CONTENT

SR No. Particular Remark

1. Introduction of Computer.
2. Internet.
3. Networking.
3.1. Local Area Network
3.2. Metro Politian Network
3.3. Wide Area Network
4. Network Topologies
5. HTML
6. MS Power point presentation on
any E-Commerce company.
 Introduction of Computer
Computer, device capable of performing a series of arithmetic or logical
operations. A computer is distinguished from a calculating machine, such as an
electronic calculator, by being able to store a computer program (so that it can
repeat its operations and make logical decisions), by the number and complexity
of the operations it can perform, and by its ability to process, store, and retrieve
data without human intervention. Computers developed along two separate
engineering paths, producing two distinct types of computer—analog and
digital. An analog computer operates on continuously varying data; a digital
computer performs operations on discrete data.

Advances in the technology of integrated circuits have spurred the development

of smaller and more powerful general-purpose digital computers. Not only has
this reduced the size of the large, multi-user mainframe computers—which in
their early years were large enough to walk through—to that of pieces of
furniture, but it has also made possible powerful, single-user personal
computers and workstations that can sit on a desktop or be easily carried. These,
because of their relatively low cost and versatility, have replaced typewriters in
the workplace and rendered the analog computer inefficient. The reduced size of
computer components has also led to the development of thin, lightweight
notebook computers and even smaller computer tablets and smartphones that
have much more computing and storage capacity than that of the desktop
computers that were available in the early 1990s.

Analog Computers
An analog computer represents data as physical quantities and operates on the
data by manipulating the quantities. It is designed to process data in which the
variable quantities vary continuously (see analog circuit); it translates the
relationships between the variables of a problem into analogous relationships
between electrical quantities, such as current and voltage, and solves the
original problem by solving the equivalent problem, or analog, that is set up in
its electrical circuits.

Digital Computers
A digital computer is designed to process data in numerical form (see digital
circuit); its circuits perform directly the mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. The numbers operated on by a digital
computer are expressed in the binary system; binary digits, or bits, are 0 and 1,
so that 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, etc., correspond to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.

Storage and Retrieval of Data

Associated with the CPU is the main storage, or memory, where results or other
data are stored for periods of time ranging from a small fraction of a second to
days or weeks before being retrieved for further processing. Once made up of
vacuum tubes and later of small doughnut-shaped ferromagnetic cores strung on
a wire matrix, main storage now consists of integrated circuits, each of may
contain billions of semiconductor devices. Where each vacuum tube or core
represented one bit and the total memory of the computer was measured in
thousands of bytes (or kilobytes, KB), modern computer memory chips
represent hundreds of millions of bytes (or megabytes, MB) and the total
memory of both personal and mainframe computers is measured in billions of
bytes (gigabytes, GB) or more. Read-only memory (ROM), which cannot be
written to, maintains its content at all times and is used to store the computer's
control information. Random-access memory (RAM), which both can be read
from and written to, is lost each time the computer is turned off.

Processing of Data
The operations of a digital computer are carried out by logic circuits, which are
digital circuits whose single output is determined by the conditions of the
inputs, usually two or more. The various circuits processing data in the
computer's interior must operate in a highly synchronized manner; this is
accomplished by controlling them with a very stable oscillator, which acts as
the computer's "clock." Typical personal computer clock rates now range from
several hundred million cycles per second to several billion.

Development of Computers
Although the development of digital computers is rooted in the abacus and early
mechanical calculating devices, Charles Babbage is credited with the design of
the first modern computer, the "analytical engine," during the 1830s. Vannevar
Bush built a mechanically operated device, called a differential analyzer, in
1930; it was the first general-purpose analog computer. John Atanasoff
constructed the first electronic digital computing device in 1939; a full-scale
version of the prototype was completed in 1942 at Iowa State College (now
Iowa State Univ.). In 1943 Conrad Zuse built the Z3, a fully operational
electromechanical computer.

During World War II, the Colossus was developed for British codebreakers; it
was the first programmable electronic digital computer. The Mark I, or
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, completed in 1944 at Harvard by
Howard Aiken, was the first machine to execute long calculations
automatically, while the first all-purpose electronic digital computer, ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), which used thousands of
vacuum tubes, was completed in 1946 at the Univ. of Pennsylvania. UNIVAC
(UNIVersal Automatic Computer) became (1951) the first computer to handle
both numeric and alphabetic data with equal facility; intended for business and
government use, this was the first widely sold commercial computer.

