1/ ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS In this chapter we begin with a review of the basie atomie properties of matter leading to discrete electronie energy levels in atoms, We find that these energy levels are spread into energy bands in a erystal, ‘This band structure allows us to distinguish between an insulator, a semiconductor, and a metal, 1-1 CHARGED PARTICLES ‘The charge, or quantity, of negative electricity and the mats of the slectron have beon found to be 1,60 X 10-* C (coulomb) and 9.1L X 10-' kg, respectively. ‘The values of many important physieal constants are given in Appendix A, and a list of conversion faetors and prefixes is given in Appendix B. Some idea of the nuzuber of «leetrons per second that represents cuttent of the usual order of magnitude is readily possible. For example, since the charge per electron is 1.60 X 10°" C, the number of electrons per coulomb is the reciprocal of this nufmber, or approximately, 6 X 10" Purther, sinee a eurrent of LA (ampere) isthe low of 1 Cs, then a current of only i pA ( pieo- ampere, or 10°" A) represents the motion of approximately € raition eleotrans per second. Yet a eurrentof 1 pAisso small that considerable difficulty is experienced in attempting to measure it. ‘The ehurge of a positive ion is an integral maltiple of ths charge of the eleetron, although itis of opposite sign, For the case of singly ionized particles, the charge is equal to that of the electron. For the eau0 of doubly ionined particles, the ionic chars is twice dot uf the electron. ‘The mass of an atom is expressed as a number that is based on the choice of the atomie weight of oxygen equal to 16. ‘The mass of a hypothetioa! atom of atomie weight unity is, by this definition, one- sixteenth that of the mass of monatomic oxygen snd hae been caleu- lated wo be 1,66 10-* kg. Henee, to calewlate the mass in kilograms2 / INTEGRATED BLECTAONICS See 12 af any alom, it és necessary only to multiply the atomic weight of te atom by 1.66 X 10-F ky. A table of atomic weights is given in Table et on p. 12. ‘The radius of the electron has been estimated as 10-¥ m, and shat of an atom 2 10°! m, ‘These are so small that all charges aro considered as mass points in the following sections. ‘Ina semiconductor crystal such as silicon, tivo electrons are shared by euch pair of fonie neighbors. Such s configuration is called a covalent bond, Under certain civoumstances en electron may be missing from this structure, leaving ‘a Thole” in the bond, ‘These vacancies in the covalent honds may move from jon to ion in the eryatsl and constitute a current equivatent to that resulting from the motion of free positive charges, The magnitiide of the charge associated with the hole is that of a free electron, This very brief introduction to the concept of a hole as an effective charge carrier is elaborated upon in Chap. 2. 1-2 FIELD INTENSITY, POTENTIAL, ENERGY By definition, the force F (newtons) on a unit positive charge in an electric field is the electric feld tntensity & at that point. Newton's second law determines the motion of a particle of charge 7 (coulombs), mass m (kilograms), moving with a velocity v (meters per second) in a field € (volts per meter) fe gem a) ‘The mks (meter-kilogram-seeoud) rationalized systom of units is fcund to be most convenient for aubsequont studies. Unless otherwise stated, this system of units is employed throughout this book. Potential By definition, the potential V (volta) of point B with respect to point A ie the work done against the eld in taking » unit positive charge from ‘A to B, This definition is valid for a three-dimensional field. For a one- dimensional problem with A at. and B at an arbitrary distance 2, it follows thet va- [rede a where & now represents the X component of the field, Differentiating Eq, 0-2) gives ae (3) ‘The minus sign shows that the electric field is directed from the region of higher potential to the region of lower potential. Tn threo dimensions, the clocitic field equals the negative gradient of the potentiat 4 The aymbol = in usod to designate “equal to by definition.”See 12 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS / 3 By definition, the potential energy U (joules) equals the potential multiplied by the charge q-under consideration, or : of the electronic charge) and U hes the same shape as ¥ but is inverted. equals the sum of the potenti constsnt, Thus, at any point im space, As an illustration of Fig. 1-12) separated 5 toward B. How much speed » will it have if it reaches B? that at gives poem a S < = “ be fo Fig. 1-1. (e) An electron leaves electrode A with on initial speed vs je cand moves in a retarding Aleld toward plote B; (b) the potential; (©) the potentiat-enersy berrier between electrodes. ? Kinetic] coerer, WU vay ay {an electron is being considered, gis replaced by —9 (where g is the magnitude ‘The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy W, which eneray U and the kinetic energy #rm?, remains W = U + gmo" = constant as) law, consider two parallel electrodes (4 and B of tance d, with B at a negative potential Y with respect to A. An electron leaves the surface of A with @ velocity rs in the direction From the definition, Bq. (1-2), it is clear that only differences of potential hove meaning, and hence let us arbitrarily ground 4, that is, eonsider it to be at zero potential. ‘Then the potential at B is Y= ~ Vs and the potential energy is U= —gV = q¥e Equieting the total energy at A to W = dno = pmo’ + g¥s (2-6)