with respect to
each. These include the following: • Land development—land use zoning, areas to be opened
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up for new growth, development control regulations (which determine the built form), and
allocation for public uses • Road network and transportation • Water supply • Sewerage •
Storm water drainage • Open spaces, green areas • Environment and pollution control •
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Reclamation of areas • Any other The DP is revised every 10 years and is varied (updated) in
the interim whenever a need arises to respond to the changing context. The process also
includes limited public participation—after a draft DP is prepared by the Development
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Authority it is published and kept open for public inspection for a period of two months and
objections and suggestions are invited. Each objection and suggestion is responded to and, if
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required, the DP is modified. It is published again to invite further objections and
suggestions. These are again taken into account and the DP is modified. It is then sent to the
State Government of Gujarat for approval and oversight. The State Government may suggest
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modifications, keeping the overall public good in view if required, before approving the DP.
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detailed gradually. Most importantly, the new areas for growth to be opened up for
development are clearly marked and divided into smaller areas of about 100 to 200 hectares.
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Each such area is called a TPS. The TPS are micro plans prepared for about 100 to 200
hectares typically involving 100 to 250 landowners. The TPS are numbered starting from one,
two, three, etc., and are usually named after the “village” they fall in. A complex system is
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used to simultaneously reorganize land parcels or plots, provide access to each land parcel or
plot, set aside land for public uses by taking a portion from each landholding, and
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Regional Plan- Long term plan, indicating broad zoning of use of land and development
works carried out by the regional and local authorities
Master Plan- Comprehensive, Long Term Land Use Planning, Rigid control on development
and use of land
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Local Area Plans- Block or Parcel Level under the zonal plans
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Structure Plan- Introduced in 1965, It’s a spatial Plan that delineates various parts of the city
but DOES NOT STRICTLY define the land use. It also broadly highlights the NO GO Areas
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Perspective Plans – Long Term Plans that provide Vision, Goal, longer term strategies for an
administrative units
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CDP, CDS- Strategic City Development Plans. Non Statute , non landuse oriented focusing on
City Infrastructure
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1.2.3.1 City Governance
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Cities are emerging as an important new level of governance across the world. Rapid
urbanization and urban sprawl have led to the emergence of large and medium cities for
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which a new type of governance model is required. The urban political system in many
regions is widening its focus from ‘government’ to ‘governance’, decentralization, and
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Deepening Local Institutional Capacities In all countries, local authorities and urban
governments are challenged by the limited human, institutional, and financial resources at
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their disposal. In most countries local authorities are still learning how to effectively engage
with citizens and interest groups around an increasingly complex agenda of change.
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Innovations, like participatory budgeting help link municipal investments to local priorities,
enable social sector funding, service provision, and financial, human and material resource
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information access has brought exclusion to the forefront of the public imagination. To
address this, city governments have a key role in using urban planning, management, and
local economic development interventions to limit urban stratification, exclusion and
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gentrification by promoting equitable access to employment and socially diverse
neighbourhoods. Participative local governance helps deepen democratic participation, civic
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dialogue, and facilitating outcomes that enrich the quality of life of all citizens. Diversity of
cultures, in the form of heritage and knowledge, is a vital part of cities, integral to their
identity and dynamism as hubs of social and human development. Culture provides identity,
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agency, and tools for communities to fight poverty. Integrating diversity of culture into
governance, based on the needs and expectations of citizens, facilitates participation,
intercultural dialogue, and the practice of equality of rights.
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A New ‘Voice’ for Movements of the Urban Poor Governance in cities can be strongly
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influenced by mobilisation of groups of the urban poor, especially if they are able to work
with local governments. Inclusive participatory processes with a focus on slum upgrading and
service provision for marginalized citizens have been effective in many regions in promoting
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economic development and reducing urban poverty. Many of the social reforms that have
transformed the living conditions and health of low-income population cities in what are
today high-income nations were responses to the demands of organized groups of the urban
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poor. Organizations and federations of slum and shack dwellers, self-employed women and
waste pickers have become increasingly important in giving voice to the rights, needs, and
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demands of the poor. A more inclusive city with strong local government, private sector, and
civil society alliances provides the opportunity to change behaviour and patterns of
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consumption, production, and social relations. Over the last few decades, many communities
have been unwilling to passively accept the planning decisions of politicians and technocrats
that impact on their day-to-day environments. Participation by citizens groups, movements,
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city regions.