The World Wide Web was unveiled in 1990, and with the development of
graphical web browser programs in succeeding years the Web and the Internet
spurred the growth of general purpose home computing and the use of
computing devices as a means of social interaction. Smartphones, which
integrate a range of computer software with a cellular telephone that now
typically has a touchscreen interface, date to 2000 when a PDA was combined
with a cellphone. Although computer tablets date to the 1990s, they only
succeeded commercially in 2010 with the introduction of Apple's iPad, which
built on software developed for smartphones. The increasing screen size on
some smartphones has made them the equivalent of smaller computer tablets,
leading some to call them phablets.
 Internet
The Internet (contraction of interconnected network) is the global system of
interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)
to link devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private,
public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope,
linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and
services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the
World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. Some
publications no longer capitalize "internet".

History
Research into packet switching, one of the fundamental Internet technologies,
started in the early 1960s in the work of Paul Baran and Donald Davies. Packet-
switched networks such as the NPL network, ARPANET, the Merit Network,
CYCLADES, and Telenet were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking,
by which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of
networks. ARPANET development began with two network nodes which were
interconnected between the Network Measurement Center at the University of
California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Henry Samueli School of Engineering and
Applied Science directed by Leonard Kleinrock, and the NLS system at SRI
International (SRI) by Douglas Engelbart in Menlo Park, California, on 29
October 1969. The third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics
Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the
University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of future growth,
fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These
early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds
of Resource Sharing.

Governance
Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IP addresses:
 African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa
 American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America
 Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the
Pacific region
 Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC)
for Latin America and the Caribbean region
 Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for
Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.
 Networking
Computer networks consist of multiple computers and other electrical devices
linked together. Networks are classified as local area networks (LANs) or wide
area networks (WANs). The difference between LANs and WANs is usually
determined by the length of the network. Generally, a LAN's distance includes only
several hundred yards. LANs reside mostly in offices, work areas, classrooms, one
building, or within several buildings. WANs exist over many miles, across several
cities, and even around the world. WANs are multifaceted and complex networks.
They require many devices that connect different computers using diverse
communication services. WAN communication speed, reliability, and connectivity
are more challenging to manage than those of a LAN.

HISTORICAL ACHIEVEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION AND

TRANSPORTATION

Networks were developed as a communication method between computers at

remote sites. They trace their roots back to nineteenth-century communication and
transportation historical achievements. In America, people have always strived for
faster travel and communication systems, particularly between the East and West
Coasts. These systems included technology and experiments of varying
complexity. For example, the Pony Express operated between 1860 and 1861. It
provided seven-day mail service between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Sacramento,
California.

In 1861 the Western Union Telegraph Company replaced the Pony Express and
provided a faster, more reliable communication service. Furthermore, the
transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory, Utah, in 1869. These
events improved the telegraph industry. The telephone was invented in 1876, and
the first transcontinental telephone line was joined at Wendover, Utah, in 1915.
This national telephone network provided a foundation for the wide area computer
networks that evolved later in the twentieth century.

LANs consist of computers, scanners, printers, and cables, which are privately
owned. WANs connect computers, scanners, printers, and other devices that
sometimes may be leased or rented from public and private telephone companies or
data communication companies. These networks place high demands on security
and reliability.

In addition, the communication line or medium that a company uses for its network
is either cable or a wireless technology. When a business creates a WAN, it might
not manage all the lines. Sometimes a business leases lines from a communication
company. These companies are data and voice carriers such as MCI, Sprint,
Verizon, Williams Communications, and AT&T. In these cases, the WAN is not
entirely owned by the initial business. The business owns the line up to the point
where the handoff with the data carrier occurs. Then, the carrier company handles
the transfer of data and hands it back to the business's private LAN network at a
location many miles away.

Local Area Network (LAN)

A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small
area. Most often, a LAN is confined to a single room, building or group of
buildings, however, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance
via telephone lines and radio waves.

A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN).

The difference between a LAN and WAN is that the wide-area network spans a
relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-
area networks (LANs) and are often connected through public networks.

Nodes on a LAN

Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual
computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it also
is able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many
users can share expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can
also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending email or engaging in
chat sessions.

LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than data can
be transmitted over a telephone line; but the distances are limited and there is also a
limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.

Recommended Reading: Webopedia's Network Topology Study Guide.

Types of Local-Area Networks (LANs)

There are many different types of LANs, with Ethernets being the most common
for PCs. Most Apple Macintosh networks are based on Apple's AppleTalk network
system, which is built into Macintosh computers. The following characteristics
differentiate one LAN from another:

 Topology: The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For

example, devices can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
 Protocols: The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The
protocols also determine whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or
client/server architecture.
 Media: Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or
fiber optic cables. Some networks do without connecting media altogether,
communicating instead via radio waves.
 Metropolitan Area Network
Definition - What does Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) mean?

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but
spans an entire city or campus. MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs.
Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than wide area networks (WAN).

MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed
carriers, such as fiber optic cables.

Explains Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is ideal for many kinds of network users because it is a medium-size

network. MANs are used to build networks with high data connection speeds for
cities and towns.

The working mechanism of a MAN is similar to an Internet Service Provider (ISP),

but a MAN is not owned by a single organization. Like a WAN, a MAN provides
shared network connections to its users. A MAN mostly works on the data link
layer, which is Layer 2 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) is the MAN standard specified by the
Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineers (IEEE) as IEEE 802.6. Using this
standard, a MAN extends up to 30-40 km, or 20-25 miles.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale
geographical area. A WAN connects different smaller networks, including local
area networks (LANs) and metro area networks (MANs). This ensures that
computers and users in one location can communicate with computers and users in
other locations. WAN implementation can be done either with the help of the
public transmission system or a private network.

Explains Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas.
WANs are similar to a banking system, where hundreds of branches in different
cities are connected with each other in order to share their official data.

A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically,

TCP/IP is the protocol used for a WAN in combination with devices such as
routers, switches, firewalls and modems.
 Network Topologies
A network topology is the arrangement of nodes -- usually switches, routers, or
software switch/router features -- and connections in a network, often represented
as a graph. The topology of the network, and the relative locations of the source
and destination of traffic flows on the network, determine the optimum path for
each flow and the extent to which redundant options for routing exist in the event
of a failure. There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical
topology and the logical (or signal) topology.

Types of Network Tolpologies

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,

connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called
Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

 It transmits data only in one direction.

 Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

  It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Cables fails then whole network fails.

 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to

another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours

for each device.

Advantages of Ring Topology

  Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more
nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
  Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes

are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

Routing

Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance.
Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those
node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data.
But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in
the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or
three devices.

Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.

Features of Mesh Topology

 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

  Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

 Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Extension of bus and star topologies.

 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
  If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.

For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology
(ring topology and star topology).

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

 Complex in design.
 Costly.
 HTML
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard markup language for creating
web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and
JavaScript, it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web.

Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage
and render the documents into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the
structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the
appearance of the document.

History of HTML

November 24, 1995

HTML 2.0 was published as RFC 1866. Supplemental RFCs added capabilities:

 November 25, 1995: RFC 1867 (form-based file upload)

 May 1996: RFC 1942 (tables)
 August 1996: RFC 1980 (client-side image maps)
 January 1997: RFC 2070 (internationalization)

January 14, 1997

HTML 3.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It was the first version
developed and standardized exclusively by the W3C, as the IETF had closed its
HTML Working Group on September 12, 1996.

Initially code-named "Wilbur", HTML 3.2 dropped math formulas entirely,

reconciled overlap among various proprietary extensions and adopted most of
Netscape's visual markup tags. Netscape's blink element and Microsoft's marquee
element were omitted due to a mutual agreement between the two companies. A
markup for mathematical formulas similar to that in HTML was not standardized
until 14 months later in MathML.

December 18, 1997

HTML 4.0 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers three variations:

 Strict, in which deprecated elements are forbidden

 Transitional, in which deprecated elements are allowed
 Frameset, in which mostly only frame related elements are allowed.

Initially code-named "Cougar", HTML 4.0 adopted many browser-specific

element types and attributes, but at the same time sought to phase out Netscape's
visual markup features by marking them as deprecated in favor of style sheets.
HTML 4 is an SGML application conforming to ISO 8879 – SGML.

April 24, 1998

HTML 4.0was reissued with minor edits without incrementing the version
number.

