Table of Contents

Introduction................................................................................................................................3
Globalization as a Gendered Process.........................................................................................3
Uneven Impacts of Globalisation on Countries/Organizations..................................................5
Unequal Opportunities and Constraints for Women and Men...................................................7
HRD Policies That Can Counter the Inequities of Globalization..............................................9
Conclusion................................................................................................................................10
References................................................................................................................................12

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Introduction

Globalization is recognized as a complex phenomenon which encompasses economic,

political social and geographical process characterized by increased mobility of capital,
people and organization ideas in the transnational form. The phenomenon of globalization has
been studied from different perspective and disciplines but very little have been written about
globalization from gender perspective (Onyejekwe, 2004). Accordingly, it can be argued that
since the commencement of globalization process in 1980s, it has resulted in global
deregulation wherein the role of private sector increased and expanded without any major
restrictions. The growth of globalization is further viewed to have resulted in deregulation of
financial system coupled with transnationalisation of production and rapid spread of neo-
liberal ideas, which has been apparent in the form of growth of economic strategies across
different countries and organizations. The concept of free trade as a result of globalization,
which guaranteed the unrestricted movements of goods and capital although is argued to have
accelerated the economic growth and interdependence among the various economies of the
world, particularly the developed economies but this growth is argued to have occurred at the
cost of economic crisis witnessed by the countries which have not been able to reap the
advantage of such uneven development. Moreover, such uneven impact is said to have
considerable impact on the poor and marginalized section of people in the world, particularly
the women (Harcourt, 1994). The impact of globalization is further ascertained to be more
acute in the developing regions of the world like Sub-Saharan Africa. Correspondingly, the
report explains how globalization is a gendered process and why it has had differential and
uneven impacts on Sub-Saharan African countries, and thus unequal opportunities and
constraints for women and men. Finally, the report provides practical HRD policies that can
counter the inequities of globalization processes in order to incorporate voices of the
marginalised and encourage all stakeholders to strive for equality and social justice with
reference to Sub-Saharan Africa region.

Globalization as a Gendered Process

Globalisation is not a new phenomenon and it been more than 30 years since the concept of
globalisation emerged. However, the years there has been dramatic changes across its
dynamics yet it is recognised as one of the dominant form of current economic growth and
development. Almost all countries across the world are influenced by the process of

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globalisation across their various spheres and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is no exception. The
globalisation in SSA is characterised by rapid growth in the inflow of FDI. It is worth to note
that despite the economic crisis, SSA received highest inflow of FDI (Samuel, 2010).
Although it can be argued that performance of SSA countries post colonisation was quite
disappointing but the process of globalisation has increased the resource mobilization and
capital formation (Sundaram et al., 2011). However, such process as a result of globalisation
is ascertained to influence men and women differently in SSA. Accordingly, this process is
recognised to be complex and diverse which has the tendency to influence women both
positively and negatively. However, the extent to which this process influences is largely
depends on various other social factors such as class, race, sexuality, age and ethnicity among
others. Globalisation as a gender process is recognised to have certain significant on men and
women, which can be strongly related with feminization of poverty, feminization of labor and
low-income (Onyejekwe, 2004).

Feminization of poverty is a phenomenon which tends to exists when poverty is more

prevalent in women than men. The globalisation in SSA is characterised by changing context
of development from tight control of government to international institutions, shift in neo-
model coupled with economic discipline. Such changes are recognised have differentiated
impact on the poor and the most underprivileged groups of the society in SSA. The structural
transformation policies imposed on SSA countries as condition for these countries to
negotiating their debt repayment issues has resulted in the host of changes in their policies
such as privatisation of public sectors, cuts in government budgets, liberalisation of trade and
focus on policies related to export promotion. In general setting the various dynamics of the
globalisation has resulted in deepening of poverty among the most vulnerable section of the
society, particularly the poor women in SSA (Phalane, 2004). Since women are usually
responsible for household activities such as cooking, cleaning and ensuring health care of the
family members, the burden of poor women tends to increase due to the cuts in the social and
health care spending. In other words poorer women are ultimately the most affected by the
restructuring policies of globalisation. It has been estimated that in Nigeria, which is a SSA
country more than 70 per cent to its total population are forced to live in poverty and around
70 per cent are recognised to be women compared to 30 per cent of men living in poverty.
Similar patterns can also be identified in other countries of SSA (Osunyikanmi, 2011;
Anyanwu, 2010).