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Deepening Multi-Scale Economic, Social, and Cultural Networks Cities are increasingly
connected to each other economically and via social and cultural ties that link together
neighbourhoods and communities around concerns such as livelihood security, mobility, and
water and air quality. Megacities and mega urban-regions will typically concentrate large
proportions of the economic, environmental, and human resources of their countries—
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sustainability rather than mal-development
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1.2.3.2 Innovative Financing
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Appropriate fiscal and financial instruments such as participatory budgeting can provide the
investment needed for greater urban sustainability at neighbourhood, city, and regional
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scales. The effectiveness of new strategies is dependent on the level of transparency of
governance structures, and supported by clear evidence metrics. Intergovernmental
financing systems can be restructured to enable greater capacity at local levels within cities
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(e.g., neighbourhood-level) and in turn provide opportunities for greater accountability and
innovation. These new financial arrangements can bring together local interests, private
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enterprises and domestic, international and multilateral investors with a special interest in
long-term environmental, equity and inclusion concerns. It is of course recognized that public
resources have become increasingly strained in both developing and developed country
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contexts and that significant funding progress is in many cases increasingly dependent on
private financing. A city region investment fund strategy could be set up to support agreed
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upon regional objectives, combined with innovative new asset classes of ‘green growth’
funding, ‘climate adaptation’ funding and ‘social enterprise’ bonds. The advantage of such a
strategy and potential portfolio approach (depending on availability of funding) is that
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climate adaptation can de-risk green growth infrastructure assets, and social investment
bonds can support skills training to underpin local job creation from green growth
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investment.
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Leveraging Investment Finance and Integrated Planning Building on traditional public finance
flows at city and regional levels, investment finance can be drawn down into projects that
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1.3.1.1 Conceptualization
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The deteriorating living conditions due to high industrialisation is reason behind the
paradigm which emphasis on better life in habitats. Particularly for cities this has been noticed in
Vancouver Liveability Plan prepared in 1971 which has been conceptualised for better quality of life,
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has its genesis in global north. This concept got global acceptance after five years in Habitat-I which
held in Vancouver itself. The corresponding measurement frameworks to know development in cities
have been demonstrated in 1993.
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1960-70
Deterioration
1970-80:
Basic services
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Vancover
1976:
Habitat-I
1993:CDI
•Indicators of
in living and Livability Plan (Vancouver) Sustainable
development
conditions redistribution •Quality of life •Liveable,
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•GNP is not •Worldbank and Experince by attractive and
helping ILO people efficient
settlemenst
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essential for better quality of life, provided that it contributes to more equitable distribution
of benefits and to give Priority to most disadvantaged people. Its general principles includes
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1. Effective human settlements policies and spatial planning strategies realistically adapted to
local conditions (Habitat-I, 1976).
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2. Creating more liveable, attractive and efficient settlements which recognize human scale,
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the heritage and culture of people and the special needs of disadvantaged groups especially
children, women and infirm in order to ensure the provision of health, services, education,
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3. Creating possibilities for effective participation by all people in the planning, building and
management of their human settlements (Habitat-I, 1976).
The Idea of City and City Planning 2015
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5. Utilizing the most effective means of communications for the exchange of knowledge and
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experience in the field of human settlements (Habitat-I, 1976)
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1976).
7. Creating economic opportunities conducive to full employment where, under healthy, safe
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conditions, women and men will be fairly compensated for their labour in monetary, health
and other personal benefits (Habitat-I, 1976).
