Rudraksh: Geographical Distribution, Reason For Decline & Measures To Enhance Propagation

RUDRAKSH
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, REASON FOR

DECLINE & MEASURES TO ENHANCE PROPAGATION
Indian National Trust For Art and Cultural Heritage
May 2016
RUDRAKSH
Documentation of Geographical Distribution,
Reason for Decline, Measures to Enhance
Propagation
May
2016
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural

Heritage
71, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi
RUDRAKSH-Documentation of Geographical Distribution, Reason for Decline, Measures to Enhance Propagation
Report Researched and Compiled By:

Team of Natural Heritage Division: Dr. Ritu Singh, Ms. Monika Sah and Ms. Divya
Upadhayay
Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH)
71, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi-110003
Website: http://naturalheritage.intach.org/
Cover Page Pictures:
Top Left: Naturally Germinating Rudraksh Seeds in Dehradun

Top Right: Rudraksh Tree at FRI Campus, Dehradun
Bottom Left: Rudraksh Rosaries at Haridwar Market
Bottom middle: Unripe Fruit and Flowering in Rudraksh Tree
Bottom Right: Loose Rudraksh Beads sold at Rishikesh.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
2. Rudraksh in Hindu Mythology ................................................................................................ 3
3. Elaeocarpus - Geographical distribution and conservation status .......................................... 7
4. Rudraksh - the seed ................................................................................................................ 16
Different Elaeocarpus Species and their Geographical Distribution 20
5. Uses........................................................................................................................................ 32
Medicinal Use of Rudraksh: 33
Folklore and Spell Crafts 37
6. Fake beads ............................................................................................................................. 38

Testing with Water 42
Identifying Rudraksh by Cutting 43
Copper Coin Test 43
X-Rays and CT Scans 43
7. Rudraksha Trade in India....................................................................................................... 45

Trade Route: 46
Supply and Demand 52
8. Propagation of Rudraksh tree- a CHALLENGE ................................................................... 57

Propagation from Seeds: 57
Propagation by Stem Cutting and Grafting: 58
9. Threats ................................................................................................................................... 59
10. Recommendations.................................................................................................................. 61
11. References.............................................................................................................................. 64
12. Annexure I ............................................................................................................................. 68
13. Annexure II: Significance of Mukhas or Faces ................................................................... 102
14. Annexure III......................................................................................................................... 108
Part 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 118
List of Pictures
Image 1: Shivling Adorned with Rudraksh Beads at Tapkeshwar Mahadev Temple in Dehradun ......... 3
Image 2: Another Shivling Decorated with Rudraksh Seeds. (Unknown location) ................................. 4
Image 3: A 12th Century Sculptor of Lord Shiva Adorned with Rudraksha ............................................ 5
Image 4: A 1890 Painting at Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi, Depicting Shiva Wearing
Rudraksha.................................................................................................................................................. 6
Image 5: 18th Century Painting of Lord Rudra Praying with Rudraksh Rosary ...................................... 6
Image 6: One Year Old Rudraksh Saplings in a Nursery in Haridwar ................................................... 10
Image 7: Rudraksha Tree with the Unripe Fruits on it Planted in a Nursery in Haridwar ..................... 11
Image 8: Full-grown Tree of Elaeocarpus varunna at Forest Research Institute planted by Mr.
Moti Lal Vohra........................................................................................................................................ 12
Image 9: Young Leaves of a Rudraksh Tree........................................................................................... 13
Image 10: Inflorescence in 3 Faced Rudraksh Tree ................................................................................ 13
Image 11: Unripe Fruits of Rudraksh ..................................................................................................... 13
Image 12: Mature Rudraksh Tree showing Buttressed Trunk ................................................................ 14
Image 13: Rough bark of Rudraksh Tree ................................................................................................ 14
Image 14: Different Stages of Fruit and seed Maturation in Elaeocarpus varunna; (Inset)
Elaeocarpus ganitrus Seeds in Different Stages..................................................................................... 16
Image 15: Bead Description Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Indian Rough Bead) ............................................. 17
Image 16: Cross-section of Elaeocarpus varunna Seeds........................................................................ 18
Image 17: Elaeocarpus variabilis; Usually Sold as One Mukhi or Two Mukhi .................................... 26
Image 18: Elaeocarpus ganitrus/sphaericus Nepalese; (Right) Indian 5 Mukhi ................................... 26
Image 19: Elaeocarpus spp. (Indonesian6 Mukhi); (Right) 5 Mukhi Indian Rough Bead ..................... 26
Image 20: Elaeocarpus varunna (3 mukhi, Indian), (Right) Elaeocarpus lancifolius (Bhadraksh) ...... 27
Image 21: Elaeocarpus Species (4 mukhi); (Right) Elaeocarpus varunna - 3 Mukhi ........................... 27
Image 22: Elaeocarpus (Nepalese) 12 mukhi; Front and Rear View ...................................................... 27
Image 23: Elaeocarpus munroii- Fruit and Fruiting Branch .................................................................. 28
Image 24: Elaeocarpus recurvatus- Inflorescence and Fruiting Branch ................................................ 28
Image 25: Elaeocarpus blascoi- Herbarium Record .............................................................................. 28
Image 26: Elaeocarpus gaussenii- Herbarium Record ........................................................................... 29
Image 27: Elaeocarpus serratus Inflorescence, Fruiting Branch and Seeds .......................................... 29
Image 28: Elaeocarpus tuberculatus: Infloresence & Fruit.................................................................... 29
Image 29: Elaeocarpus variabilis inflorescence ..................................................................................... 30
Image 30: Elaeocarpus venustus Branch, Inflorescence and Fruit ......................................................... 30
Image 31: Flowers Seeds and Fruits of Elaeocarpus venustus ............................................................... 30
Image 32: Cross-section of Different Rudraksh Seeds Showing No. of Compartments in Each
Seed ......................................................................................................................................................... 31
Image 33: Ripe Fruits of Elaeocarpus ganitrus ...................................................................................... 31
Image 34: Cross- section of Different Mukhi Rudraksh ......................................................................... 31
Image 35: Rudraksh jewelry Sold in Markets ........................................................................................ 32
Image 36: Rudraksh Rosaries ................................................................................................................. 33
Image 37: Rudraksh Beads Sold for its Therapeutic Properties ............................................................. 34
Image 38: Seeds of E. tuberculatus Sold as One Mukhi Rudraksh; (Right) One Mukhi Carved
from Plastic ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Image 39: Fake Round Ek Mukhi Rudraksh with a Carved Trident and Attached Stalk Sold at
ebay ......................................................................................................................................................... 39
Image 40: Fake beads Made by Joining Two Beads; (Right) Betel nut carved as Rudraksh ................. 39
Image 41: Fake Beads Carved from Beetle Nut and Other Similar Seeds ............................................. 40
Image 42: Fake Beads Glued Together and Sold at Higher Prices in Market ........................................ 40
Image 43: Fake 21 Mukhi Rudraksh ....................................................................................................... 40
Image 44: Fake Beads with Carved Serpents and Shivlings are Very Popular in Market ...................... 41
Image 45: Fake Beads formed by Gluing Together Several Small Beads .............................................. 41
Image 46: Different Types of Fake Beads Sold During Manimahesh Yatra, Himachal Pradesh ........... 41
Image 47: The Copper Coin Test for Rudraksh ...................................................................................... 43
Image 48: Three- Mukhi Rudraksh from a Nursery in Dehradun without Artificial Color
Representing the Original Color ............................................................................................................. 45
Image 49: 'Paanch-Mukhi' Beads from Thailand are Spread in the Market in a Compiled form (As
Shown) and are Later Transformed into Rosary and are Sold ................................................................ 50
Image 50:Woman buying the compiled form of Indonesian 'paanch-mukhi' beads for rosary .............. 52
List of Figures
Figure 1: Elaeocarpus sphaericus Details ....................................................................................... 12

Figure 2: Therapeutic Potential of Rudraksh Bead .......................................................................... 35
List of Tables
Table 1: Different Elaeocarpus Species Recorded from India 20

Table 2 : Table Showing Medicinal Properties of E. sphaericus 36
Table 3: Lab Results for Different Rudraksh Beads 44
Table 4:Different Kind of Bead Traded in India 50
Table 5: Rudraksh Imports 2015-2016 India 53
Table 6: Rudraksh Exports Through India in 2015-2016 55
Table 7: Economic Benefits by Planting Rudraksh Trees (Approx.) 63
Table 8: Different Elaeocarpus species and their distribution in India 68
List of Maps
Map 1: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus Species in India ................................................. 8

