BOOK REVIEW:

THE SOCIAL CONTRACT

By J.J ROUSSEAU

Submitted by: Muhammad Zeeshan

Submitted to: Mam. Sadia Rafique
Roll No: 1210 (MA.PS)
Class: Section B
Semester: Four (4)

Department of Political Science

INTRODUCTION:

Here the chapter wise summary of the book “THE SOCIAL CONTRACT” by J.J Rousseau. The
book consists four books, each of them further subdivide into chapters. Book 1 consist of 9
chapters, book 2 consist of 12 chapters, book 3 consists of 18 chapters and Book 4 consists of 8
chapters. Here is the brief review based on general analysis of all the chapters of the Rousseau
book “THE SOCIAL CONTRACT”.

BOOK NO#1:

Book 1 consist of 9 chapters. The summary of each is the following.

CHAPTER NO: (1)

The chapter one start with the discussion "all men are born free but everywhere
they are in chain”. So, what are the causes that restrict the liberty of man and why man become
subordinate to the sovereign.

CHAPTER NO: (2) (The First Society)

The main causes that restrict human liberty is its interaction in community. Family is
first and natural society for man. where he is bound to follow his father. Father is the chief in
the family and other family members are like population. Every individual has to follow the
direction of father, because they are dependent on father. In this way a man subordinate to the
authority and restrict his liberty.

Aristotle called this kind of relation as master-salve relation that are good for subordinate
(acquire experience and promotes its utility).
CHAPTER NO: (3) (The Rights of strong)

According to Rosseau people obey the stronger not by choice but because of necessity.
The stronger can legitimate everything by using power to compel the people. People obey it up
to certain extent because as the subordinate gain as much as power that he can face the
stronger, it will nullify all the previous restriction by the stronger.

CHAPTER NO: (4) (Slavery)

Chapter four consist of diverse ideas of Grotius and Rousseau regarding right and
slavery. According to Rousseau naturally all men are equal, none is superior to other and all
legitimate authority are based on conventions. Therefore, right cannot be established by force.

According to Grotius" the state would be legitimate if the people are slave and
government is their master”. But this concept of Grotius rejected by the Rousseau who argue
that before the king the citizen compromise their liberty in return, they gain something and this
remain up to the process of give and take. But if the king compels the citizen for do more, they
will not ready to do so. This whole argument clarify that right and legitimate authority could not
be establish by force.

Rousseau also reject the Grotius views regarding slavery according to whom, “slavery is
the compromise or contract between master and servant”. But Rousseau argue that there is no
possible compromise for a person who already give up its liberty.

CHAPTER NO: (5,6) (The social contract)

Chapter 5 and 6 is about the contract between the people leave in the state of nature.
According to Rousseau the people in the state of nature Faced various problems and it became
difficult for everyone to overcome. Therefore, they start to form society. In which every person
sacrifices its liberty (liberty means to do anything whatever u wish). All the member gave their
all rights to the community as a whole. And thus, any association of individuals with the same
interest established, which was organized called the state.
 Rousseau discuss the whole scene in the following words; “To find a form of
association which shall defend and protect with the public force the person and property of
each associate, and by means of which each uniting, with all, shall obey however only himself
remained as free as before”.i

CHAPTER NO: (7) (The Sovereign)

Chapter 7 is about the sovereign authority. According to Rousseau sovereign is unified

distinct against or whole. Since no individual is bound to the contract made with himself, no
obligatory regulation on an individual. According to Rousseau after the social contract the
individuals are personally independent and by obeying the laws an individual obey himself, not
any other else because it is based on general will. However, the sovereign cannot do anything
that endanger the social contract. He will do his best to serve the people. As the sovereign is
established and formed by the individual’s body. Therefore, the sovereign must have the same
interest as that of the public but public interest may not be similar with the sovereign.

Rousseau further added that as individual is self -interest and to pursuit own interest it
will violate the general interest. So, it is the duty of sovereign to impose rules and law to force
the unwilling individuals to obey the general will.

CHAPTER NO: (8) (The civil State)

The chapter is about civil-state that emerged after the social contrasts. The state of
nature converts into civil -state. In the state of nature people with follow their physical implies.
There was the concept of natural right. But after the transition of the state of nature into
civilized state, the individual provides all their possessions to the community, because the
people were morally and mentally developed and the sovereign provide better protection to
their properties than another else. The social inequality in the state of nature abolished by the
civil-state and introduce the concept of justice and equally of all before the sovereign.
CHAPTER NO: (9) (The real estate)

Chapter 9 is the concluding chapter of book 1 Rousseau conclude his book one with the
discussion of property. According to him the legitimize land is that if the owner has the land
according to its needs, the land will legitimize if no one other claims over it. In the social
contract all individuals surrender their all possessions including their property and ownself to
the community. But by doing so they remain as free as before because the rules and regulation
of the community are based on general will. And general will is not the particular will but the
will of all individuals.