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Liveability studies are focused to model cities of respective countries, it has been
conceptualised for provide better quality of life other aspects are globalization, social and
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cultural values with evolution of society, Consumerism the cities are having, Quality of
infrastructure, Safety in terms of no of crimes, recreational values. These changes also reflect
that spatial planning principles are not enough to support cities liveability. Even for being
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liveable cities aspirations are more than the provision of basic services and land use plan. The
various agencies are involve in defining what should be a livable city, it is summarise in table
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below
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Effective
Spatial e e : Science Economic
Participa Communication Safe EN S Governance
Planning habitat habitat: and opportunities
tion
:I Q technology
Water connections
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Sewerage
Electricity
Indicator
Telephone
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Wastewater Treated
Formal Solid disposal
Life Expectancy
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Child mortality
Literacy
Combined enrolment
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City product
Prevalence of Petty and Violent Crime
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Treat of military conflict and Terror
Relationship with Neighbouring Countries
Indicator
Work Permits
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Level of censorship
Level of Corruption
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Sporting and Cultural activities
Food Cinema
Availability of Private Education
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Quality of private education
Quality of services Road Network, Public
Transport,
Consumer WaterFruits,
Goods Fresh Provision,
Vegetables,
telecommunications
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Fish, Automobiles
Infectious Diseases
Air Pollution
Rental Housing
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Maintenance services for Housing
Traffic Congestion
Banking services, Currency exchange
regulations
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EN= Environment, S = Social and Cultural I= Infrastructure ; Q= Quality of life
Values
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1.3.2.1 Conceptualization
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Till Stockholm conference environment degradation was considered as local problem
(Mattias Höjer). The realisation of it as global issue has resulted into initiatives of “think
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global, act global”. This idea had its concrete form after Brundtland Commission. The mission
of this commission was to unite countries for common future after realization of heavy
deterioration of human environment and natural resources (WCED, 1987).
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This period is also important as half of world has started living in urban areas. Combining
sustainable development with high rate of urbanisation has captured the interest of
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researchers, development agencies and policy makers. This resulted into genesis of
Sustainable city Programme (Sustainable Cities Programme, 2001). The priority of the
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programme was to deal with urban environmental issues through operational framework of
urban Environmental planning and management (EMP).
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Time line of sustainable city:
sustainable growth and development. Sustainability of cities has been promoted through
Environmental Planning Management (EMP). Environment was prime focus, and it has been
assumed that environment degradation has adversely affected economic efficiency and
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social equity.
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in the living environment of urban residents all over the world.
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UNCHS and UNEP has defined Sustainable City as (UNCHS and UNEP, 2000)
“A Sustainable city is a city where achievements in social, economic, and physical
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development are made to last. A Sustainable City has a lasting supply of the natural
resources on which its development depends (using them only at a level of sustainable yield).
A Sustainable City maintains a lasting security from environmental hazards which may
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threaten development achievements (allowing only for acceptable risk).”
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The issues as per priority order are Environmental Health and sanitation, Ecological
planning and open space management, Institutional changes, urban mobility, Air
pollution, City Expansion, Land-based impact on the sea, water source management,
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Sustainable city has been mechanised to solve complex problems of cities through EMP,
where prime focus was environment but not sustainability. Focus areas of Sustainable cities,
which is addition on liveable cities are Ecological footprints, Green spaces, Reducing cars
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as economic sustainability; Dependency ratio, work-life balance, Commuting time are factors
measured for social sustainability. This also implies that sustainable cities has mature or
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Integration of Capacity Techno quality Epidemiologic building &
Basic and Environment RS & Q
infrastructure -building logy and al surveillance Participatio
service recycle S
treatment n
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Sanitation
Drinking water
Access to energy
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Water quantity
Water quality
Energy use
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Waste generation and
management
Transportation ch
Information and communication
Health care delivery
technologies
Green Building
Public participation
Employment
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The Idea of City and City Planning 2015
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Transport : Trips without car
Subjective wellbeing
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Household Repayment
Food Production
Dependency Ratio
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Work-life Balance
Commuting time
Property Prices
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Renewable Consumption
Green House Gas Emission
Energy Efficiency
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Global Network
Doing Business
RS : Resource Sustainability , E & S = Socio-economic impacts, Q= quality of life
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discourses. These development paradigms have featured in city promotional literature
(Jennifer A. Vicedo, 2001). The literature has addressed it in different ways some have
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mentioned it as urban metaphors or city typology and provided cities with adjectives which
were based on certain notion of urban development. Even single city is represented through
various adjectives; Melbourne has defined it as a human city, sustainable city, prosperous
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city, and an innovative city, an efficient and effective managed city.
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Environment Sustainable City
Ecological City
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Megacity
Compact City
Green City
Economy Human Innovation city
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Information City
Entrepreneurial City
Completive Cities
Connected City
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World City
Global City
Social Wellbeing Liveable City
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Multicultural City
Health City
Safe City
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Whose City
Divided Cities
Likable City
Learning City
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Wired City
Hybrid City
Community Smart Community
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1.4 Urbanization in India: A Historical Outlook
Urbanization is an index of transformation from traditional rural economies to modern
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industrial one. It is a long term process through which the ratio of population between rural
and urban gets changed in favour of urban settlement. Quite often the Indian Urbanisation
has been considered as over urbanisation or pseudo urbanisation due to its rapid growth of
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urban population especially in large cities. It has been observed that high rate of population
growth in urban areas particularly in large cities is the result of high natural growth and
poverty driven rural to urban migration in short and long run.
