The Cell Cycle

Cell cycle
-An ordered sequence of events in
the life of a cell, from its origin in the division
of a parent cell until its own division into two.
 Roles of Cell Division
 The continuity of life is based upon the
reproduction of cells, or cell division

Figure 12.1
 Roles of cell division in life
 Reproduces an entire organism
◦ prokaryotic cell and unicellular eukaryote
 Develop from a single cell, like the fertilized egg that gave
rise to the two-celled embryo
 multicellular eukaryotes
 Renewal and repair
◦ replacing cells that die from normal wear and tear or
accidents.
100 µm
200 µm 20 µm

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba, (b) Growth and development. (c) Tissue renewal. These dividing
a single-celled eukaryote, is This micrograph shows a bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly
dividing into two cells. Each give rise to new blood cells (LM
after the fertilized egg divided,
new cell will be an individual
Figure 12.2 B, C forming two cells (LM).
Figure 12.2 A organism (LM).
 Multicellular organisms
depend on cell division for
◦ Development from a fertilized
cell
◦ Growth
◦ Repair
200 µm 20 µm

(b) Growth and development. (c) Tissue renewal. These dividing

This micrograph shows a bone marrow cells (arrow) will
sand dollar embryo shortly give rise to new blood cells (LM).
after the fertilized egg divided,
Figure 12.2 B, C forming two cells (LM).
 Cell division
–is an integral part of the cell cycle

CELL CYCLE
– the life of a cell from the time it is first formed
from a dividing parent cell until its own division
into two daughter cells.
Most cell division results in genetically______
(identical or unidentical) daughter cells.

WHY?
CELL DIVISION
 results in genetically identical daughter cells
◦ Cells duplicate their genetic material before they
divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives
an exact copy of the genetic material, DNA
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL
 Genome
◦ the complete complement of an organisms gene
◦ an organisms genetic material
 Human cell
◦ about 2 m of DNA—a length about 250,000
times greater than the cell’s diameter.
 DNA Replication
◦ Before the cell can divide to form genetically
identical daughter cells, all of this DNA must be
copied, or replicated, and then the two copies
must be separated
◦ so that each daughter cell ends up with a
complete genome
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL

 The DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into

chromosomes

Figure 12.3
50 µm
 Eukaryotic chromosomes
◦ Consist of chromatin
◦ a complex of DNA and protein that
condenses during cell division
 In animals
◦ Somatic cells
◦ have two sets of chromosomes
◦ Gametes
◦ have one set of chromosomes
 Each duplicated chromosome
◦ Has two sister chromatids, which separate during
cell division

0.5 µm
A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication, each chromosome
Chromosome
has a single DNA molecule.
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Once duplicated, a chromosome
consists of two sister chromatids Centromere
connected at the centromere. Each
chromatid contains a copy of the
DNA molecule.

Sister
Separation chromatids
of sister
Mechanical processes separate chromatids
the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells.

Figure 12.4 Centromeres Sister chromatids

QUESTIONS:
 How many sister chromatids in a duplicated chromosome?
 Describe the following terms:
◦ Cohesins
◦ Centromere
◦ Arm of the chromatid
◦ Kinetochore
◦ Centrosomes
 Duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids
 Cohesins – proteins which is used to keep the sister chromatids
connected with each other
 Centromere- a region of the chromosomal DNA where the
chromatid is attached most closely to its sister
chromatid.
 Arm of the chromatid
- portion of a chromatid to either side of the centromere
• Kinetochore- a structure made up of proteins that have
assembled on specific sections of DNA at each
centromere.
 Centrosomes
-microtubule - organizing center and is important during cell
division
 Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
◦ Mitosis
 division of the nucleus
◦ Cytokinesis,
 division of the cytoplasm
 In meiosis
◦ Sex cells are produced after a reduction in
chromosome number
 Phases of the Cell Cycle
◦ Interphase
◦ Mitotic phase

INTERPHASE

S
G1 (DNA synthesis)

G2
QUESTION: What is the shortest
phase/part of the cell cycle?
Figure 12.5
 Phases of the Cell Cycle
 Interphase INTERPHASE
 accounts for about 90% of the cycle
 A cell grows and copies its chromosomes in S
preparation for cell division G1 (DNA synthesis)
 Divided into subphases:
– G1 phase (“first gap”), G2
– S phase (“synthesis”),
– G2 phase (“second gap”)
NOTE:
During all three subphases, a cell that will
eventually divide grows by producing :
 proteins and
 cytoplasmic organelles such as:
 mitochondria
 endoplasmic reticulum.
 A particular human cell might
undergo one division in 24 hours.
– M phase - occupy less than 1 hour,
– S phase - occupy about 10–12 hours
INTERPHASE

(about half the cycle)

S
– G2 phase - takes 4–6 hours G1(DNA synthesis)

– G1 phase - occupy about 5–6 hours.