Map 2: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus in Asia ............................................................... 9
Map 3:Natural Forest in the Northern-Eastern Parts of India. Whereas, Plantation and
Nurseries are in Dehradun and Haridwar. ........................................................................................ 47
Map 4: Indonesia And Nepal- Major Trade Center. Beads from Indonesia are Traded (Via
Ship) to Mumbai and Later Distributed to Wholesalers in Different Business Centers in India
like Rameshwaram, Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi, Rameshwaram. Whereas, Beads from
Nepal is Transported (Via Road) to Varanasi and then to Other Parts of India. ............................. 48
Map 5: The Trade Route Showing Transportation of Bead from Dharan in Nepal to Varanasi
Where the Processing of Seeds are Done and Then Transported to Other Business Centers.
Haridwar, The Second Largest Center. Mathura has Emerged and Established Itself as One of
the Important Business Center in India. ........................................................................................... 49
PREFACE
Rudraskh - literally meaning "Shiva's tears" is the seed of Elaeocarpus spp. The beads are
sacred to Hindus, Buddhists and Jains since ancient times. It is ingrained in our belief
systems. It truly is the heritage tree of India. In modern times people from all over the world
inspired by Indian spiritualism and belief in its healing power have adopted it as sacred. Thus
demand doe the bead is constantly on the rise, putting pressure on both the cultivated and wild
trees. Not only this, it is also encouraging a market of fake beads. In absence of awareness
and knowledge on the part of consumer and lack of system of certification for authenticity
common people are fleeced regularly. India regularly imports beads from Indonesia that are
smaller in size and considered inferior to the traditional Indian bead of Rudraskh.
Increased Rudraskh seed collection for household and industrial use has resulted in a
diminished seed bank in the soil, affecting the regeneration of the species. In addition to this,
the fact that because of the hard seed coat, the natural regeneration is slow - taking up to few
months to germinate, disturbance in forest areas adds to the threat for survival of this tree in
the wild. For the tree seeds to germinate, consistently moist conditions and undisturbed forest
floors are a necessity. In the degrading natural forests the tree is thus unable to regenerate.
Further, lack of data related to the status of the tree in forest of India, leads to a significant gap
in planning conservation action.
INTACH's study documents cultural, spiritual and medicinal values, mythological legends
associated with the bead, issues related to natural regeneration, trade - supply and demand and
presents recommendations for conservation action.
INTACH's study on the Rudraskh also attempts to address some of the gaps by a field study
in the hills of Kotagiri in documenting Elaeocarpus serratus sacred to Badaga people of
Nilgiris - presented in part - 2 of the report. This study identifies the trees in wild, classifies
the trees as per age, regeneration/recruitment status and presents a summary of threats. This
field study confirms that even though the tree is sacred there is a lack of conservation action
and flourishing trade. Further studies are required to answer this anomaly and formulate
conservation action in consultation with local populations.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Nature worship is an important aspect of Indian culture. Flora, fauna, landforms, and other
components of nature are a fundamental part of the religio-cultural fabric of communities.
Care and conservation of floral and faunal species was thus an integral part of cultural
ethos. Traditionally, communities were completely dependent on natural resources and had
developed a system of sustainable use of biodiversity. This traditional knowledge system
ensured conservation of all natural resources, including soil, water and biodiversity.
However, with changing cultural values and growing disconnect of people from nature, by
way of urbanisation, industrialisation and modern lifestyles, traditional practices of
conservation and sustainability have fast declined. Conservation of species that used to
come as a result of nature worship by different indigenous communities is almost extinct
except in certain tribal communities in the country. Plants and animals that were earlier
revered are today under threat for their very existence due to dilution of cultural ethos.
1.2. Rudraksh bead is one sacred facet of Indian culture due to associated religious, ethno
botanical and medicinal values. Rudraksh literally means Shiva's tears - Rudra
referring to Lord Shiva and Aksha meaning teardrops. It is traditionally used as prayer
beads in many religions particularly Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Beads formed from
the seeds are usually used in the form of rosary or are individually kept in homes and
temples for good fortune and health. Rudraksh bead is one of the most sacred insignia of
Hinduism and Indian culture. The beads are the dried seeds of Rudraksha Tree
(Elaeocarpus spp.) and can be termed as one of the most expensive seeds in the world.
However, despite the beads having great significance few are aware that it comes from a
tree.
1.3. Rudraksh beads are sourced from various species of genus Elaeocarpus. The Rudraksh tree
is found in tropical evergreen forests, which are characterized by three-tier forest structure.
Rudraksh is usually present in the second storey. In north and central India the beads are
sourced from Elaeocarpus ganitrus (syn E.sphearicus) which was once distributed across
evergreen forests from sea coast to Himalayan foothills upto 2000m. However, due to
extensive habitat destruction and over extraction of seeds the tree is now found only in
some patches in northeast India and Nepal. Other species from which the beads are sourced
are E. tuberculatus and E. serratus in India.
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1.4. Owing to its popularity and over exploitation, the number of Rudraksh trees in India is
dwindling at an alarming rate. Only few trees are found growing in wild in the Western
Ghats and North East States of India. In western Himalayas and foothills only few
individual trees are left in conservation reserves or temples.
1.5. Elaeocarpus had been an associated species in mixed broad-leaved forests of Himalayas
and Himalayan foothills and was found associated with species like Sal (Shorea robusta)
and Oak (Quercus spp.). Extensive deforestation of mixed broad-leaved forests for
railways, timber extraction and large-scale conversion of Oak forests into Pine (Pinus
roxburghii) in Himalayas has led to loss of native species from the region. The
deteriorating situation is worsened by the fact that the germination rate for Rudraksh is very
low and erratic due to its hard seed coat. Further, due to ethno-religious importance the
seeds are collected in large number from forest floor causing a depletion of the natural seed
bank. The prolonged germination period for the species along with poor germination rate
and commercial collection of seeds has led to significant reduction in the number of trees in
the wild. In spite of its great importance, the renewal of the population has remained
unaddressed as most of the market demands are fulfilled by Nepal and other countries that
commercially export the beads.
1.6. The genus Elaeocarpus is highly threatened but only few species have been listed in IUCN
red list1 categories (1997) in India. Out of 31 species listed in the IUCN Red list, 5 species
(E. venustus, E. recurvatus, E. munroii, E. gaussenii2, E. blascoi) are from India
particularly from Western Ghats. The conservation status of other species in India is not
known. E. ganitrus has been listed as rare in Taiwan.
1.7. The consequence of ignorance and exploitation has resulted in a severe loss of trees from
Indian forests. It is found that the spread and distribution of this culturally significant tree
has shrunk remarkably. Therefore, it is necessary to locate remaining clusters, identify
threats and reverse the declining trend.
1
Walter. K. S., Gillett. H. J. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants
2
Critically Endangered as listed in IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants
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2. RUDRAKSH IN HINDU MYTHOLOGY
2.1. Rudraksh has found mention in various ancient literatures like Shiva Purana/Mahapurana,
Rudrakasha balopnishad, Shri Gurucharita3and Devi Bhagwat Puran. According to Shiva
Purana, Lord Shiva is very fond of Rudraksh Trees, which grow in the Gouda Land (Area
extending from foothills of Himalayas, Gangetic Plains and Nepal). Devi Bhagwat puran
mentions a story about a demon named Tripurasur, who on attaining immense power began to
trouble deities and sages. On seeing his dissipated behaviour, Lord Brahma and Vishnu along
with all other gods prayed to Lord Shiva to annihilate Tripurasur and his army. Lord Shiva
then closed his eyes and meditated for a while. When he opened his eyes, tears rolled down
his cheek and wherever these tears fell on earth, Rudraksh tree grew.
Image 1: Shivling Adorned with Rudraksh Beads at Tapkeshwar Mahadev Temple in

Dehradun
Source: Tapkeshwar.in
3
Rudraksh, The Inner World (Newsletter), Dhyan Foundation.
(http://www.dhyanfoundation.com/rudraksha..php
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RUDRAKSH IN ANCIENT
TEXTS
Verses from ancient texts that
mention Rudraksh and their
benefits.
Translation: A person who wears

all Rudraksha becomes like me. So,
a human being should try from all
levels to wear Rudraksha - Shiva in
Padma Puran
Image 2: Another Shivling Decorated with Rudraksh

Seeds. (Unknown location) Translation: Even Rudra attained
Source: vk.com Rudrahood only after wearing
Rudraksha beads. Saints achieve
2.2. There are different stories related to the origin of the ultimate truth and Brahma
attains Brahamatav. Thus there is
Rudraksha and it varies as documented in Vidyesvara nothing higher than wearing
Samhita and Padma Purana. According to the Rudraksha beads in this world -
Padma Puran
mythological stories, 12 types of Rudraksha came from
the sun-eye of Shiva, 16 from the moon eye and 10
from the fire-eye of three different colours, blood-
colour, white and black respectively. According to the
Shiva Purana, those that are grown in Gauda are the
favourites of Shiva. They are also grown in Mathura,
Lanka, Malaya (mountain range in the west of Translation: Just like Vishnu
amongst men, Surya amongst all
Malabar), Sahya (Mountain range), Kashi and other
the planets, Ganga among rivers,
places (Vidyessvara Samhita 25_9-10). (Parthasarathy, Kashyap among sages, Shiva
amongst all Gods, Parvati amongst
1993)
all Goddesses is highest and
praised. Similarly, Rudraksha is the
highest amongst all. Hence, there is
2.3. Almost all the legends in Hindu mythology mentioning
no Sloka or fast above Rudraksha -
Rudraksh describe them as tears of Lord Shiva. Shrimad Devi Bhagwatam
According to another legend, Lord Shiva once entered a
profound state of meditation, to find penance, when he
finally emerged from his state and opened his eyes, tears of joy and peace fell down on earth.
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This story also finds mention in Shiva Mahapuran. This and many other legends reconfirm
significance of Rudraksha in religio-cultural ethos of India.
2.4. Various ancient texts and scriptures mention Rudraksh beads and their significance. Lord
Shiva in various artefacts and paintings has been depicted wearing jewellery made of
Rudraksh or praying using rosaries made of Rudraksh.
Image 3: A 12th Century Sculptor of Lord Shiva Adorned with Rudraksha

Source: National Museum of Vietnamese History
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Image 4: A 1890 Painting at Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi, Depicting Shiva Wearing
Rudraksha
Source: artcritiquewordpress.com
Image 5: 18th Century Painting of Lord Rudra Praying with Rudraksh Rosary
Source: Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh
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3. ELAEOCARPUS - GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