December 24, 1999

HTML 4.01 was published as a W3C Recommendation. It offers the same three
variations as HTML 4.0 and its last errata were published on May 12, 2001.

May 2000

ISO/IEC 15445:2000 ("ISO HTML", based on HTML 4.01 Strict) was published
as an ISO/IEC international standard. In the ISO this standard falls in the domain of
the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC34 (ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 34
– Document description and processing languages).

After HTML 4.01, there was no new version of HTML for many years as
development of the parallel, XML-based language XHTML occupied the W3C's
HTML Working Group through the early and mid-2000s.
October 28, 2014

HTML5 was published as a W3C Recommendation.

November 1, 2016

HTML 5.1 was published as a W3C Recommendation.

December 14, 2017

HTML 5.2 was published as a W3C Recommendation.

HTML draft version timeline

October 1991

HTML Tags an informal CERN document listing 18 HTML tags, was first
mentioned in public.

June 1992

First informal draft of the HTML DTD, with seven subsequent revisions (July
15, August 6, August 18, November 17, November 19, November 20, November
22)

November 1992

HTML DTD 1.1 (the first with a version number, based on RCS revisions, which
start with 1.1 rather than 1.0), an informal draft

June 1993

Hypertext Markup Language was published by the IETF IIIR Working Group as
an Internet Draft (a rough proposal for a standard). It was replaced by a second
version one month later, followed by six further drafts published by IETF itself that
finally led to HTML 2.0 in RFC 1866.

November 1993
 HTML+ was published by the IETF as an Internet Draft and was a competing
proposal to the Hypertext Markup Language draft. It expired in May 1994.

April 1995 (authored March 1995)

HTML 3.0 was proposed as a standard to the IETF, but the proposal expired five
months later (28 September 1995) without further action. It included many of the
capabilities that were in Raggett's HTML+ proposal, such as support for tables, text
flow around figures and the display of complex mathematical formulas.

W3C began development of its own Arena browser as a test bed for HTML 3
and Cascading Style Sheets, but HTML 3.0 did not succeed for several reasons.
The draft was considered very large at 150 pages and the pace of browser
development, as well as the number of interested parties, had outstripped the
resources of the IETF. Browser vendors, including Microsoft and Netscape at the
time, chose to implement different subsets of HTML 3's draft features as well as to
introduce their own extensions to it. These included extensions to control stylistic
aspects of documents, contrary to the "belief of the academic engineering
community] that such things as text color, background texture, font size and font
face were definitely outside the scope of a language when their only intent was to
specify how a document would be organized." Dave Raggett, who has been a W3C
Fellow for many years, has commented for example: "To a certain extent,
Microsoft built its business on the Web by extending HTML features."

January 2008

HTML5 was published as a Working Draft by the W3C.

Although its syntax closely resembles that of SGML, HTML5 has abandoned
any attempt to be an SGML application and has explicitly defined its own "html"
serialization, in addition to an alternative XML-based XHTML5 serialization.

2011 HTML5 – Last Call

 On 14 February 2011, the W3C extended the charter of its HTML Working
Group with clear milestones for HTML5. In May 2011, the working group
advanced HTML5 to "Last Call", an invitation to communities inside and outside
W3C to confirm the technical soundness of the specification. The W3C developed
a comprehensive test suite to achieve broad interoperability for the full
specification by 2014, which was the target date for recommendation. In January
2011, the WHATWG renamed its "HTML5" living standard to "HTML". The W3C
nevertheless continues its project to release HTML5.

2012 HTML5 – Candidate Recommendation

In July 2012, WHATWG and W3C decided on a degree of separation. W3C will
continue the HTML5 specification work, focusing on a single definitive standard,
which is considered as a "snapshot" by WHATWG. The WHATWG organization
will continue its work with HTML5 as a "Living Standard". The concept of a living
standard is that it is never complete and is always being updated and improved.
New features can be added but functionality will not be removed.

In December 2012, W3C designated HTML5 as a Candidate Recommendation.

The criterion for advancement to W3C Recommendation is "two 100% complete
and fully interoperable implementations".

2014 HTML5 – Proposed Recommendation and Recommendation

In September 2014, W3C moved HTML5 to Proposed Recommendation. On 28

October 2014, HTML5 was released as a stable W3C Recommendation, meaning
the specification process is complete.