G2
 Interphase subphases:
◦ Gap 1(G1) phase
 cell increases in size in preparation for cell division.
 RNA and proteins including enzymes needed for making
DNA are synthesized

◦ Synthesis (S) phase

 DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated.
 Each strand of the double-stranded chromosome produced is
called sister chromatid
◦ Gap 2 (G2) phase
 cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and
increase in size
PHASES OF MITOSIS

 Prophase
 Prometaphase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
MITOTIC SPINDLE: A closer Look
- assembly of microtubules and
associated proteins that is involved in the
movement of chromosomes during mitosis.
 Centrosomes
-microtubule - organizing center and is
important during cell division
- has two centrioles (in animals)
◦ includes spindle microtubules and
asters
◦ Aster- a radial array of short microtubules,
extends from each centrosome
 Some spindle microtubules
◦ Attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the chromosomes
to the metaphase plate

Aster Centrosome

Sister
Metaphase
chromatids Plate
Kinetochores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochores
microtubules 0.5 µm
Microtubules Chromosomes

Figure 12.7 Centrosome

1 µm
 G OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
Centrosomes 2 Early mitotic Aster Fragments
Chromatin Kinetochore
(with centriole pairs) spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

Figure 12.6 envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule

 Late Interphase
◦ The nucleus is well defined and bounded by the nuclear
membrane
◦ Outside the nucleus are two centrosomes.
◦ In animal cells, each centrosome features a pair of centrioles
 G OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
Centrosomes 2 Early mitotic Aster Fragments
Chromatin Kinetochore
(with centriole pairs) spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

Figure 12.6 envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule

PROPHASE
 The chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled, condensing into discrete
chromosomes observable with a light microscope.
• The nucleoli disappear.
• Each duplicated chromosome appears as two identical sister chromatids joined at their
centromeres and, in some species, all along their arms by cohesins (sister chromatid
cohesion).
• The mitotic spindle (named for its shape) begins to form. It is composed of the
centrosomes and the microtubules that extend from them. The radial arrays of
shorter microtubules that extend from the centrosomes are called asters (“stars”).
• The centrosomes move away from each other, propelled partly by the lengthening
microtubules between them.
 G OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE
Centrosomes2 Early mitotic Aster Fragments
Chromatin Kinetochore
(with centriole pairs) spindle Centromere of nuclear Nonkinetochore
(duplicated)
envelope microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

Figure 12.6 envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule

 PROMETAPHASE
◦ The nuclear envelope fragments. The microtubules of the spindle can now invade
the nuclear area and interact with the chromosomes, which have become even
more condensed. Bundles of microtubules extend from each pole toward the
middle of the cell
◦ Each of the two chromatids of a chromosome now has a specialized structure
called a kinetochore, located at the centromere region. Some of the
microtubules attach to the kinetochores, causing the chromosomes to begin jerky
movements
- The nonkinetchore microtubules interact with those from the opposite pole of the
cell
 METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
Centrosome at Daughter envelope
Figure 12.6 Spindle forming
one spindle pole chromosomes

• METAPHASE
- The centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell.
- The chromosomes convene on the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane
that is equidistant between the spindle’s two poles
- The centromeres of the chromosomes are all on the metaphase plate. For
each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids are attached
to the microtubules coming from the opposite poles of the cell. The entire
apparatus of microtubules is called the spindle because of its shape
 METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
Centrosome at Daughter envelope
Figure 12.6 Spindle forming
one spindle pole chromosomes

• ANAPHASE
- begins when the paired centromeresof each chromosome separate, finally
liberating the sister chromatids fro each other.
- The once-joined sisters begin moving toward opposite poles of the cell
 METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
Centrosome at Daughter envelope
Figure 12.6 Spindle forming
one spindle pole chromosomes

TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

- At telophase, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell still more, and the
daughter nuclei form at the two poles of the cell.
- Nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments of the parent cell’s nuclear envelope
-Mitosis, the division of one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei, is now
complete.
- Cytokinesis is usually well under way by this time, so daughter cells appear shortly
after the end of mitosis
- In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, which pinches
the in two
 Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
 In animal cells
 Cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage
furrow(a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate)

Cleavage furrow 100 µm

Contractile ring of
Daughter cells
microfilaments

Figure 12.9 A (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)

 In plant cells, during cytokinesis
◦ A cell plate forms

Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming patent cell Cell plate New cell wall
cell plate

Daughter cells
Figure 12.9 B (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
  In anaphase, sister chromatids
◦ separate
◦ move along the kinetochore microtubules toward
opposite ends of the cell
EXPERIMENT

1 The microtubules of a cell in early anaphase were labeled with a fluorescent dye
that glows in the microscope (yellow).

Kinetochore

Spindle
pole

Figure 12.8
 QUESTION:
 At which end do Kinetochore microtubules
shorten during Anaphase?
 Kinetochore end or Pole end?
EXPERIMENT

1 The microtubules of a cell in early anaphase were labeled with a fluorescent dye
that glows in the microscope (yellow).

Kinetochore

Spindle
pole

Figure 12.8
 Nonkinetechore microtubules from
opposite poles
◦ Overlap and push against each other, elongating
the cell
 In telophase
◦ Genetically identical daughter nuclei form at
opposite ends of the cell
 Binary Fission
 Prokaryotes (bacteria)
◦ Reproduce by a type of cell division called binary
fission
 In binary fission
◦ The bacterial chromosome replicates
◦ The two daughter chromosomes actively move apart

Origin of
Cell wall
replication
Plasma
Membrane
E. coli cell Bacterial
1 Chromosome replication begins. Two copies Chromosome
Soon thereafter, one copy of the of origin
origin moves rapidly toward the
other end of the cell.

2 Replication continues. One copy of Origin Origin

the origin is now at each end of
the cell.

3 Replication finishes. The plasma

membrane grows inward, and
new cell wall is deposited.

Figure 12.11 4 Two daughter cells result.

Meiosis
 reduces the number of chromosome sets from
diploid to haploid
 takes place in two sets of divisions,
◦ Meiosis I and
◦ Meiosis II
 The Stages of Meiosis
 An overview of meiosis Interphase
Homologous pair
of chromosomes
in diploid parent cell

Chromosomes
replicate

Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes

Sister
chromatids Diploid cell with
replicated
chromosomes

Meiosis I

1 Homologous
chromosomes
separate

Haploid cells with

replicated chromosomes

Meiosis II

2 Sister chromatids
separate

Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes

Figure 13.7
 Meiosis I
◦ Reduces the number of chromosomes from diploid
to haploid
 Meiosis II
◦ Produces four haploid daughter cells
PROPHASE II
 A spindle apparatus forms.

 In late prophase II (not Shown here),chromosomes,

each still composed of two chromatids associated at the
centromere, move toward the metaphase II plate.
METAPHASE II
 The chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate as in mitosis.
 Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are
not genetically identical.
 The kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to microtubules extending from
opposite poles.
ANAPHASE II
 Breakdown of proteins holding the sister chromatids together at the centromere
allows the chromatids to separate.
 The chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes
TELOPHASE II
 Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing, and cytokinesis occurs.
 The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four daughter cells, each with
a haploid set of (unduplicated) chromosomes.
 The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one another and
from the parent cell.
 A Comparison of Mitosis and
Meiosis

 Meiosis and mitosis can be distinguished from

mitosis
◦ By three events in Meiosis l
 Synapsis and crossing over
◦ Homologous chromosomes physically connect and
exchange genetic information
 Homologous pairs at the metaphase plate
(Tetrads on the metaphase plate)
◦ At metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the
metaphase plates
 Separation of homologues
◦ At anaphase I of meiosis, homologous pairs move
toward opposite poles of the cell
◦ In anaphase II of meiosis, the sister chromatids
separate
A comparison of mitosis and meiosis