AND CONSERVATION STATUS
3.1. Rudraksh bead is obtained from seeds of several species of genus of the Elaeocarpus, with
Elaeocarpus ganitrus being the principle species. The word Elaeocarpus is derived from
Greek work Elaeo = olive and carpus = fruit (referring to olive like fruits produced by the
genus). All the trees in the genus bear white flowers with fringed petals and develop olive like
fruits. The genus Elaeocarpus has more than 360 known species worldwide (Coode, 2007).
Storrs et. al. in their book ‘Trees and Shrubs of Nepal and Himalayas’ have recorded 26
species of Elaeocarpus from Himalayan region. Another publication of Botanical Survey of
India (Kumar et al. 2013) titled ‘Floristic Diversity of Arunanchal Pradesh’ (Upper Subansiri
District) has recorded 7 species of Elaeocarpus from Arunanchal Pradesh. Annexure I details
the species recorded from India.
3.2. The tree is usually found upto 2000 meters above mean sea level [mamsl]. The genus
Elaeocarpus is spread over distinct regions in Himalayan foothills, South East Asia, Nepal,
Indonesia, New Guinea to Australia, Guam, and Hawaii. In Asia, the genus Elaeocarpus
consists of 120 species, of which 25 have been reported from India. Most of the species of
Elaeocarpus are confined to the North East and southern India, and a few species to Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. Eleven species were reported from the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu,
including the recently reported Elaeocarpus aristatus.
3.3. The species of Elaeocarpus generally prefer a warm humid climate and usually occurs
between 500 and 2000 mamsl. Elaeocarpus is also part of floral community of the Shola
forests found in Nilgiri hills, where it is considered sacred by some tribal communities.
Natural E. sphaericus beads are usually traded from Nepal where it grows in Central and
Eastern Nepal; 650-1700 m altitude. Originally, the tree was widely distributed across
Tarai, Shiwaliks and Middle Himalayas. Commonly found associated species growing with
Elaeocarpus in its natural habitat are Pterocarpus, Chukrasia spp., Dipterocarpus, Grewia,
Artocarpus, Kydia spp. Terminalia, Pongamia (Noatay 2002) and other tropical species.
7|Page
Map 1: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus Species in India

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Map 2: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus in Asia

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3.4. The tree occurs in wide range of environment like moist gullies, rocky ridges and sandy
coastal areas. The tree requires well-drained but moist tropical and sub-tropical soils and
usually occurs as an under storey tree with access to sunlight in evergreen forests. Some
species are known to survive well in low nutrient soils and dry soils. Some of the species also
grow in marshes and freshwater.
Image 6: One Year Old Rudraksh Saplings in a Nursery in Haridwar
3.5. Today the species is threatened and is grown on hill slopes and on farms for its commercial
(including poverty alleviation) and religious values in Nepal (MFSC 2013), whereas such
plantations or conservation efforts are not known from India. Some species like E. bascoi are
endemic; only three individuals of E. blascoi are surviving at present in the world (Irudhyaraj
et al. 2014). It is a strict endemic species to Palni Hills of Western Ghats, found on the fringes
of the moist evergreen forest at 2011 mamsl, and included under ‘endangered’ category by
IUCN (IUCN 2014). After the rediscovery of E. blascoi, no effective conservation strategies
have been undertaken to increase their numbers, and this shows that the tree has been facing
many problems in its regeneration (Irudhyaraj et al. 2016).
3.6. Elaeocarpus is a medium sized evergreen broad-leaved tree, which grow up to the height of
200 ft and about 4 feet in girth. The trunk is roughly circular and mature trees are usually
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buttressed at the base. The bark is greyish-white in colour and has a rough texture. The leaves
of the tree are shiny green. The flowers are ovoid, conical and elongated. The tree usually
flowers during April- June. The tree bears fruits that are globose, varying in size from about
3-40 mm. The fruits are covered by a blue colour outer covering when fully ripe, thus the tree
is also known as the blue berry tree. This colour is due to micro-structural character of the
cuticle and light interference. As the fruit matures the blue colour changes to deep
brown/grey/black.
Image 7: Rudraksha Tree with the Unripe Fruits on it Planted in a Nursery in Haridwar
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Figure 1: Elaeocarpus sphaericus Details

Source: CPREEC4
Image 8: Full-grown Tree of Elaeocarpus varunna at Forest Research Institute planted by Mr.
Moti Lal Vohra
4
Lalitha Ramadurai. Know Your Plants(The Mystical Rudraksha Tree); C.P.R. Environment Education Centre, Centre of Excellence.
MoEF, GoI. http://www.cpreec.org/47.htm
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Image 9: Young Leaves of a Rudraksh Tree
Image 10: Inflorescence in 3 Faced Rudraksh Tree
Image 11: Unripe Fruits of Rudraksh

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Image 12: Mature Rudraksh Tree showing Buttressed Trunk
Image 13: Rough bark of Rudraksh Tree

3.7. The natural regeneration of Rudraksh is a slow process due to poor germination rate because
of hard seed coat. The seeds take upto 2 years for sprouting depending upon the humidity of
the soil. Natural germination of Elaeocrpus is less than five percent. The seeds are also prone
to fungal rotting. Once planted the tree starts bearing fruits after 3-4 years and continues until
14 | P a g e
the tree lives. The fruits are savoured by a variety of frugivorus fauna like Squirrels, Civet
Cats, Fruit Bats etc. making seed availability even more difficult.
3.8. Being insect pollinated, Elaeocarpus supports a large pollinator population. In Nepal the
plantation of tree is promoted on farm lands both for its commercial value as well as for
improving soil fertility. On hill slopes, it prevents soil erosion.
3.9. Several factors including habitat destruction due to changing landuse, over-extraction of seeds
for commercial use, poor germination and lack of conservation efforts have resulted in the
tree being either vulnerable (Nepal) or threatened (India). It is time to develop conservation
strategies for conservation of Eleaocarpus for both its sacred as well as ecological values.
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4. RUDRAKSH - THE SEED

4.1. These dark colour fruits are soaked in water for few days to remove outer covering to
obtain a hard, woody endocarp, which is known as Rudraksh. The seeds are woody in
texture and light brown in colour covered within the pulp of the berry. The colour of the
beads can range from sandy white- yellowish- reddish brown to black. The seeds are
usually spherical in shape with a rough surface with a vertical perforation in the centre,
running from top to bottom. This perforation is further punctured to form the bead. Each
seed has varying number of vertical lines running down on its surface that forms 'Mukhs' or
faces of the bead. The bead is valued on basis of these faces or 'mukhs'. The faces in each
rudraksh bead can vary from 1 to 24, which is equivalent to no. of seeds/seed clefts inside.
Large variation is shape and sizes are observed in Rudraksh. Very rarely naturally joined
Rudraksh can be found which are named as Gauri-shankar, Brahma, Shiv- Ganesha, Trijuti,
Gauripath and other mythical names. Rudraksh with higher number of faces, natural joints
or overgrowths are high in demand and obtain good market price.
Image 14: Different Stages of Fruit and seed Maturation in Elaeocarpus varunna; (Inset)
Elaeocarpus ganitrus Seeds in Different Stages
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4.2. Commercially there are three types of Rudraksh available: Nepalese, Indonesian and
Indian. Of these 75% of Rudraksh in world market are of Indonesian origin, 20% Indian
and other countries and 5% Nepalese. The Nepal Rudraksh is hard, compact, heavy,
lustrous and considered more powerful due to the environment they grow in, and hence
expensive. Indonesian Rudraksh are smaller, Mukhs or faces are inconspicuous and are
cheaper. The Indian round Rudraksh generally lacks lustre and are commonly known as
Indian rough beads. These beads are treated with oil and dye to increase their market prices.
Image 15: Bead Description Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Indian Rough Bead)
4.3. Rudraksh are differentiated based on variation in the seeds (grooves) and different qualities
are attributed to them. Some labs also provide standards or code of conducts for identifying
genuine Rudraksh from fake ones. Haridwar and Varanasi are two major centre for
Rudraksh trade in India.
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Image 16: Cross-section of Elaeocarpus varunna Seeds
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RUDRAKSH- Documentation of Geographical Distribution, Reason for decline, Measures to Enhance Propagation
Rudrakash- General Description

Family Name: Elaeocarpaceae
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Oxalidales
Genus: Elaeocarpus
Species: More than 360 known species worldwide
Vernacular Name:
Sanskrit: Rudraksha;
Hindi: Rudrak;
English: Bead Tree, Lily of the Valley Tree, Blue Olive Berry, Blue Fig, Blue Marble Tree, Ash
Quandong, Fairy Petticoats, Native Olive, White Boree, Fringe Bells Ultrasum-Bead tree, Blue
Marble tree;
Bengali: Rudraksha;
Oriya: Rudrakhyo;
Marathi: Rudraksh;
Malyalam: Rudraksham;
Tamil/Kannada: Rudrakshi, Tamarai;
Assam: Rudrai, Seleng;
Malyalam: Rudrak;
Telegu: Rudra-challu;
Miri & Abor: Ludrai-asing;
Miri: Boragi-asing;
Mikir: Lekam-arong;
Sylhat & Tripura: Ludrai;
Kuki: Van-tha-mu-thing;
Garo: Udrok;
Khasi: Soh-langskei;
19 | P a g e
Different Elaeocarpus Species and their Geographical Distribution

Different species recorded from Indian subcontinent have been listed as under:
Table 1: Different Elaeocarpus Species Recorded from India
S. No. Species Distribution Status Uses
1. Elaeocarpus acuminatus India, NA NA