Book#2
The Book 2 consist of 12 Chapters, which are the following in the form of brief
summaries respectively.

CHAPTER NO: (1) (sovereignty is inalienable)

The chapter 1 of the book 2 discuss the point that the sovereignty is inalienable means
untransferable. As only the general will can direct the forces of community towards common
good. And as general will cannot be alienated and transferred to other because it is the will of
all not a particular one. Similarly, sovereign is also a collective being it can be represented just
be the sovereign itself, not by other. The sovereign power might be delegate power but not
sovereignty. The general will and particular will might interact temporarily but not permanently
because particular will tend towards favoritism while general will tend towards equality.

This shows that private individual might have general interest but it cannot represent
the interest of the whole or general interest and it might not share the general interest in all
circumstances. Therefore, it is the only one, sovereign who represent the general will by itself,
not by someone other.

CHAPTER NO: (2) (Sovereign is indivisible)

In this chapter Rousseau claimed that sovereignty is indivisible. It cannot be divided.

General will is the will of all citizens, not a particular one. Similarly, the sovereign expresses the
will of all the people as whole -the expression of general will would take the form of law while
the expression of particular will would take the form of law while the expression of particular
will would take the application of law. This means that the decision (such as war decision
administrator act etc.) taken by the sovereign would not be take into consideration the will of
the general people. From this it is clear out that sovereign authority is used just by one single
man and cannot be shared with others. Rousseau criticize the concept that sovereign power is
divided in between the governmental organs example, judiciary, legislative. while telling that
these are the institutions working out under the supervision of general will.

CHAPTER NO: (3) (Can the general will be wrong)

The general will, is always right and promote the utility of all public. Because it is the
will of all and represents the interest of all individual of the society.

Rosseau make distinction between the general will and will of all. General will is as
discussed above the common will of the public. But will of all means the individual will of all the
people in the society. Now if all the individual will, are same and they have common objective
and common interest then it would become a general will. Similarly, one case is other, if there
are various groups each group with particular interest or will. They will also different from the
general will. Similarly, if one group’s will (a particular will) become large enough to dominate
others-it would also not become the general will because again the general will is the common
will of all the individuals of the society not a particular one (either individual or group).
CHAPTER NO: (4) (The limits of sovereign power)

In this chapter Rousseau highlight the limits of sovereign power. According to him, all
individuals would provide their services and duties on account of state preservation and the
commons interest, as soon as the sovereign demands. But sovereign cannot impose obligations
on certain individual which are not concern with the common good, Similarly, a sovereign
cannot call for services to any individual more than other because here the matter moves from
general to particular. Furthermore, the sovereign can deal only with those affairs and matters
of individuals that effects the common goods, if some action of any individual nothing to do
with the common goal, the sovereign has nothing to do with such act of individual. This shows
overall that sovereign can take all those services from any individual that are common to all and
interfere in all those matters of any individual only that effect the interest of all population

CHAPTER NO: (5) (The right of life and death):

In this chapter Rousseau discuss the sovereign can demands from the citizens for their
own protection after protecting the state. He also playing that although a man does not have
the right to commit suicide, yet he can sacrifice his life for the sake of state and society i.e. for
the common interest of all. Because the purpose of social contract that everyone would ready
to sacrifice their lives for the interest of community for the protection of state.

Furthermore, Rousseau discuss that sovereign has the power to determine, whether an
individual should to be live or die. In case when the respective individual violates the law, which
would be ultimately the violation of law. And violator of the social contract is traitor or the
enemy of the state. And the enemy of the state must be exiled or put to death. The pardon of
the violator and punishment of the violator both shows the states weakness.

CHAPTER NO: (6) (The law)

The above all discussion can be concluded on the point that finally a body politics or
state came into being after the social contract among the individual.
 But here the question arises that how the order or the body politic structure would be
maintained. And this question paved way for the discussion of law. Law is basically an abstract
expression of the general will that is applied universally. The laws are made by the people as a
whole and be applied on them as a whole. The law can never deal with a particular individual or
particular group of individual.