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1.4.1 Definition of Urban
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Census broadly defines urban areas as follows:
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All statutory places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board, or notified area
committee,
A place satisfying the following three criteria simultaneously: 1) a minimum population of
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5,000; 2) at least 75 per cent male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits;
and 3) a density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.
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Urban agglomeration is defined as an urban spread constituting a city and its adjoining urban
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outgrowths or two or more physically contiguous cities/towns together and any adjoining
urban outgrowth of such cities/towns.
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There has been a steady increase in the country’s urban population over the decades. The
urban population increased from 26 million in 1901 to 285 million in 2001 to 377 million in
2011 and from 10 percent to 28 per cent to 31.16 during the same period. Extent of
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urbanization can be explained with emergence of census towns which has been increased
from 3894 from 1362 in a decade which corresponds as thrice.
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Statutory Towns 3799 4041 6%
Census Towns 1362 3894 186%
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Urban 384 475 24%
Agglomerations
Out Growths 962 981 2%
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According to the 2011 Census, the urban population grew to 377 million showing a growth
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rate of 2.76% per annum during 2001-2011. The level of urbanisation in the country as a
whole increased from 27.7% in 2001 to 31.1% in 2011 – an increase of 3.3 percentage points
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during 2001-2011 compared to an increase of 2.1 percentage points during 1991-2001. It
may be noted that the Indian economy has grown from about 6% per annum during the
1990s to about 8% during the first decade of the 2000s (Ahluwalia 2011). This clearly reflects
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the power of economic growth in bringing about faster urbanisation during 2001-2011.
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Towns (in
millions)
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The major challenge to policy makers and planners is to tackle the concentration of urban
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poverty in cities particularly in large cities. They need special attention to be accommodated
in the fabrics of city and can contribute to growth. The eleven plan approach paper aims at
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“faster and inclusive growth” and is likely to put heavy investment towards ensuring the
sustainability of urban centre. Faster and inclusive growth of the cities can be ensured
through a) providing basic infrastructure facilities for cities and b) provisioning of basic
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services to urban poor. Taking clue from the current urban development scenario in India,
Central Government has taken a up a highly ambitious urban development.
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Most cities experience a steady decline in the quality of physical environment. One finds
stressed physical infrastructure, inadequate delivery of basic services, air and water
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pollution, uncollected wastes, etc., exposing citizens to harmful pathogens and bacteria.
Deteriorating urban health has become a critical issue because of the emergence and spurt
in some of the diseases related to poor environmental sanitation and poor living conditions
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such as malaria, tuberculosis, as well as HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.
Rapid economic activity - urban growth running faster than solutions can catch up and
there is very little reliable data being generated to track this
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Multiplicity of agencies with multiple institutional jurisdictions like basic services with ULB
and PDS /housing with other state departments
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Weak administrative systems and human resources with minimal training, poorly designed
cadre and recruitment rules
Inadequate or dysfunctional internal systems – finance, land records, etc.
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Mismatch between emerging problems and the available new skills; PPPs, outsourcing,
use complex contracts, etc.,
Urbanisation of poverty, land rights, permanent and seasonal migration, problem in
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national development goals. Our cities need to be better managed and efforts are needed to
improve governance. The 74th Constitution Amendment marked a significant initiative to
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make urban local bodies as institutions of self-governance, which itself is challenge.
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The graduation of number of urban centres from lower population size categories to class I
cities has resulted top heavy structure of urban population in India. The big cities attained
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inordinately large population size leading to virtual collapse in the urban services, followed
by basic problems in the field of housing, slum, water, infrastructure, quality of life etc.
Therefore, urban planning and policy framework focus on increasing the efficiency of large
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cities and redirecting attention towards small and medium towns. This would ensure the
balance regional pattern of urban growth through which India can benefit from
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globalisation, liberalization and privatization as cities are going to be centre for global
economy.