Bangladesh
2. Elaeocarpus amoenus India, Sri NA NA
Lanka.
3. Elaeocarpus aristatus India, Bhutan, NA NA
Vernacular:Assam: Gerala Bangladesh
Sopa, nagini; Garo: Chham and Myanmar.
Nangal, Gangma Jachhang;
Khasi: Dieng Thang
Khapiah; Nepalese:
Dalchiwari
4. Elaeocarpus blascoi India Endemic. NA
5. Elaeocarpus braceanus India, NA NA
Myanmar.
6. Elaeocarpus bracteatus India, NA NA
Myanmar.
7. Elaeocarpus floribundus India, NA Fruits edible, often
Vernacular: Assam: Jalpai; Andaman & cooked and pickled,
Bengali: Belphoi; Hindi: Nicobar pulp pleasantly
Jalpai; Manipuri: Islands acrid; nuts made
Charphaai; Nepalese: Bangladesh, into rosaries.
Koving Bhutan,
Myanmar,
Malaysia and
Indonesia(Java
).
20 | P a g e
8. Elaeocarpus gaussenii India Critically NA

endangered
9. Elaeocarpus glandulosus India, South NA Fruits used as
Ver:Malyalam: Kattu Kara; Asia. emetic, useful for
Marathi: Kasa; Tamil: Bikki rheumatism,
pneumonia, ulcers,
piles and leprosy.
Wood is white,
strong and soft
suitable for
matchboxes.
10. Elaeocarpus grandifolius India, NA NA
Myanmar.
11. Elaeocarpus helferi India, NA NA
Myanmar.
12. Elaeocarpus hygrophyllus India, NA NA
Myanmar.
13. Elaeocarpus lancifolius India, Nepal, NA Fruits are edible,
Vernacular: Khasi: Dieng- Bhutan, wood suitable for
soh-khyllam; Nepal: Myanmar, making tea boxes,
Bhadrase, Bhadrass S.China, charcoal and used
Taiwan, for house building.
Hongkong and Nuts used for
Indonesia(Java rosaries, necklace,
). bracelets.
14. Elaeocarpus lucidus India, NA NA
Bangladesh.
15. Elaeocarpus macrocerus India, NA NA
Vernacular: Pani sopa, Myanmar,
Phutkuli Indo-China,
Malay
Peninsula and
21 | P a g e
Indonesia.
16. Elaeocarpus munroii India Endemic Fruits are eaten by
Vernacular: Kannada: local people.
Kabikki, idanji Mara;
Malyalam: Pungari; Tamil:
Narebikki
17. Elaeocarpus petiolatus India, NA NA
Vernacular: Holthak: Bangladesh,
Tripura: Hun Myanmar,
Malaysia and
Indonesia.
18. Elaeocarpus prunifolius India, NA NA
Vernacular: Khasi: Soh- Bangladesh.
khyllem-ai-blang, Dieng-la-
khmar
19. Elaeocarpus recurvatus India Endemic
20. Elaeocarpus rugosus India, NA NA

Vernacular: Assam: Andaman &
Gatronga, Phulchampa, Bor Nicobar
chopa, Bor potao; Garo: Islands
Ankhi-ai-phak. Bangladesh,
Myanmar and
Malaysia.
21. Elaeocarpus serratus India, Sri- NA Fruits are eaten and

Vernacular: Kannada: Lanka, Nepal, also pickled by local
Beejada mara, Danda amba; Bhutan, people. Wood
Malyalam: Nalla karra, Myanmar, suitable for packing
Valiya Kara, Perin kara; China, cases and
Tamil: Ularg Karai; Malaysia and matchboxes. Leaves
English: Ceylon Olive Indonesia used for treating
22 | P a g e
(Java). rheumatism and as

an antidote for
poison.
22. Elaeocarpus India, Nepal, NA The sour fruit pulp
sphaericus/ganitrus Bangladesh, is edible; the stones
Vernacular: Assam: Myanmar and are used as beads for
Rudrai; Bengal: Rudrakya, Malaya. rosaries, bracelets
Rudraksh; and necklaces.
Gujarat/Hindi/Malyalam/Sa Sometimes
nskrit: Rudraksh; Kannada: cultivated for its
Rudrakshi; Khasi: Soh tubercled stones.
Langseki; Tamil: Akkam,
Rudrakai; Telegu:
Rudrakshalu; English:
Wooden Beggar bead, The
utrasum bead tree.
23. Elaeocarpus stapfianus India, Indo- NA NA
China.
24. Elaeocarpus tectorius India, Sri NA NA
Vernacular: Assam: Lanka, Nepal,
Poreng, seleng; Garo: Bhutan,
Agong, Bolrogong; Bangladesh,
Kannad: Hinnalatorde; Myanmar,
Khasi: Dienglasw; Indo-China,
Malyalam: Kattu Kara, China,
Malam Kara; Oriya: Nard Malaysia and
Champa, Panasia, Indonesia
Patragundi; Tamil: Bikki (Sumatra).
25. Elaeocarpus tuberculatus India, Rare Nuts used as a
Vernacular: Kannad: Andaman & substitute of
Bhutali, Dandemara; Nicobar 'Rudraksha'
Marathi: Rudrak; Tamil: Islands, (Elaeocarpus
Rutthracham; Malyalam: Malaysia. sphaericus); used as
23 | P a g e
Pilahi, Naggara; English: beads for rosaries

Deccan olive necklaces and
bracelets. Wood
used for planking,
packing cases and
splints.
26. Elaeocarpus varunna India, Nepal, NA Wood suitable for
Vernacular: Assam: Bangladesh, making tea boxes.
Bhadraik/Bhadraksha, Myanmar and
Niganibual; Khasi: Dieng- Malaya.
ri-lam, Dieng-si-sah, Dieng-
soh-dhakap; Naga: Pong-o-
test; Nepal: Bhadrase
27. Elaeocarpus venustus India NA The trees are
Vernacular: Tamil: handsome, are
Tamarai potential
ornamental, and
shade plants for
their large white
flowers and
evergreen foliage.
28. Elaeocarpus wallichii India, NA NA
Myanmar.
29. Elaeocarpus sikkimensis India, Bhutan. NA NA
Vernacular: Assam:
Seleng; Nepalese: Bhadrase
30. Elaeocarpus stipularis NA NA
31. Elaeocarpus lacunosus Cambodia, NA NA
India,
Indonesia,
Laos,
Malaysia,
24 | P a g e
Myanmar,
Thailand,
Vietnam
32. Elaeocarpus robustus NA NA
33. Elaeocarpus oblongus NA NA
34. Elaeocarpus ferrugineus NA NA
35. Elaeocarpus obtusus NA NA
36. Elaeocarpus monoceras NA NA
37. Elaeocarpus griffithii India, NA The fruits are edible.

Andaman Locally the bark is
Islands, used to produce
Myanmar, anti-malaria
Thailand, medicine
Peninsular
Malaysia,
Sumatra, Java,
Borneo
(Sarawak,
Brunei, Sabah,
West-, South-
and East-
Kalimantan)
Elaeocarpus variablis India Endemic NA
25 | P a g e
Image 17: Elaeocarpus variabilis; Usually Sold as One Mukhi or Two Mukhi
Image 18: Elaeocarpus ganitrus/sphaericus Nepalese; (Right) Indian 5 Mukhi
Image 19: Elaeocarpus spp. (Indonesian6 Mukhi); (Right) 5 Mukhi Indian Rough Bead
26 | P a g e
Image 20: Elaeocarpus varunna (3 mukhi, Indian), (Right) Elaeocarpus lancifolius (Bhadraksh)
Image 21: Elaeocarpus Species (4 mukhi); (Right) Elaeocarpus varunna - 3 Mukhi
Image 22: Elaeocarpus (Nepalese) 12 mukhi; Front and Rear View
27 | P a g e
Image 23: Elaeocarpus munroii- Fruit and Fruiting Branch

©N. Ayyappan
Image 24: Elaeocarpus recurvatus- Inflorescence and Fruiting Branch

©N. Ayyappan
Image 25: Elaeocarpus blascoi- Herbarium Record

©K. Ramesh Kumar
28 | P a g e
Image 26: Elaeocarpus gaussenii- Herbarium Record

©K. Ramesh Kumar
Image 27: Elaeocarpus serratus Inflorescence, Fruiting Branch and Seeds

©N. Ayyappan
Image 28: Elaeocarpus tuberculatus: Infloresence & Fruit

©Pierre Grard
29 | P a g e
Image 29: Elaeocarpus variabilis inflorescence

©Pierre Grard
Image 30: Elaeocarpus venustus Branch, Inflorescence and Fruit

©Pierre Grard
Image 31: Flowers Seeds and Fruits of Elaeocarpus venustus

©Sheeba J. Irwin
30 | P a g e
Image 32: Cross-section of Different Rudraksh Seeds Showing No. of Compartments in Each
Seed
Source: Rudrablog.blogspot.in
Image 33: Ripe Fruits of Elaeocarpus ganitrus

Source: Himalayanacademy.com, Rudraweep.com
Image 34: Cross- section of Different Mukhi Rudraksh

©Dr. Dhruv Sinha
31 | P a g e
5. USES
5.1. Elaeocarpus spp. are primarily important for the seeds they produce, which are of
commercial importance. Apart from this there are several other uses of the plant parts.
Some texts mention the use of tree as timber. Pandey et. al. 2009 in their book Taxonomy of
Angiosperms mentioned Elaeocarpus ganitrus roxburghii as a good quality timber species.
The light and strong white wood of the tree was used in making aeroplane propellers5
during World War 1. In Nepal, the wood is also used as firewood and for making
agricultural instruments.
5.2. The fruit of the tree is edible and sweet in taste when fully ripe. It is also used in treating
various ailments of the digestive tract and nervous system. It is also the principle diet of
some of the endangered species like fruit bats and flying foxes. However, the main use of
the tree is the seed, which is used for making bead. The beads of Rudraksh tree is used in
making rosaries and religious jewellery worn in neck, arms wrist and head. It is believed
that the beads generate psychic powers, health and prosperity to one who is wearing and to
the place in where it is kept. Practitioners claim to have witnessed the healing properties of
the bead and are said to regulate blood pressure and mental stability and boost self-
confidence. It is especially helpful for people meditating or are spiritually active.
Image 35: Rudraksh jewelry Sold in Markets

Source: indianexpress.com
5
Lalitha Ramadurai. Know Your Plants(The Mystical Rudraksha Tree); C.P.R. Environment Education Centre, Centre of
Excellence. MoEF, GoI. http://www.cpreec.org/47.htm
32 | P a g e
5.3. The seeds of Rudraksh are believed to possess mystical and divine properties. Necklaces
made of Rudraksh beads are considered auspicious, powerful and are supposed to have
astrological and health benefits. Scientifically the Rudraksh beads possess diamagnetic
properties (wherein a material acquires temporary magnetic property in presence of external
magnetic field), which imparts positive charges in bioelectric systems of human body.
Image 36: Rudraksh Rosaries

Source: India Today
Medicinal Use of Rudraksh:

5.4. The ethno medical extracts of Rudraksh are known to have several combinations of major
elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen along with trace elements. The Ayurvedic
medicinal system identifies therapeutic use of the plant in healing of neurological and
circulation disorders. They are especially helpful for patients suffering from anxiety. The
Rudraksh bead is often used in medical treatments and healing systems like acupressure and
magnetic therapies. Various medicinal uses of Rudraksh have been listed by Hardainiyan et
al. 2015:
 Rudraksh is said to be a natural tranquilizer and has magnetic properties that control heart
rate and blood pressure. Drinking water soaked in beads overnight is also believed to
have healing properties.
 Many practitioners claim that Rudraksh beads have positive results in mental disorders
like stress, anxiety, depression, palpitations and lack of concentration.
33 | P a g e
 Paste of Rudraksh beads are used in ailments like prolonged cough, skin disorders like
ringworms, sores, pimples, boils and burns.
 Rudraksh powder if taken with equal quantities of black pepper is believed to cure small
pox.
 Milk boiled with Rudraksh beads is said to improve memory and have anti-ageing
properties.
Image 37: Rudraksh Beads Sold for its Therapeutic Properties

Source: ebay.com
5.5. Different ethno medical extracts are extracted from various parts of Rudraksh tree, which
are known to have different antibacterial qualities and are used for preparing various
medicines. Elaeocarpus sphaericus has been reported to contain alkaloids, glycosides,
steroids, flavinoids, tannins, fatty acids, carbohydrates and proteins that have been used for
making different medicinal extracts. (Rastogi et al 1991, Lal 1975). Fruit extract of
Elaeocarpus ganitrus was found analgesic in mice and is tested to be used as painkiller
(Almeida et al. 2001). Bopaiah et al., 2000 tested extracts from dried E.sphaericus fruit
against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. The effect of extracts was found to have
antidepressant properties. Some extracts of E. sphaericus fruits were found to be effective
against bronchial asthma (Singh et al. 2000) while methanolic extract of the of E.
sphaericus fruits were found anti-anxiety properties. (Shah et al. 2010).
34 | P a g e
5.6. Several alkaloids including non-aromatic indolizidine alkaloid-rudrakine account for

several medicinal properties of Rudraksh (Ray et al. 1979). The extracts of leaves and fruit,
in particular exhibit analgesic, antiepileptic, anticonvulsive (Dasgupta et al. 1984),
antihypertensive, hypnotic, tranquillizing, thermogenic (Bhattacharya 1975) effects and are
used for its sedative, smooth muscle relaxant and hydrocholeretic properties(Lal 1975).
Many authors have reported use of different parts of Rudraksh tree in treatment of stress,
anxiety, depression, palpitation, nerve disorders (Dasgupta 1984), epilepsy, migraine,
asthma, hypertension, arthritis and liver disease (Khare 2004).
Recreated from: Pant et. al 2013

Figure 2: Therapeutic Potential of Rudraksh Bead
35 | P a g e
Table 2 : Table Showing Medicinal Properties of E. sphaericus
Extracts used Properties References

Petroleum/ether/benzene/chloro Antiasthmatic Singh et al. (2000)
form/acetone/ethanol
Petroleum/ether/methanol/chlor Analgesic Naina et al.(2012)
oform/ water
Petroleum Anticonvulsant Dasgupta et.al (1984) and
ether/benzene/chloroform/aceto Asolkar et al.(1992)
ne/ethanol/
Petroleum Ether/ethanol Antidepressant Singh et al.(2000)
Water Antidiabetic Hule et al. (2011)
Chloroform/ethanol/Water Antifungal Singh et al. (2010)
Petroleum Anti-inflammatory Singh and Pandey (1999)
ether/benzene/chloroform/aceto
ne/ethanol
Water/ ethyl acetate Antihypertensive Sarkar et al.(1972),
Asolkar et al.(1992),
Sakat et.al (2009) and
Lakshmi et al.(2011)
Petroleum Antimicrobial Singh and Nath (1999)
ne/ethanol
Ethanol Antioxidant Kumar et al.(2008)
Petroleum Antiulcerogenic Singh et al.(2000)
ne/ethanol
Methanol Antixyolytic Shah et al (2011)
Water Cardiac stimulant Asolkar et al. (1992)
Water Bronchodilatory Asolkar et al. (1992)
Methanol Immunomodulatory
Source: Pant et. al 2013
36 | P a g e
Folklore and Spell Crafts

5.7. The beads are believed to have divine and magical powers and has been used in folk medicine
and healing procedures since ancient times. The fruits are believed to ward off evil spirits and
omens (Acharya 1976). The beads have traditionally been used in Indian folk crafts and is
believed to ward off evil energies and bring various benefits to the wearer. The beads are
believed to help people come over their fears and boost confidence, get rid of sins, acquire
wealth/health and many others. Different people are advised to wear different faced Rudraksh
beads depending upon their horoscope and the benefits they seek. There is also a defined
method for wearing or acquiring Rudraksh, and includes chanting of different verses and
mantras, followed by certain rituals. The beads is also an important constituent in the life of
holy men or sadhus and is used by them is various rituals necessary for puritanic life followed
by these holy men. It is extensively used for decorations and as jewellery by them. Rudraksh
is also popular as a rosary bead. Different traditional medicine practitioners also use beads
and other plant parts for healing and folk medicines. The fruits of different species are edible
and are used in treating indigestion, epilepsy, nausea etc (Pant et al. 2013). The effects of
different faced beads have been listed in Annexure II.
37 | P a g e
6. FAKE BEADS
6.1. Splurging market demands and high market rates for multi-faced rudraksh has created a niche
for fake beads in the market. A large no. of fake beads are available in market and are sold at
good price to ignorant customers. Usually fake beads are made from wood, cork, gum or from
clays. The most commonly found fake beads are made from the heartwood of Aquillaria
agallocha tree and Chestnut or Walnut tree. Two to five faced rudraksh are quite common and
are easily available. One faced spherical rudraksh is the rarest. Elaeocarpus augustifolius
(Native to Australia) produces round one faced beads but are extremely rare in occurrence.
6.2. Another species of Elaeocarpus (E. tuberculatus) having a cashew nut shaped bead is thus
sold as one mukhi rudraksh. The cashewnut shaped bead is easily available and is not
expensive, but is sometimes sold to ignorant buyers at high prices. Spherical one faced
rudraksh is however the most abundantly sold fake bead, which is made by carving berries,
betel nut and Areca nut. Stalks are also implanted on them to give them genuine looks.
Sometimes faces of higher mukhi Rudraksh beads are filled with wood dust or particles of
wood to make them one mukhi. Beads with carved snakes, serpent heads, Tridents and
Shivlings are also available in market, which are fake.
Image 38: Seeds of E. tuberculatus Sold as One Mukhi Rudraksh; (Right) One Mukhi Carved
from Plastic
38 | P a g e
Image 39: Fake Round Ek Mukhi Rudraksh with a Carved Trident and Attached Stalk Sold
at ebay
Image 40: Fake beads Made by Joining Two Beads; (Right) Betel nut carved as Rudraksh
6.3. Another type of ek mukhi rudraksh often sold in market is 'Haridwar Ek Mukhi' which are
usually of Elaeocarpus serratus. E. serratus bears three faced oval beads and are quite
common in western Himalayan foothills. 99.9% beads produced from a tree are three faced.
Rarely these trees produce a single one mukhi oval bead. However, large no. of one mukhi
oval beads available in market are tampered three faced beads, which are finely moulded by
sealing of two clefts using resin or wood dust or by carefully pasting small pieces of beads on
the clefts. Faces on a Rudraksh bead is also increased by carving extra lines on lower mukhi
rudraksh, thus making more faces in them and obtaining higher prices. Cheaper Rudraksh
beads are also carefully broken down and then joined again to make beads with more faces
and rare conjoint beads like Gauri Shankar/trijunti.
39 | P a g e
Image 41: Fake Beads Carved from Beetle Nut and Other Similar Seeds
Image 42: Fake Beads Glued Together and Sold at Higher Prices in Market
Image 43: Fake 21 Mukhi Rudraksh
40 | P a g e
Image 44: Fake Beads with Carved Serpents and Shivlings are Very Popular in Market
Image 45: Fake Beads formed by Gluing Together Several Small Beads
Image 46: Different Types of Fake Beads Sold During Manimahesh Yatra, Himachal Pradesh
41 | P a g e
Image 47: Ek Mukhi Rudraksh sold by Vendors During Manimahesh Yatra
There are also a number of methods through which Rudraksh beads can be tested for its
authenticity.
Testing with Water

6.4. Rare Rudraksh beads like Gaurishankar/trijunti and Rudraksh with higher number of faces
are sometimes made by joining smaller beads. Boiling the bead in water for 20-30 minutes
causes discoloration at the place of joining in case of fake bead. This method can only
identify fake beads in which glue is used. Another very common method of testing
Rudraksh beads is flotation test, in which the bead is placed in water. It is said that a real
bead will sink in water while a fake bead will float. However, this is not a reliable method
as the weight in a Rudraksh bead is due to the number of viable seeds inside the bead. An
unripe genuine bead will thus float in water if tested through this method. Dealers dealing
in fake beads often impregnate fake beads with lead to make it heavy and sink in water.
One mukhis carved with higher mukhis also sink.
42 | P a g e
Identifying Rudraksh by Cutting

6.5. This is considered the most reliable test to identify real Rudraksh beads, however the
drawback is that the bead is destroyed in the process. On cutting the bead cross sectional, it
has the same no. of compartments as the number of faces.
Copper Coin Test

6.6. It is a common belief that Rudraksh bead when placed between two copper coins will rotate
towards right or left due to induced magnetism.
X-Rays and CT Scans

6.7. Through x-rays the internal structure of the bead can be seen without damaging the bead
from outside. X-rays are helpful in identifying rudraksh up to 7 mukhi. Higher faced beads
may not show exact results due to overlapping of seed compartments. CT scans give more
accurate results than x-rays or any other methods.
Image 48: The Copper Coin Test for Rudraksh
6.8. To test the authenticity of the beads commonly available in the market, we procured some
beads from open market from various places in India and had them analysed for authenticity.
43 | P a g e
Table 3: Lab Results for Different Rudraksh Beads
S. no. Bead Place of Cost Lab Results Reference