If a law has certain privileges for certain individual or certain group of individual then
again, the certain individual and certain group of individual not particularized. The law is
formulated by the people as a whole because without the public approval a law cannot become
a law.

CHAPTER NO: (7) (The Law Maker)

Now the next question arose is that who will formulate the law and how. According
to Rousseau “Legislator “would formulate the law. Legislature, according to Rousseau, is a man
of high intellect and more intelligential than other people. He will protect the law from the
manipulation of particular will or private will. The legislator would be the man of extraordinary
qualities -he would be able to formulate the laws while taking into account in its future and
present days efficiency. So, the laws formulated by the legislator must be followed by the
people because it represents and protect the interest and will of all not a particular individual
or group.

CHAPTER NO: (8,9,10) (The people)

The chapter 8,9,10 all discuss the people or public of the state.

The 8th chapter is about the public and law. According to Rousseau the societies are
different in different time. Therefore, some laws that might be good but the public are so ill
equipped that enable to follow even the good law. There is a revolutionary movement that can
spark a new age in the society but this happen once in the life. Therefore, according to
Rousseau, a legislature should to wait for the maturity of the society-then to formulate
laws.
 Chapter 9 discuss the territorial limit of a state. The territory of a state should not be
large enough so that it causes administrative issues and the government become unable to
implement Law and order in its full zeal. Moreover, vast territory requires complex
administrative setup that would cause expensiveness. The territory should not be too small, so
it may be difficult for them to protect against foreign invasions.

The chapter 10 deals with the issue, that what should be amount of people and extent
of territory. Therefore, there is no specific constant amount. But there should be appropriate
number of people and extent territory. The proper ratio between the two would ensure
effective administration, law and rules enforcement, the protection of territory and the people
in true sense.

CHAPTER NO: (11,12)

According to Roseau laws should be based on promotion of liberty and equality. Equality
does not in a sense that everyone has equal amount of wealth and power. But law should be
ensuring no power misuse and violation. And there should not be enough wealth that one can
buy the freedom and liberty of someone, or the wealth should not be so minimum that one had
to sell itself. This kind of equality may not achieve in practical world but it should be the goal of
legislature.

BOOK 3:
The Book 3 consist of 18 Chapters, which are the following in the form of brief summaries
respectively.

CHAPTER NO: (1) (Government)

the chapter one of book 3 deal with an explanation of government and executive powers.
According to Rousseau the will of the body politics/state are composed in the shape of laws, but
these can be enforced through the strength of executive powers. because it is the government
function to apply and enforced the laws. The government deal with the particular or specific
matters while sovereign deal with General matters. Whenever the two confused with each other
the danger may raise.

There is no social contract between the government and society like state and rest
of the people(society). Therefore, the people cannot surrender their power towards government
and can modify if it disobeys the general will. The government has to follow the will of sovereign
while sovereign has to follow the will of own. which is actually the will of all people.

As each individual is considered a small part of the sovereign. But in large territorial
state the inclination of each individual decrease. Therefore, executive is requiring to bring them
on track.so as much power a government possess, it would enable as much to put the people on
track. But it is also a problem that power make mind corrupt.

Therefore, Rousseau suggest a general formula, that the power ratio between the government
and people must be in proportion to the power Ration between government and sovereign.

CHAPTER NO: (2,3) (classification of Government)

It is about the different form of government and division of government. A government in

which the sovereign powers belong to all the citizens of the society/state is called Democracy,
the types of government in which the sovereign power exercised by small number of individuals
is called “Aristocracy” and the form of government in which the power possessed by a single
individual called ‘’Monarchy”. The placement or providing power to the people (Democracy), to
the few people (In Aristocracy) and to the single individual(monarchy)are done by sovereign.

The population of a state is also the most important factor. The size of state increase,
the willingness towards the state’s laws are decreases and thus the preference to the private will
over general will dominated. It is all because of poor connect between people and government
due to enlargement of size.

Rousseau suggests that small populated state would bitterly governed. Moreover,
we claimed that the democratic government is suited for the small size population, Aristocratic
form of government is suited for medium size population and the monarchy in suited for the
large population or large populated state. This is based on the inverse relationship between the
size the government and the size of state.

CHAPTER NO: (4) (Democracy)

In chapter 4 Rousseau discuss the democracy; According to him democracy causes civil
war ad internal conflicts, it is difficult for commoner to maintain it. Only gods could govern
themselves democratically. He provides following conditionalities to materialization of
democratic form of government among the humans,

1. The size of state should be very small

2. The people must similar moral attitude and habits.
3. Every citizen would have equal economic assets. Otherwise economic inequality
would cause power difference, which would negate the essence of democracy.
4. There would be no luxury because luxury also create rich and poor class.