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Globalisation has resulted in significant changes in patterns of production and has promoted
export oriented growth in both developed and developing countries. However, these changes
in viewed have significant impact of employment characterised by feminization of labour and
low wage for female employees (Barrientos et al., 2004). Accordingly, it has been noted that
globalisation process such as trade liberalisation, privatisation and influx of FDI has
immensely increased the degree of cost competitiveness. As a result, demand for female
labours has increased owing to the fact that women are more willing to work at low price
than men. However, SSA women employed in labour intensive sector and are paid very low
wages which are largely insufficient to meet their household needs and requirements.
Moreover employment condition for both men and women has become less secured.
Moreover, the growing trend of globalisation in SSA have resulted in women friendly
legislations which has reduced the employment opportunity for male employees particularly
in informal sector of the economy (Bair, 2010). Moreover, downsizing of public sector
employment greater insecurities of private sector employment as a result of globalisation has
immensely influenced both men and women. However, impact on women is argued to be
much more than men as female labours in SSA are recognised to have limited access to
resources and education and are generally concentrated on lower end of job spectra. Such
changes as a result of globalisation have further increased the wage gap between men and
women employees in SSA.

Uneven Impacts of Globalisation on Countries/Organizations

Gender inequality is a major socio-economic problem across the world. The proponents of
globalization have firmly noted that economic growth through policy reforms such as trade
liberalization, mobilization of capital and resources coupled with privatization to aid
government across the world to mitigate the public sector deficits which is further anticipated
to positively influence the gender equality. On the other hand, critics of globalization have
contended that the globalization is has adversely influenced the poor and marginalized
section of the society, particularly the poor women in developing countries like SSA. In this
regard, it has been argued that globalization is closely related with negative impact on the
health and living condition of poor women and has also contributed in increased job
insecurity, broadening gender pay gap and low wage among others particularly in the
developing countries of SSA. Accordingly, it can be observed that differences in the opinion
of scholars towards the impact of globalization is particularly due to the uneven socio-

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economic impact of globalization experienced by the countries across the world. Studies in
the past have stressed that the neo-liberal model of globalization is more likely to benefit the
developed countries while developing countries such as in SSA region may not be able to
reap the similar benefits. Correspondingly, various reasons are identified which has had
differential and uneven impacts of globalisation on countries (Hamdi, 2013).

In this regard, it is worth to note that economic activity in the context of export in SSA is
mainly related with traditional sector including agriculture and apparel industry, where
female workforce plays an important role. Also the differences in the impact are ascertained
due to the variances in the labor market participation between men and women across
different countries within SSA. Accordingly, the countries within SSA such as Malawi,
Mozambique Burundi, Madagascar, and Tanzania is ascertained to have high rate of women‘s
labor participation in labor market than other countries within the region like Nigeria and
Kenya. At the same time, countries with high female participation in labor market are
overrepresented in in the countries’ informal sector which is generally characterized by
insecure working conditions and poor wages for women (Osunyikanmi, 2011; Chen, 2008).
Correspondingly, the globalization has differential impact on these countries with respect to
the issue of gender. Accordingly, countries within SSA where female participation is larger
than other countries have experienced larger degree of feminization of labor force compared
to those countries characterized by reduced percentage of female labor force participation in
labor market (Chen, 2008).

Another major reason behind the differential impact on the countries within SSA is related
with the differences in cultural norms. Accordingly, it can be stated that most of the countries
within SSA such as Kenya, Ghana and Tanzania traditional expectations and norms are
ascertained to play extremely important role in defining roles of women within the society
and in their family context. In this regard, the trade liberalization and capital mobilization
although have offered great potential for women to participate in the countries’ labor force
market but the cultural norms in many of the countries can be seen to dictate the types of jobs
for women. In other words compared to the other regions of the world, women within the
SSA are faced with increased burden for unpaid care work and those women who are breaks
through these rigid cultural norms are often categorized as unfeminine. Hence, it can be
argued those differences in cultural and norms across different countries within SSA and

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other parts of the world as one of the major reason why globalisation has differential impact
on the issue related to gender (BSR, 2017; Hook & Ngwenya, 1996).