Collection (INR) Picture
1. 7 faced Bead Varanasi 200- 400 Natural Rudraksh, Indonesian
Origin, No artificial treatment
2. 5 faced Bead Nilgiris/ seed NA Natural Rudraksh, Nepalese

collected Origin, No artificial treatment
3. 5 Faced Bead Varanasi 4.5 Natural Rudraksh, Nepalese

Origin, Dyed
4. 3 Faced Bead Dehradun/ NA Natural Rudraksh, Indian

Seed Collected Origin, No artificial treatment
5. 5 Faced Bead Varanasi 4.5 Natural Rudraksh, Nepalese

Origin, No artificial treatment
6. 5 faced Bead Nilg 30-50 Natural Rudraksh, Nepalese

iris Origin, No artificial treatment
7. 2 faced Bead Nilg 30-50 Natural Rudraksh, Indian

iris Origin, No artificial treatment
8. 1 faced Bead Nilg 200-300 Plastic

iris
* For Detailed Reports Refer Annexure III
44 | P a g e
7. RUDRAKSHA TRADE IN INDIA

7.1. A semi-structured interview was conducted with different regional suppliers, local sellers
and wholesalers in Haridwar, Uttarakhand. A semi- structured questionnaire was prepared
to elicit information about the trade routes of Rudraksha in India, socio-economic
significance and the supply, demand aspect of the same. Different interviewees were
selected based on the snow-ball approach.
7.2. Few species of Elaeocarpus yield fruits twice a year, namely, July and January. It is stated
that the July crop yield higher quality in comparison to the January harvest. In certain
varieties for trees from Sahyadri ranges and in Maharashtra, the flowering of the tree takes
place between February- March and the yield or the fruits are collected by the month of
November. It is after the cleaning and processing that the beads and the rosary are marketed
by the month of January.
7.3. Besides forest, a few species of Elaeocarpus are also planted in the Dehradun (nursery),
Haridwar (Ashram/ Temple complex/Nursery) region of Uttarakhand. The seed however
(planted in a few Ashrams of Haridwar) are not used for any trading or commercial purpose
and are given in exchange to the devotees as offering and hence has religious significance.
Image 49: Three- Mukhi Rudraksh from a Nursery in Dehradun without Artificial Color
Representing the Original Color
45 | P a g e
7.4. The importance of Rudraksha bead is dependent on the number of 'mukh' it comprises of.
The Rudraksh available in India majorly comprises of the bead constituting of 1,2,3 and 5
mukhi. Rameshwaram is popular for 1- mukhi rudraksha, which from there is transported to
different parts of India. Moon shaped ék mukhi' rudraksha is the seed of E. tuberculatus
that is deformed.
Trade Route:
7.5. Northeast India is also a producer of Elaeocarpus sp but the interviews revealed no inter-
trading from the producing zones of India. The beads and rosaries sold in the market are
imported from two major trade centres-
 Indonesia and
 Dharan in Nepal.
7.6. Indonesia is popular for the rosaries that are transported via sea route and stationed in
Bombay, from where it is spread in the markets of India. The established wholesalers have
direct contacts and no middleman is involved in their system of import. On the other hand,
Nepal is a popular source for the beads, ranging from 12 mm to 35 mm sizes, which are
transported to Varanasi, which is the oldest and major centre where these beads are
processed in terms of colouring and drilling and later distributed in different markets of
India.
46 | P a g e
Map 3: Natural Forest in the Northern-Eastern Parts of India. Whereas, Plantation and Nurseries are in Dehradun and Haridwar
47 | P a g e
Map 4: Indonesia And Nepal- Major Trade Center. Beads from Indonesia are Traded (Via Ship) to Mumbai and Later Distributed to
Wholesalers in Different Business Centers in India like Rameshwaram, Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi, Rameshwaram. Whereas, Beads from
Nepal is Transported (Via Road) to Varanasi and then to Other Parts of India
48 | P a g e
Map 5:The Trade Route Showing Transportation of Bead from Dharan in Nepal to Varanasi Where the Processing of Seeds are Done and Then
Transported to Other Business Centers. Haridwar, The Second Largest Center. Mathura has Emerged and Established Itself as One of the
Important Business Center in India
49 | P a g e
Image 50: 'Paanch-Mukhi' Beads from Thailand are Spread in the Market in a Compiled
form (As Shown) and are Later Transformed into Rosary and are Sold
Table 4:Different Kind of Bead Traded in India
Species Traded Bead Mukhi Popular Traded to Sold in the

from Size For Different Parts of Form of
India
Elaeocarpus Nepal 10- 11 1-21 All mukhi, Varanasi, Bead,
ganitrus mm depending Haridwar, Mathura, Rosary
upon the Rameshwaram
size.
Elaeocarpus Indonesia 12- 35 1-27 5- mukhi Haridwar, Mathura, Rosary
sp mm Varanasi, Mumbai.
Elaeocarpus India 15-25 1,2,3,5 1 mukhi Haridwar, Mathura, Bead
tuberculatus mm from Varanasi, other
& E. serratus Rameshwa religious market.
ram
50 | P a g e
7.7. Beads comprising of 21- 27 mukhi are rarely seen and toughest to find along with the bead
constituting of only single- mukhi or 'Ek-mukhi'. Also the beads of uncommon shape like
'Gauri-Shankar' are rarely seen and hence are expensive. The trading process from produce
to processing till marketing is explained as under:
 Dharan is the major trading center in Nepal for Elaeocarpus sp seeds or beads. The
seeds are extracted from the fruit, cleaned and are transported from Dharan to Varanasi
in the form of beads.
 Varanasi is the oldest and the major trading centre in India. The beads are processed- a)
Cleaned, b) Coloured, c) Drilled and are kept in the form of beads and rosaries.
 The wholesalers then supplies the processed beads and rosaries in different parts of
India. The other major business centre for rudraksh beads is Haridwar and Mathura.
 On the other hand, Indonesia trades beads of small size compiled in the form of a
rosary. They are later transformed into a proper rosary by the sellers (both regional and
local) depending upon the demand and are popularly sold in the form of rosary. It is
always in the form of rosary constituting of 'paanch-mukhi' bead.
 On a regional domain, the beads and rosaries are usually bought from the wholesalers
and are sold in the local market, whereas, the bigger wholesalers have their direct
contacts that is kept private.
 There are also different mediators involved who visit the local markets every 2-3
months and sells the beads required. This is in reference to the beads from Nepal.
 A large percentage of fake beads are produced in India.
51 | P a g e
Supply and Demand
7.8. The economic value of the beads is always inversely proportional to the occurrence of the
particular variety (or variety seen). The different stakeholders involved in the demand chain
of the beads or rosaries from the big wholesalers are Sadhus, religious gurus, regional and
local sellers and general people for medicinal and religious purpose. The demand of the
different type of beads is largely influenced by television based on the suggestion provided by
different religious gurus. Cultural significance, medicinal and astrological benefits also
influence the demand of the beads. According to the interviews, there has always been
equilibrium between the supply and demand of the beads, but the trend regarding the
popularity of Indonesian and Nepali beads relative to each other keeps fluctuating. It is for
past 4 years that the supply of beads from Nepal has become constrained due to the increase
in demand from the other neighbouring countries like China. This has also significantly raised
the economic value of the beads from Nepal. The beads from Nepal hold more value in
comparison to the beads from Indonesia because of the size and clarity of the faces or 'mukhis'
developed on it. It is reported that the trade in Nepal has suffered because of fake beads
available in Indian market, which is the primary destination of Nepalese beads.
Image 51:Woman Buying the Compiled form of Indonesian 'Paanch-Mukhi' Beads for
Rosary
52 | P a g e
7.9. In spite of 'no difference' in the cultural and medicinal value of the bead from both Nepal and
Indonesia, the economic value of the same differs. The religious significance and thereby the
increasing demand and economic value of these sacred beads have given rise to the fake
market and trading within the country.
7.10. According to import-export data of India in Year 2015-2016, India exported Rudraksh beads
worth USD 143,798/- with total quantity of 47,284 beads. United States is the largest buyer of
Rudraksh beads accounting for exports worth USD 84,542/- followed by Vietnam and Hong
Kong which imported Rudraksh beads worth USD 22,357/- and USD 15,682/- respectively.
The most preferred route for trade is through sea and Chennai accounted for 28.3% of exports
followed by Delhi (17.2%) and Bangalore (15.8%). The average price of per unit of Rudraksh
was USD 3.04/- and average units per shipment is 1,027.
7.11. On the other hand India imported Rudraksh worth USD 877,218 with total quantity of
1,083,796. Indonesia is the largest supplier of Rudraksh accounting for imports worth USD
870,958/-. Maximum imports are done through Kolkata (80%) followed by Nhava Sheve Port
(18.8%) and Bangalore (0.7%). Average price of Rudraksh per unit is USD 0.81/-.
Table 5: Rudraksh Imports 2015-2016 India6
Origin Port of Value Per Unit

Date Description Unit Quantity
Country Discharge (INR) (INR)
16-Mar-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Nhava Sheva KGS 13,044 7,16,690 55

(JENITRI) Sea
24-Feb-16 RUDRAKSHA Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 14,400 8,05,389 56
BEADS(GUAZUMA
ULMIFOLIA)
20-Feb-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Air KGS 582 46,638 80
Cargo
03-Feb-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Air KGS 322 25,597 79
Cargo
03-Feb-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 14,160 7,82,584 55
(INVOICE
NO.0008/SD/PL-
INV/XII/2015
DT.30.12.2015)
28-Jan-16 RUDRAKSHA SEEDS Germany Tuticorin Sea KGS 9 747 88
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21-Jan-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,500 7,35,745 54

(INVOICE
NO.0140/BYA/PL-
INV/XII/2015
DT.21.12.2015
13-Jan-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS ( Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 12,946 7,02,937 54
INVOICE NO. 146/KM-
SRG/EXP/XII/2015 DT.
07.12.2015)
01-Jan-16 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 4,463 2,42,330 54
05-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,509 7,28,049 54
(INVOICE NO:144/KM-
SRG/EXP/X/2015
DT.20.10.2015)
26-Nov-15 INDONESIAN Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,799 6,83,087 50
RUDRAKSHA
26-Nov-15 RUDRAKSHA Indonesia Kolkata Air KGS 159 10,379 65
Cargo
21-Nov-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 12,916 6,90,872 53
12-Nov-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 10 494 49