These all are very hard; Therefore, Rousseau is very skeptical about the viability of democracy.

CHAPTER NO: (5) (Aristocracy)

Chapter 5 is about Aristocratic form of government Aristocracy in that form of

government in which there is the rule of few. Rousseau presents 3 form of Aristocracy;
a) natural Aristocracy
b) Hereditary Aristocracy
c) Elective Aristocracy

a). Natural aristocracy: Which was frequently found in primitive civilization where elders
and heads of families govern a village or tribe.

b). Hereditary Aristocracy: which Rousseau consider the worst of all forms of aristocracy
where certain family hold on governing others.

c). Elective Aristocracy: according to Rousseau, the best form of all Aristocratic forms,
where the rulers are publicly elected according to their will.
CHAPTER NO: (6) (Monarchy)

In chapter 6 Rousseau present his view regarding monarchy. He has strong reservation
regarding monarch govt form because it is the best suitable form of government to govern the
large size of population (for which king monarch set the subordinate rank within own
supervision). But the problem is that concentration of power moreover due such power a king
can achieve absolute powerful position by subjecting the rest of citizens through coercive
measures.

Rousseau also confused that monarchy should be elected on inherited based because the
election will prone towards corruption and inherited nature would prone towards incompetency
of the successor. Therefore, according to Rousseau, it is difficult to find out a good king.

CHAPTER NO: (7) (Mix Government)

In chapter 7, Rousseau discuss mixed form of government because the above discussed 3
form of government are hard to established therefore there should be simple mix form of govt.
In order to maintain balance of power.

CHAPTER NO: (8)

According to Rousseau freedom is essential but it cannot be acquired in all possible

environment. As the govt didn’t produced any goods, it depends on the surplus extracted from
the people by imposing taxes this depends on the relationship between individual and state,
therefore in democracy the surplus is very least than in monarchy. Rousseau further added that
climate also suggest/determinant up to greater extend the form of government. The cold
northern areas have democratic govt with least surplus generation but on other hand in the
southern hot areas there is monarchy with greater surplus. The people of hot area eat very little.
CHAPTER NO: (9)

In chapter is about good form of govt according to which it is impossible to find out and
determine which form of government is ideal without knowing the condition of a particular
country. However, the one measure of good governance, according to Rousseau is increasing
population. Increase in population would ensure that government is promoting the prosperity of
its member. Rousseau asserts that the govt under which the citizens become populous and
multiply is the best government.

CHAPTER NO: (10,11)

It is about the friction between govt and sovereignty- this would result in degeneration
of govt either government will contact from democracy to aristocracy or aristocracy to monarch
or the state would dissolve itself when the government usurp the sovereign power. Such
usurpation would destroy the social contract and thus the citizen would become free from all
social obligations of the contract.

CHAPTER NO: (12,13,14)

The chapter 12,13,14 are about how sovereign authority is maintaining legislature
or law formulation is the best way to present and express the general will. It is important that all
citizen need in assemblies, but this is very difficult. This was happened in the large city of Rome
and Greek even today is also possible, but the problem is that they become very lazy. It is not
difficult to unite various cities and assembled their citizen. The assembly should not be fixed in
one city but oriented in various cities.

CHAPTER NO: (15)

Chapter 15 is about deputies and representatives according to Rousseau, population

often doesn’t want to assemble to exercise legislative power, rather they elect representative or
deputies. They pay representatives or mercenaries rather than serve the state themselves.
Rousseau notes that the ancient Greek were able to assemble regularly large because slaves must
do their works. In the modern world people have enslaved themselves by electing representative
to exercise power and freedom on their behalf.

CHAPTER NO: (16,17)

The chapter tell about that they contract was not between the govt and people but in
between sovereign leader. The sovereign is the supreme power of state and it is not obliged to
the govt the contract between a leader and people would be an act not a law.

The sovereign would appoint certain people to the govt to implement the laws. And in the
situation according Rousseau the sovereign delivers temporary base executive power to the govt.

CHAPTER NO: (18)

The last chapter of book three is about how-to restraint the govt from usurping
according to Rousseau the problem can be solved through the assembled of people to access the
govt activities. The gathering of people would rise the questions.

Do they approve the present form of govt?

Do they approve the current officials of govt?

BOOK:4
 The Book 4 consist of 8 Chapters, which are the following in the form of brief
summaries respectively.