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Class I UAs/Towns: The UAs/Towns are grouped on the basis their population in Census. The
UAs/Towns which have at least 1,00,000 persons as population are categorised as Class I
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UA/Town. At the Census 2011, there are 468 such UAs/Towns. The corresponding number in
Census 2001 was 394. 264.9 million persons, constituting 70% of the total urban population,
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live in these Class I UAs/Towns. The proportion has increased considerable over the last
Census. In the remaining classes of towns the growth has been nominal.
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UAs/Cities, these are the major urban centres in the country. 160.7 million persons (or
42.6% of the urban population) live in these Million Plus UAs/Cities.18 new UAs/Towns have
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Mega Cities: Among the Million plus UAs/Cities, there are three very large UAs with more
than 10 million persons in the country, known as Mega Cities. These are Greater Mumbai UA
(18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3 million) and Kolkata UA (14.1 million). The largest UA in the
country is Greater Mumbai UA followed by Delhi UA. Kolkata UA which held the second rank
in Census 2001 has been replaced by Delhi UA. The growth in population in the Mega Cities
has slowed down considerably during the last decade. Greater Mumbai UA, which had
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witnessed 30.47% growth in population during 1991-2001 has recorded 12.05% during 2001
2011. Similarly Delhi UA (from 52.24% to 26.69% in 2001-2011) and Kolkata UA (from
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19.60% to 6.87% in 2001-2011) have also slowed down considerably.
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As per World Prospect Urbanization report of United Nations, more people live in urban
areas than in rural areas, with 54 per cent of the world’s population residing in urban areas
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in 2014. In 1950, 30 per cent of the world’s population was urban, and by 2050, 66 per cent
of the world’s population is projected to be urban. The most urbanized regions include
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Northern America (82 per cent living in urban areas in 2014), Latin America and the
Caribbean (80 percent), and Europe (73 per cent). In contrast, Africa and Asia remain mostly
rural, with 40 and 48 per cent of their respective populations living in urban areas. All
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regions are expected to urbanize further over the coming decades. The projections tells
Africa and Asia are urbanizing faster than the other regions and are projected to become 56
and 64 per cent urban, respectively, by 2050. It is expected that between 2014 and 2050,
the urban areas are expected to grow by 404 million people in India, 292 million in China.
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India is urbanising. This transition, which will see India’s urban population reach a figure
close to 600 million by 2031, is not simply a shift of demographics. It places cities and towns
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at the centre of India’s development trajectory. In the coming decades, the urban sector will
play a critical role in the structural transformation of the Indian economy and in sustaining
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the high rates of economic growth. Ensuring high quality public services for all in the cities
and towns of India is an end in itself, but it will also facilitate the full realisation of India’s
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economic potential.
India’s urban population to increase (HPEC)
• From 377 million today to 600 million by 2031
• From 50 metropolitan cities in 2011 to 87 by 2031
• From 160 million population in metropolitan cities in 2011 to 255 million by 2031
• From 217 million population in other cities and towns in 2011 to 343 million by 2031
Another similar Projections indicate that by 2030 that India’s urban population will be 575
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million Constituting over 40% of total population as per India’s Urban Awakening (2010) a
McKinsey report projected that by 2030 five states viz., Gujarat Karnataka, Maharashtra,
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Punjab and Tamil Nadu will have more than 50% urban population and 13 cities will have
more than 4 million populations each. Six cities viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai,
Kolkata and Pune will have more than ten million populations each.
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1.5.3 Projections in terms of Productivity in cities
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The urban share of the gross domestic product (GDP) for the Indian economy is not available
on a regular and consistent basis, and the underlying data base for estimating this share is
very weak. Estimates by the Central Statistical Organisation (CSO), available for a few years,
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indicate that this share increased from 37.7 per cent in 1970-71 to 52 per cent in 1999-2000.
The Mid-Term Appraisal of the Eleventh Five Year Plan puts the urban share of GDP at 62-63
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per cent in 2009-10. The document further projects this share to increase to 75 per cent in
2030.
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The cities of India will have to provide a receptive environment for innovation and
productivity enhancement which can foster faster growth of the Indian economy and make
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room for larger migration from rural areas to higher-productivity sectors in urban areas.
Government policy will have to address the challenges of an abysmal state of public services
in Indian cities and towns.