13-Oct-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Air KGS 352 56,972 162
Cargo
03-Oct-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,200 7,12,995 54
(INVOICE
NO.0007/SD/PL-
INV/VIII/2015
DT.25.08.2015)
29-Sep-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 12,178 6,57,792 54
(INVOICE NO:140/KM-
SRG/EXP/VIII/2015
DT.10.08.2015)
22-Sep-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Delhi Air KGS 41 6,726 164
Cargo

(INVOICE NO.138/KM-
SRG/EXP/VIII/2015
DT.05.08.2015)
04-Sep-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS ( Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 2,119 1,10,177 52

PHY.CERT. NO.
2015.2.14.00
K10.E.004286
DT.2.07.2015
28-Aug-15 INDONESIAN Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,632 6,61,912 49
RUDRAKSHA
24-Aug-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS Indonesia Kolkata Sea KGS 13,014 6,74,032 52
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Table 6: Rudraksh Exports Through India in 2015-20167
Port of Value Per Unit

Date Description Destination Unit Quantity
Loading (INR) (INR)
21-Mar-16 PRAYER BEADED MALAS Germany Tughlakabad PCS 53 4,084 77

RUDRAKSHA
21-Mar-16 PRAYER BEADED MALAS Germany Tughlakabad PCS 53 4,084 77
RUDRAKSHA
07-Mar-16 RUDRAKSHA BEAD United Delhi Air NOS 1 1,339 1,339
States Cargo
12-Jan-16 ASSORTED BEADS MALAS United Delhi Air PCS 150 10,040 67
FORRELIGIOUS States Cargo
INSTITUTIONS -
RUDRAKSHA BEADS
12-Jan-16 ASSORTED BEADS MALAS United Delhi Air PCS 105 21,085 201
FORRELIGIOUS States Cargo
INSTITUTIONS -
RUDRAKSHA MALA
16-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA MALA 7MM United Patparganj PCS 198 19,127 97
BEADS States
14-Dec-15 ASSORTED STONE BEADS United Delhi Air PCS 2 1,30,00 65,000
SIDDHA RUDRAKSHA MALA States Cargo 0
03-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA MALA 6MM Thailand Banglore Air PCS 100 78,655 787
108 BEADS Cargo
01-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA United Chennai Sea NOS 200 1,83,16 916
PANCHAMUKHI MALA States 4
BEAD SIZE-6MM
01-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA United Chennai Sea NOS 150 2,86,26 1,908
PANCHAMUKHI MALA States 6
BEAD SIZE-5MM
01-Dec-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS United Chennai Sea NOS 200 15,231 76
CHILDRENS SHANMUKHI 6- States
FACED
04-Nov-15 ASSORTED STONE BEADS- United Delhi Air NOS 231 82,150 356
RUDRAKSHA MALAS, States Cargo
TULASI WRIST MALAS, ETC
AS PER INV.
14-Oct-15 RUDRAKSHA MALA WITH United Delhi Air PCS 120 39,060 326
GLASS BEADS Kingdom Cargo
09-Oct-15 ASSORTED RUDRAKSHA Australia Delhi Air PCS 50 37,500 750
MALA (WITH STONE BEADS) Cargo
05-Oct-15 ASSORTED RUDRAKSHA United Delhi Air PCS 50 37,500 750
MALA (WITH STONE BEADS) States Cargo
30-Sep-15 JAPA MALA (RUDRAKSHA United Delhi Air PCS 12 3,900 325
WITH STONE BEADS) States Cargo
18-Sep-15 FESTIVAL ITEMS United Tughlakabad PCS 120 16,187 135
RUDRAKSHA BEADS States
GARLAND # 57
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18-Sep-15 FESTIVAL ITEMS United Tughlakabad PCS 24 2,132 89

RUDRAKSHA BEADS States
GARLANDS 2 LINE
11-Aug-15 TEMPLE PRODUCTS United Chennai Air NOS 20 1,459 73
RUDRAKSHA BEADS Kingdom Cargo
11-Aug-15 TEMPLE PRODUCTS United Chennai Air NOS 20 2,902 145
11-Aug-15 TEMPLE PRODUCTS United Chennai Air NOS 2 15,244 7,622
GOWRISANKAR
29-Jul-15 100% WOOD RUDRAKSHA 27 United Delhi Air PCS 150 28,542 190
BEADS ELASTIC MALAS States Cargo
27-Jul-15 RUDRAKSHA MALAS WITH Portugal Delhi Air PCS 60 6,000 100
BIG GURU BEAD Cargo
24-Jul-15 RUDRAKSHA BEADS United Nhava Sheva PCS 24 2,135 89
GARLANDS 2 LINE States Sea
22-Jul-15 RUDRAKSHA ROSARY Canada Banglore Air NOS 1 32,407 32,407
PRAYER BEADS Cargo
03-Jul-15 RUDRAKSHA United Chennai Sea NOS 100 78,168 782
PANCHAMKUKHI MALA States
BEAD SIZE-6.5MM
7.12. The import and export data clearly show that maximum amount of Rudraksh beads
are imported from Indonesia, which are then either absorbed in the domestic market or are
exported to other countries with raised prices. However, Rudraksh imported from Nepal
does not figure in this data as Nepal being in close proximity to India does not import or
export goods through air or sea cargo. Most of the Rudraksh from Nepal reaches Indian
market through individual dealers over land and as informal trade.
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8. PROPAGATION OF RUDRAKSH TREE- A CHALLENGE

8.1. The seeds of Elaeocarpus species have hard seed coat and take prolonged time for
germination. Different methods are utilised to assist germination of seeds for propagation.
Pant et al. 2013 described the seed treatment method for Rudraksh seeds before plantation that
involved collection of seeds from forest which is followed by washing of seeds with
concentrated sulphuric acid for 15 minutes. The seeds are then washed with water and soaked
in water maintaining 40˚ C temperature for 48 hours before planting to help in germination.
Breaking of hard seed coat without damaging the seed is also practiced in some cases.
8.2. The preferred soil type for plantation of seeds is well drained clayey or loamy, slightly acidic
soils with a pH range of 6- 7.3(Khan et al. 2004). The gestation period may vary from 45 days
to more than a year and optimum micro environment need to be maintained for the seeds for
proper growth. Since the method is time consuming and often does not provide proper results
other methods like grafting/ cutting are popularly used for propagation of saplings.
8.3. Vegetative propagation offers solution to the germination issues related to Elaeocarpus spp.
In spite of poor germination and regeneration capacity of the species, vegetative propagation
techniques have not been explored to increase population of species. Propagation methods
that include seed treatment and stem cutting/grafting need to be studied and utilized for better
plantation options of the species. Following methods should be studied in details for proper
growth of plants from seeds as well as grafting:
Propagation from Seeds:
8.4. In this method, the seeds are collected and the pericarp is left for rotting (in case of matured
fruits). After removing the pulp, the seeds are given various treatments like mechanically
breaking the endocarp or treating with 1% H2SO4. In some cases, the seeds are also boiled in
water to soften the endocarp. After this treatment, the seeds are sown in regular soil
conditions hospitable for growth of the plant.
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Propagation by Stem Cutting and Grafting:
8.5. Elaeocarpus spp. has shown growth through vegetative propagation through stem cutting and
grafting. Stems from mature trees is grafted and then planted in suitable soil mixes. The graft
usually generates new tips and leaves within a period of 20-30 days. The antibacterial
property of the tree also facilitates grafting as it kills bacterial and fungal infections. Grafting
has so far been reported as the most successful method for propagation of Rudrakash and
other Elaeocarpus spp., where the seed germination rate is poor both in natural and laboratory
conditions.
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9. THREATS
9.1. Delayed fruiting, poor seed viability, poor seed germination rate along with unsustainable
collection of seeds impedes regeneration of tree via seeds. This has endangered the existing
population of Rudraksh as well. Unsustainable collections have reduced natural seed banks of
the species, hampering natural regeneration. The species is increasingly threatened due to this
and many of the sub species are under threatened and endangered category already. Khan et.al
reported the decline in population of Rudraksh trees in North East India due to deforestation.
The ethnic importance of the bead has been documented as a principle reason for decline in
population. The reduced rates of natural seed banks along with poor germination rate
facilitated by harness of seed coat which exscinds the water absorption by seed has resulted
into significant reduction in the no. of unprotected trees. The major threats related to
Rudraksh tree in India has been listed as follows:
 Lack of knowledge about the tree and the species: Lack of scientific knowledge about
the distribution and species of Elaeocarpus has led to unsustainable collection and
marketing of the beads. Lack of awareness and rising market prices due to religious belief
fuelled demand has led to sever loss of species from the natural habitat of the tree. As a
result seeds of many other species are now disguised as Rudraksh and sold to customers.
 Lack of historic and present data regarding the species: Void in information about the
species makes evaluation about the status of the species in Indian context difficult. The
specie is not listed in the NTFP list of forest products and thus has no data related to
it, leading to an opaque picture about the trade.
 Superstitions and Myths related to Rudraksh beads: For boosting sales the dealers
retail myths and legends about the power of the bead and are using various branding and
tele-marketing techniques to sell the beads. This has fuelled demand resulting in
increased collection of the seeds, hampering natural regeneration.
 Unsustainable collection: the unchecked collection of beads has reduced the number of
trees and natural regeneration in the forests, leading to decrease in the number. of trees in
the wild.
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 Large-scale imports from other countries: Since most of the market demands for
Rudraksh are met by imports from other countries, not much importance has been given
on cultivation of the species in India on a commercial scale. India is the largest market for
Rudraksh and related products but most of these demands are fulfilled through imports
not benefitting the rural communities which otherwise can earn a handsome revenue
through cultivation of the tree commercially.
 Frugivory: The fruit of Rudraksh is savoured by many species of frugivory fauna like
squirrels, flying foxes, rodents, birds and primates. Frugivorus fauna help seed dispersal
but in case of Rudraksh this has proved detrimental for natural regeneration of the tree.
Unripe fruits are removed from the tree by the animals before seed formation, which lead
to decline in natural seed bank. Lower seed production, unsustainable seed collection
coupled with damages due to animals has led to low populations of Eleocarpus in its
natural habitat.
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10. RECOMMENDATIONS
10.1. The Elaeocarpus species harbours good potential to be developed as an important
ecological and commercial species. The ecological and medical benefits provided by the
species, as well as satisfying a large spiritual market makes it one of the most beneficial
natural products. India provides sound ecological and climatic conditions required by the
species to propagate and grow. Commercial production of Rudraksh can prove very
beneficial as a community crop for local farmers, who can have a supplementary income by
cultivating the maintenance free tree.
10.2. Documentation and assessment of the present status of Elaeocarpus spp in