Differences in the accessibility of natural and financial resources by women in SSA are
recognized as another important reason which has caused differences in the impact of
globalization on gender related issue particularly in terms of poverty among women
compared to men. Notably, it has been noted that in SSA almost 30% of female individuals
has been reported to have bank or mobile account in comparisons to 39% of men in SSA.
However, significant differences are identified among the SSA countries in terms of access to
finance and resources. For instance it has been reported that around 71 % of women in Kenya
has had bank or mobile account while only 39% of the women in Ghana and 34% of women
in Tanzania were ascertained to have bank account. Correspondingly, such differences
between men and women in terms of access to financial resources across different countries
of SSA can be ascertained to have caused varying level of poverty among females (BSR,
2017).

At the same time, shift in the economic activities of some of the economies in SSA is also
recognized to have led to differential impact of globalization on gender issue across the
countries in SSA. Nevertheless, it can be argued that manufacturing has not been significant
in SSA countries than it has been other regions of the world like East Asia or South Asia. The
globalization although contributed in certain changes in this trend as few countries within
SSA such has Kenya and Lesotho where garment manufacturing can be seen to play an
important role in their economic growth while other countries still are largely dependent on
production and supply of agriculture products. Accordingly, the creation of manufacturing
sector has led to the development of labor intensive industry in some of the countries win
SSA where women are offered with greater employment opportunity outside the domain of
agriculture compared to women in other countries within SSA (Chen, 2008).

Unequal Opportunities and Constraints for Women and Men

Globalization undoubtedly has significant impact on the socio-economic aspects of SSA

while some have related globalizations closely with rapid development and increasing living
standard for both men and women, others particularly the feminist scholars have revealed
their dis-contention on such assessment. Rather they have firmly argued that globalization has
adversely influenced the women in SSA, which has contributed in the marginalization across

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diverse spheres culturally and politically reinstated gender stereotypes. It has also been
argued that developing countries such as in SSA where gender divide is substantial, has
further strengthen the existing patriarchies and has also created in the emergence of new
forms of oppression, thus further limiting the opportunities for women (Shoola, 2014). The
structural adjustment programme which began in SSA in 1970s is claimed to have eroded the
public services in many countries in the region, as a result of the introduction of several
reforms which is further believed to have disproportionately influenced the women and girls
in SSA and has also increase unequal burden on women. Moreover, globalisation in SSA is
recognised to be strongly related with lack of health care services for women and sexual
coercion followed by unequal opportunity for education for girls, which have increased the
risk of deadly diseases such as HIV and AIDS among the women in SSA (UNESCO, 2010).

Although it can be argued to globalisation process has created greater demand for women and
has led numerous opportunities for them compared to men in SSA, unfortunately women in
SSA are largely unable to take advantage of this opportunity due to lack of education and
training and patriarchal nature of the society. For example, the conflicting implications
associated with the globalisation with regard to women’s status are widely seen in Kenyan
flower industry. In this regard, the industry has created immense opportunity for women in
Kenya but employment in this industry is largely characterised by inequalities and violation
of human rights. Sexual harassment, low wages and lack of security for women workers are
typical characteristics of the industry. Moreover, most of the employees within the industry
are women but they are usually associated with low level employment opportunities wherein
managerial position is largely occupied by male employees. Thus, it can be stated that women
in SSA lacks opportunity to have equal status or rights and are usually subject to face greater
career development challenges and constraints in their workplace compared to men in the
same workplace (Shoola, 2014; Hook & Ngwenya, 1996).

Women in SSA are forced to work in hazardous working condition and are faced with severe
employment instability coupled with low wages. In this regard, the lack of women
representatives who can negotiate on behalf of the labours in SSA has created significant
challenges and constraints for women in the region which have further negatively influenced
their fundamental rights (Onyejekwe, 2004; Phalane, 2004). Moreover, the increasing cross-
country competition as a result of globalisation has laid significant constraint for men and
women to excel in their career and archive healthy life-style. For example, the cheaper

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production of South Asian sisal bags has reduced the employment opportunity for SSA
women engaged in the production of similar bags, thereby exacerbating the prevalence of
poverty among the women workers. In the similar context, globalisation is argued to have
reduced the individual access to education in SSA. Such changes have imposed serious
constraints for both men and women, particularly those individuals from low income families
to develop requisite skills and competency essential for finding suitable employment and to
compete in the international business (Onyejekwe, 2004; Phalane, 2004).