CHAPTER NO: (1) (The general will, is indestructible)

Chapter 4 discuss that general will is indestructible i.e. general will cannot be
destroyed. According to Rousseau if the individual citizen considers themselves to be a part of
the collective body-the state. When the laws, need to be implemented are according to the will
of the public then there would be peace and stability. The adverse situation emerged when the
state will, or law contradict the public will. Because in such case the private will would challenge
the state will or law. And thus, the private will would subordinate the general will, but the
general will cannot be destroyed even if it subordinates to the private will, and the general will
would be existed.

CHAPTER NO: (2) (Voting)

This chapter discusses the ‘suffrage’ means voting. According to Rousseau voting show
the general unanimousness. The social contract itself a unanimous agreement among the
people. And all those who are disagree with this contract are excluded from the state. The others
(who agree with the agreement) all would decide unanimously all the actions of sovereign. In
common matters vote should need something close to unanimity to pass it. While in unimportant
matters only a majority by one should require the losing side of the vote couldn’t be determined.

CHAPTER NO: (3) (Election)

Chapter 3 is regarding election, according to Rousseau there are two different

types of election by lot or random election and election by choice. According to Rousseau the
later one (election by choice) is appropriate form of election for Aristocracy. Since the
government should be free to select or elect its own members by own choice. The formal one
type of election i.e. election by lot and random election suits the Democratic form of government
or democracy where only those who bear and able to take responsibilities are randomly elected.
Generally, election by lot and random election is held for filling the office. such as political offices
that require only common sense, justice and integrity of all citizen, while election by choice is
held for the offices e.g. bureaucratic offices that require certain high degree of expertise.

CHAPTER NO: (4)

Chapter 4 consists of discussion over the roman assemblies(comitia) and present the fact
that how the large city with large population maintain the sovereignty of the people. According
to Rousseau there were 3 different types of roman comitia (Roman assemblies)

 Comitia curiata
 Comitia tribunate
 Comitia centuriata
Comitia curiata is the assembly of only the inhabitant of the city and not including the weather
personal of outward country side.

The comitia tribunate was an assembly of the people that excluded senators and wealthy
personals.

The comitia centuriata was an assembly of all citizens but the vote was in favor.

CHAPTER NO: (5) (Tribunes)

In this chapter of book 4 Rousseau discuss ‘the tribunate’ body to regulate and
maintain balance with in the civil society through its impartial judgment. Rousseau recommend
the tribunate to maintain balance between a sovereignty and government and people. the
tribunate will have non-executive nor legislative involvement power. The basis and only purpose
of this is to defend and only ensure the safety of the laws.

CHAPTER NO: (6) (Dictatorship)

 Chapter 6 discuss short term and immediate advantages of dictatorship is necessary to
save state from collapse. Laws in dictatorship is rigid but may be suspended under some
circumstances for the safety of all (citizens). As dictatorship does not represent the public.
therefore, he does not represent the general will but will. Yeah it concerns with general will in
case when it is its interest to safe the all citizens.

CHAPTER NO: (7) (Censorship)

This chapter is about (The Social Contract) is regarding the censorship. According to
Rousseau censorship would create integrity and harmony between the laws and public opinion.
Censorship office act as spokesman for public opinion is closely related to the laws. Thus, through
censorship integrity would be created in public opinion by sustaining public laws and public
morality.

CHAPTER NO: (8) (Civic Region)

The final topic and chapter book 4 are the civil religion’ it is very controversial issue. In early
societies the head of state was also the god and the citizen were worshiped him. Each state
believes that their respective is responsible for their protection of property. But Christianity
swept out the above tradition. Christianity introduce divine kingdom which was different from
earthly kingdom. In Christianity worship of god is not all with god with in the respective state. All
citizens of all state worship to a single common god. This put the church and state in tension with
each other because of no clear identification or demarcation between two.

Rousseau describe the following kinds of religion. First there is a ‘religion of man’ which is
personal i.e. between god and individual. Rousseau admired and professed this kind of religion.
But he further argued that it will hurt the state because in divine devotion and worship one must
focus and interested in spiritual and other worldly happiness and ready to bear any kind of
hardship for attainment heavenly life. But a healthy state demands of citizens who will struggle
and fight for to make the state strong and safe.
Secondly is the religion of citizens which is also called officials religion of the state. The religion is
the combined interest of state and church deal with patriotism and respect for laws. But also
breed violent intolerance for other nations.

i
The Social Contract, Chapter 6, Page 35