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fastest growing economies in the world for some time, and aspirations and standards are
raising, the current state of service delivery is simply unacceptable. Floods, traffic jams,
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accumulated waste at roadsides, and people queuing up for water from standposts and
tankers across cities and towns – all drive home the urgent need to address the challenges of
delivering urban services in India. Pollution of water, air, and land has contributed greatly to
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the proliferation of disease, e.g. dengue, malaria, chikungunya, swine flu, diarrhoea, asthma,
and acute respiratory infections. A study by the Ministry of Urban Development,
Government of India (2009b) finds that 23 million children below the age of 14 in urban
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India are at risk from poor sanitation. The same study finds that 8 million children in urban
areas are at risk from poor water supply. Infant mortality at 42 deaths per 1000 live births,
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though lower than in rural areas, continues to be unacceptably high (IIPS 2005-06).
The environmental hazards and loss in productivity due to traffic congestion are only just
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beginning to be understood. The poor state of basic urban services prevents India’s cities
from exploiting their potential for generating rapid economic growth and contributing to
poverty reduction.
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Investment for urban infrastructure over the 20-year period from 2012 to 2031 is estimated
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Urban roads constitute the highest share of urban infrastructure investment, i.e. 56 per cent
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of the total. It is worth noting that local and sub-local roads are included in the definition of
roads for this exercise. In the Eleventh Five Year Plan and in many other estimates for roads
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that are normally presented, only collector roads and major roads are included in the
definition, and local roads and sub-local roads are excluded. Investment in urban transport
and traffic support infrastructure accounts for 17.7 per cent of the total infrastructure
investment of Rs 31 lakh crore
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Metropolitan cities (Classes IA and IB, i.e. cities with population over 1 million), with almost
43 per cent of the total urban population by 2031, will require about 50 per cent of the total
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investment Class IC cities, i.e. cities with population between 100,000 and 1 million, will
require about 30 per cent of the investment, reflecting the potential growth of India’s small
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and medium cities. The investment requirement for urban infrastructure for all towns
(Classes II to IV+, i.e. with population less than 100,000) will be about 20 per cent of the
total.
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India’s urbanisation challenge is compounded by the fact that 25.7 percent of the total
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urban population still lives below the poverty line as defined officially by the Planning
Commission based on survey data from the NSSO. The incidence of urban income poverty
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declined significantly from 49 per cent in 1973-74 to 32.4 per cent in 1993-94 and 25.7 per
cent in 2004-05. Even though the urban poverty ratio has declined by half over the 30-year
period since 1973-74, there were still 80.8 million persons in urban India in 2004-05 who
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were officially defined as ‛poor’, increasing from 76.3 million in 1993-94.
There is no doubt that ‛shelter poverty’ is much larger than income poverty. To a large
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extent, shelter poverty is the result of the heavily distorted land markets, a highly
inadequate regulatory regime of protecting property rights, and absence of a well-crafted
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strategy for inclusion of economically and socially weaker sections in urban planning.10 Slums
and pavement dwellers are the most visible manifestation of shelter poverty in urban India.
With very poor sewerage networks, a large number of the urban poor still depend on public
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toilets. Many public toilets have no water supply while the outlets of many others with
water supply are not connected to the city’s sewerage system. The problem of sanitation is
much worse in urban areas than in rural due to increasing congestion and density in cities.
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Indeed, the environmental and health implications of the very poor sanitary conditions are a
major cause for concern. The WSP study observes that when mortality impact is excluded,
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the economic impact for the poorest 20 per cent of urban households is the highest.
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1.6 QUESTIONS
• What is Urban? Urbanization?
• What will be epicenter of world urbanization in next decades?
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• Do ancient civilizations tell you the importance of planning cities?
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• Is the urban theories are relevant to contemporary planning process?
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• How Priorities of cities have changed from the planning in pre industrial age to post
industrial age?
• Enlist the priorities of Your Cities?
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• Why we are not able to capture the urban growth where we are lacking? Plans?
Governance?? Financing???
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• Livability and sustainability can be achieved conventional planning?
• Is sustainability is totally different or its value addition to livability??
• Suggest the tools/ Instruments available to achieve these targets (Experience/ readings etc.)
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• What these historical towns tell you about Indian ancient cities ?
• Is Chanakya`s Arthasasthra Still relevant ?
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• Why we are not able to capture the urban growth where we are lacking? Plans?
Governance?? Financing???
• Livability and sustainability can be achieved conventional planning?
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