CHAPTER 4 :

REPRODUCTION &GROWTH
part 1

THEME: Physiology of living things

Gamete Formation
˜ No individual organism can live forever.
˜ Every living organism has only a certain
lifespan.
˜ Therefore, living organisms have to reproduce
to increase their numbers.
˜ 2 Organisms reproduce to ernsure the
continuation of the species
˜ and to pass dowrr their genes to future
generations.
Types of Reproduction
˜ Reproduction is the production of new
individuals from living organisms.
˜ There are two types of reproduction: asexual
reproduction and sexual reproduction.
˜ Asexual reproduction is the production of new
individuals by living organism without using
gamete
˜ Sexual reproduction is the production of new
individuals by living organisms using gamete
jEYWORDS
English Malay
Asexual reproduction Pembiakan aseks
Menstruation
Fertilisation
Pollination
Sexual reproduction Pembiakan seks
Puberty
Sterility
Germination
The necessity for organisms to
reproduce :
4 To generate offspring
4 To pass down of an individual¶s genes
4 To ensure the continuity of the species
4 To produce new generation
The necessity for the formation of
gametes :
_ Ensure the r

 of species
_ Maintain the ë ë chromosomal number
_ Ensure genetic i
 

_ Provide better O
ii r
r
for the
offspring to overcome an ever changing
environment
In humans :
v The male gametes sperms
(spermatozoa) ± produced in male
reproductive organs ± 
O
O

v The female gametes ova are

produced in female reproductive organs -
i

O
Gametes must be produced with
haploid numbers of chromosomes
to ensure the zygotes formed are
always ë ë
Sexual & Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction
Devide to

Asexual Sexual
Such as

‡Binary fission
‡Budding
‡Spore formation
‡Vegetative reproduction
‡Regeneration
Binary Fission
˜ A parent cell reproduce asexually by
dividing itself into two new offspring
˜ Each two daughter cells in an exact copy of
it parent and will divide again when fully
grown
˜ Example: Amoebae
Binary Fission
1 2

Amoebae Nucleus

3 4
Budding
˜ A parent body reproduces asexually by
forming which will eventually break off
˜ Each bud becomes a new individual
˜ Each bud becomes an adult & reproduces
again
˜ Example: Hydra
Budding
ºë
Spore Formation
˜ Fungi, mosses, liverworts & fern reproduce
asexually by producing spores
Vegetative Reproduction
˜ Through vegetative parts which can grow into
new offspring
˜ Example:
˜ Bryophyllum- reproduce by their leaves
˜ Carrot- reproduce by tap root

potato
Regeneration
˜ Parent body breaks into pieces
˜ Each of the pieces can grow into a new
individual
˜ Example: starfish

Broken part
Sexual Reproduction
˜ Involves both a male &
a female organism
˜ The male produce
sperms or spermatozoa
˜ The female produce
eggs or ova/ ovum
˜ Sperm & egg called
gametes
Two gametes fuse to form a zygote

§

 
Fertilisation
˜ A sperm & an egg fuse to form zygote
˜ The zygote through to form an embryo
˜ 2 type of fertilisation:
˜ External fertilisation
˜ Internal fertilisation
External fertilisation
˜ Fetilisation occurs outside the body of a male
organism
Internal fertilisation
˜ Fertilisation occurs inside the body of female
organism
The male reproductive system
˜ External genitalia :
4 Gonads - testes
4 Scrotum
4 Penis
Male system
 Cross section of testes
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Structure of a sperm
SPERMATOGENESIS
‰ Spermatozoa formation
‰ takes about 65-75 days
‰ occurs in the densely coiled seminiferous
tubules
` Consists of 2 types of cells :
` Germinal epithelial cell
` Sertoli cells
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
v A pair of ovaries
v Fallopian tubes
v Uterus
v Cervix
v Vagina
v Vulva
Female Reproductive System
Ovaries
˜ The i

O are the female sex organs.
˜ They produce the gamete or ovum.
˜ They also make the female hormones
oestrogen and progesteron (between 10 and
15 years).
Fallopian tube
˜ An ovum is released about every 28 days.
˜ The ovum passes out of the ovary and
moves into the   


.
˜ This is called ovulation
˜ Place for fertilisation
Uterus
˜ The ovum slowly moves down towards the


O (womb).
˜ Place for implantation (attachment of
embryo)
˜ Houses the developing embryo and feotus
˜ If the ovum is not fertilised it will dies after
about a day.
Cervix
˜ The lower end of the uterus has a ring of
muscle called the r

i.
˜ It leads to a muscular tube called the
i 
that opens to the outside of the
body
.
STRUCTURE OF OVUM
OOGENESIS