HRD Policies That Can Counter the Inequities of Globalization

It has been observed that globalization has more adverse impact on women than men, and has
led to their marginalization, particularly in developing regions of the world such as SSA. It is
therefore important to frame effective HRD policies to tackle the inequities of globalization.
Although some international institutes such as UN has already developed policies to promote
gender equality and women empowerment in its millennium development goals and
Sustainable Development Goals. However, there is a greater requirement for the countries
across the world together with international institutions to develop and implement more
specific goals to counter the inequities of globalization. The subsequent sections offers some
practical recommendations that can be implemented by the countries across the world
particularly the developing countries to cope with the challenges of gender inequities as a
result of globalisation process.

The policy makers should carefully examine the impact of globalisation on women and
understand the extent to such impact influences the women rights and status. Moreover, the
policy makers should re-consider the policies framed in past and phase out those policies
gradually and develop new HRD policies in accordance to current and anticipated challenges
of globalisation on women. However, the assessment of the current impact would require
policy makers to engage in thorough analysis of the impact of globalisation and its dynamics
on women.

It is suggested that policy makers in SSA to adopt more nationalistic approach towards the
issues related to trade liberalisation and de-regulations. Based on the assessment, the policy
makers should develop policy to protect the interest of women working in the informal sector.
For this, the policy makers need to place certain restrictions on import of products that are
produced locally in the informal sector of the country. Moreover, the government

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organisations should provide subsidies and financial assistant for women so as to encourage
women to streamline the women in the economic growth and development of the country and
to empower them.

Poverty is identified as one of the significant challenge faced by the women in SSA, which
has adversely influenced the socio-economic development of country and its citizen.
Globalisation has not only resulted in feminisation of poverty but has also reduced the ability
to benefit arising from the globalisation. Correspondingly, it is important for SSA countries to
develop reasonable and impactful policy of poverty alleviation. The policy makers should not
only focus on the problems and risk created by globalisation but they should carefully analyse
the problem so as to determine the severity of the problem and to determine action plan that
would best address the issue of poverty among the SSA women.

The government should also promote formation of new form of organisations or women
representatives to protect the interest of female employees and help them to attain social
justice. In other words, these new organisations must be able to address the social as well as
wok related issues faced by the women and act as voice for women, particularly those
engaged in the informal sector of SSA.

Bridging gender inequalities and gender gap should be considered as standard measure for
ensuring that women are benefited from the globalisation. Moreover, governments in SSA
should assigned quota system for the employment of women in local as well as international
organisations operating with their boundary. Such measures more likely to reduce workplace
inequities perpetuated against women in workplace. In addition, the governments in SSA
should also increase their spending on public services and identify alternative methods for
repayment of loan rather than adopting cost cutting measures. It will help government to
reduce the excess burden on levied on them, particularly the poorer women due to dropping
government investment of public services.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it has been observed that the globalisation has significant benefits as well as it
has adverse impact on gender divide in SSA. Accordingly, the globalisation is ascertained to
be closely related with the feminization of poverty and feminization of labour force. Notably,
globalisation though is observed increase the job opportunities for women but this

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opportunity has not benefited women in SSA. At the globalisation in SSA is observed to have
undermined the status of rights of women and has strengthened the existing patriarchies in
SSA. Moreover, structural adjustment program is ascertained to have resulted in cost cutting
measures across various public services which in turn have disproportionately influenced the
women in SSA. At the same time, the impact of globalisation is ascertained to be uneven
across the countries. Various reasons such as differences in cultural norms and ability of
women to access financial and other resources are identified to serve as the primary reason
behind varying impact of globalisation on gender inequities. Moreover, lack of women
representatives and absence of appropriate framework to protect women working in informal
sector have imposed significant constraints for women in SSA to advance in the career and
has also made them vulnerable to sexual exploitation, low wages and poor lifestyles.
Correspondingly, it is essential for policy makers in SSA to develop suitable policies to
counter the negative impacts of globalisation on women in SSA. In this regard, developing
more impactful poverty alleviation programs based on the careful analysis of impact of
globalisation on women can aid countries within SSA to reduce the gender inequities.
Besides, placing restrictions of products that are produced in informal sector can also protect
the women workers. However, proper assessment of impact of globalisation and acquiring an
in-depth understanding regarding it is essential prior to formulation of policies is essential to
ensure the effectiveness of the policy reform.

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