_ Formation of oocytes
_ Begins in the developing ovaries of a
female foetus b4 birth
˜ During fetal development females have

 which are diploid sex cells.
˜ While still in the womb the oogonia divide by
mitosis to form ½-1 million 

 r
O.
˜ These primary oocytes will begin the first
meiotic division but stall during prophase I.
˜ The female is born with these primary
oocytes.
˜ By the time the female reaches puberty
approximately 40,000 of the primary oocytes
will remain.
˜ Beginning during puberty, each month
hormones from the anterior pituitary stimulate
a primary oocyte to complete the first meiotic
division generating two O
r
ë
 r
Oof
unequal size.
˜ The smaller secondary oocyte is called a
 

ë, containing one set of
chromosomes.
˜ The larger secondary oocyte is the i 
(egg) that will be released from the ovary for
fertilization by the spermatozoa.
˜ Only if the ovum is fertilized will it continue
the second meiotic division.
˜ If fertilized, the ovum divides again to
produce a second polar body, with the
fertilized ovum forming the diploid zygote.
˜ If the ovum is not fertilized within 24 hours
after release it will be broken down.
ovum formation in humans
˜ Oogenesis is the formation of ovum that starts in the2 ovaries of a
female foetus before birth.
˜ The germinal epithelial cells near the surface of the ovary divide
repeatedly by mitosis into diploid oogonia (singular,oogonium).
˜ The oogonia grow to form primary oocytes.
˜ Each oocyte is surrounded by a layer of follicle cells.
˜ The cells provide nutrients to the developing oocyte and secrete the
sex hormone, oestrogen.
˜ The diploid primary oocyte and the follicle cells form a primary
follicle
ovum formation in humans
˜ At birth, the female baby has about 2 million primary oocytes
but remain dormant until puberty.
˜ Less than 400 000 follicles mature while the rest degenerate
and die.
˜ During foetal stage, all primary oocytes undergo meiosis but
stop at prophase I of meiosis I.
˜ Every month from puberty onwards, many primary oorytes
become active and grow but only one oocyte matures.
˜ This oocyte completes meiosis I to become a secondary oocyte
and a tiny polar body.
˜ Both of them are haploid
˜ The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II until
˜ metaphase II.
˜ It is lined by layers of follicle cells and
together they are called a secondary follicle.
˜ The first polar body may complete meiosis II
to form 2 haploid polar bodies.
˜ The secondary follicle increases in size and
matures to form the Graafian follicle
˜ At about 28 days intervals, the Graafian follicle and
part of the ovary wall break up and release the
secondary oocyte.
˜ The release of the secondary oocyte from the ovary
is known as ovulation.
˜ The secondary oocyte enters rhe fallopian tube.
˜ If a sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte during
fertilization, meiosis II is completed and 2 haploid
cells of different sizes are formed
˜ The larger cell is the ovum whereas the smaller cell is the
second polar body.
˜ The nuclei of the ovum and the sperm fuse to form a diploid
zygote (2n).
˜ Thus, a primary oocyte eventually becomes a haploid ovum (n)
and 3 haploid polar bodies (n).
˜ All polar bodies degenerate and die.
˜ Once the Graafian follicle has released its oocyte, it develops
into a yellowish mass of cells called corpus luteum.
˜ If pregnancy does not take place, the corpus luteum begins to
˜ degenerate afrer approximately 10 days.
˜ If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum does not degenerate but
will continue to produce sex hormones (oestrogen and
progesterone).
˜ The whole process of developmenr and formation of ova is
regulated very sysrematically by hormones
COMPARISON
SIMILARITIES
` Both processes takes place in reproductive
organs
` Involve meiosis I and meiosis II
` Produce haploid gametes
` Ensure the success of fertilisation
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Sperms Gametes produced Ovum
Testes Place of formation Ovaries
Small Size of gametes Large
Has head, Shape of gametes Round
midpiece and tail

Continuous Meiotic division Not continuous

Four No. of gametes One (3 polar

produced during bodies
meiosis degenerated)
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Divide by mitosis Germinal Divide by mitosis
throughout the epithelial cells during foetal
adult life of men stage. At birth, an
after puberty ovary contains all
the primary
oocytes ± develop
into ova
Meiosis I and II Completion of Meiosis II
are usually meiotic division completes ONLY
completed IF the 20 oocyte is
fertilised by a
sperm
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Cytoplasm are Cytokinesis Unequal
equally distributed in distribution as
all four sperm cells almost all the
produced cytoplasm
contained in the 20
oocyte and ovum
while all the small
polar bodies
finally degerate