India: Before formulating a conservation plan for any species it is important to have
baseline data about the species. A holistic data on natural distribution of various species of
Elaeocarpus, total number of trees/frequency in wild and in cultivation, yield and
regeneration status of Rudraksh tree is so far not available, which makes it difficult to
formulate a proper conservation strategy for the species. For proper assessment of the
species and its status a baseline data bank should be made so that future conservation plans
can be implemented accordingly. This data can be collected through crowd sourcing and
citizen science approaches, wherein different people record the presence and absence of the
species in their area.
10.3. The data will ascertain the ecological status - endangered or otherwise, of various species
of Elaeocarpus in India. Although, the population of the Elaeocarpus spp in India is
known to be declining rapidly, these are not included in Red Data List as threatened
species, except Elaeocarpus gaussenii (Listed as critically endangered) and Elaeocarpus
blascoi (Endangered).
10.4. Research on means of propagation for the species: Appropriate research and
development of other propagation methods for the species is urgently required for better
conservation and growth of the species.
10.5 Propagation in Sacred groves: Sacred groves as a means for environmental and
ecological protection and enhancement have proved very effective in Indian context.
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There have been many example and instances where a certain species is conserved
because of its religious significance. Rudraksh tree is religiously significant and
promoting the species in sacred groves will prove beneficial for the conservation of the
tree besides providing other ecological benefits.
10.6 Promotion of tree in silvi-culture and agro-forestry: The species can be promoted
as an important agro-forestry/silviculture species, as once planted the tree is easy to
maintain and yields good amount of NTFP every year. However, efforts are required to
promote Indian Rudraksh beads in the market.
10.7 Awareness: Awareness about the market demand and the need to balance the same
with sustainable exploitation needs to be communicated to stakeholders for overall
conservation of species.
10.8 Certification and standardization of beads: The large demand and inadequate
supply has led to fraud in the Rudraksh market. Often buyers are cheated with false
substitutes presented as the genuine bead. To put a curb on these practices proper
certification and standardization regarding different beads need to be in place. However,
adequacy of supply would be the best remedy.
10.9 Promotion of the species as a Spiritual tree: The Rudraksh tree can be promoted
as a spiritual tree on the lines of peepul [Ficus Religiosa]. A campaign by spiritual
leaders to promote the tree, which will help generate awareness about the species and
will help in conservation efforts.
10.10 Promotion of medicinal products based upon Rudraksh: The remedies based on
products of Elaeocarpus need to be advertised while simultaneously training local
cooperatives in the scientific preparation of the medicinal products. These can then be
marketed through an appropriate strategy.
10.11 The Elaeocarpus sub-species with the best quality beads can be propagated in its
native region. Map 1 shows the distribution of the species in India. The most important
location are the mid-Himalyan range as well as the foothills. A concerted effort to plant
62 | P a g e
the species in sacred groves, community forests, commercial forests and individual
holdings can benefit the stakeholder communities significantly while generating
ecological benefits as well.
Table 7: Economic Benefits by Planting Rudraksh Trees (Approx.)

S. Activity Investment Profit
No.
1. Cost of the Sapling 300 Rs/ Sapling
2. Transportation and Plantation 500 Rs.
costs per tree
3. Seeds produced per 3000- 4000
season per tree seeds @ 1 Rs
market cost
*Time for Maturation of Tree = 3-4 years
**Average Age of tree = 30-40 Years
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11.REFERENCES
Acharya, R.S., 1976. Shiv Purana. Vol. 1, Sanskrit Institute, Barley, Pages: 170.
Almeida RN, Navarro DS, Barbosa-filho JM, 2001. Plants with Central Analgesic Activity.
Phytomedicine, 8(4): 310-322.
Bhattacharya, S.K., P.K. Debnath, V.B. Pandey and A.K. Sanyal, 1975. Pharmacological
investigations on Elaeocarpus ganitrus. Planta Med., 28: 174-177.
Bopaiah CP, Pradhan N, Venkataram BS, 2000. Pharmacological study on antidepressant activity
of 50% ethanol extract of a formulated ayurvedic product in rats. J Ethnopharmacol, 72(3):411-
419.
Coode, M.J.E., 2007. Elaeocarpaceae for flora malesiana: New information on Elaeocarpus from
Borneo and Sulawesi. Kew Bull., 62: 329-332.
Dasgupta, A., S.S. Agrawal and D.K. Basu, 1984. Anticonvulsant activity of the mixed fatty acids of
the Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb. Indian J. Physiol. Pharm., 28: 245-286.
Dasgupta, A., S.S. Agrawal and D.K. Basu, 1984. Anticonvulsant activity of the mixed fatty acids of
the Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb. Indian J. Physiol. Pharm., 28: 245-286.
Hooker J. D., Dalton J. Flora of British India 1817-1911
Hule, A.K., A.S. Shah, M.N. Gambhire and A.R. Juvekar, 2011. An evaluation of the antidiabetic
effects of Elaeocarpus ganitrus in experimental animals. Indian J. Pharmacol., 43: 56-59.
Irudhyaraj Felix. D., R. Ramasubbu , Reproductive biology of Elaeocarpus blascoi, Weibel, an
endemic and endangered tree species of Palni Hills, Western Ghats, India, CURRENT SCIENCE,
VOL. 110, NO. 2, 25 JANUARY 2016

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Irudhyaraj, D. F. and Ramasubbu, R., The lonely endemic Palni Hills Rudraksha tree Elaeocarpus
blascoi Weibel (Magnoliopsida:Malvales: Elaeocarpaceae), Tamil Nadu, India. J. Threat. Taxa,
2014, 6(11), 6473–6476.
Khan, M.L., P. Bhuyan and R.S. Tripathi, 2004. Survival and growth of seedlings of Rudraksh
(Elaeocarpus ganitrus) under varied canopy conditions after transplant. Trop. Ecol., 45: 233-239.
Khare, C.P., 2004. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. Springer Publication, New York, USA
Hardainiyan Swati, Bankim Chandra Nandy, Krishan Kumar, 2015; Elaeocarpus Ganitrus
(Rudraksha): A Reservoir Plant with their Pharmacological Effects. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Rev. Res.,
34(1), September – October 2015; Article No. 10, Pages: 55-64
Kumar Ambrish, Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Floristic Diversity of Arunachal Pradesh-
Upper Subansiri District. Botanical Survey of India. 2013.
Kumar, T.S., S. Shanmugam, T. Palvannan and V.M.B. Kumar, 2008. Evaluation of antioxidant
properties of Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb. leaves. Iran. J. Pharmaceut. Res., 7: 211-215.
Lakshmi, T., A. Roy, K. Durgha and V. Manjusha, 2011. Coping with hypertension using safer
herbal medicine: A therapeutic review. Int. J. Drug Dev. Res., 3: 31-57.
Lal, C., 1975. Tabulated phytochemical reports. Phytochemistry, 14: 1467-1468
MFSC , 2013, Country Report on the State of Forest Genetic Resources, Nepal, Government of
Nepal - Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation. Prepared under the FAO Technical Assistance to
the Government of Nepal http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3825e/i3825e47.pdf
Naina, J., K. Garg and S. Dhahiya, 2012. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Elaeocarpus
sphaericus leaf extract. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci., 4: 379-381.
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Noatay K.L. Asia's useful trees and plants- Rudraksh, The Tribune, 2002.
Pandey. S. N.; Misra. S. P. 2009. Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Ane Books Pvt. Ltd. Pg 393.
Pant Manu, Ankita Lal, Prabha Bisht and Anju Rani, 2013. Elaeocarpus sphaericus: A Tree with
Curative Powers: an Overview. Research Journal of Medicinal Plants, 7: 23-31
Parthasarathy, V. Rudraksha. Tattvaloka. 1993. Pg 16-18.
Rastogi, R.P. and B.N. Mehrotra, 1991. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Publication and
Information Directorate, Lucknow, India, pp: 261-262.
Ray, A.B., L. Chand and V.B. Pandey, 1979. Rudrakine: A new alkaloid from Elaeocarpus
ganitrus. Phytochemistry, 18: 700-701.
Sakat, S.S., S.S. Wankhede, A.R. Juvekar, V.R. Mali and S.L. Bodhankar, 2009. Antihypertensive
effect of aqueous extract of Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb. seeds in renal artery occluded hypertensive
rats. Int. J. Pharm. Tech. Res., 1: 779-782.
Sarkar, P.K. and S.S. Sengupta, 1972. Studies with ethylacetate extract of Elaeocarpus
ganitrus seeds on mammalian heart-intact and isolated preparations. Indian J. Pharm., 4: 129-137.
Shah G, Shiri R, Kumar R, Singh H, Nagpal N, 2010. Pharmacognostical standardization of fruits
of Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn). K. Schum Pharmacognosy Journal, 2 (13): 565-57.
Shah, G., P.S. Singh, A.S. Mann and R. Shri, 2011. Scientific basis for the chemical constituent and
therapeutic use of Elaeocarpus species: A review. Int. J. Inst. Pharm. Lif. Sci., 1: 267-278.
Singh RK, Bhattacharya SK, Acharya SB, 2000. Studies on extracts of Elaeocarpus sphaericus
fruits on in vitro rat mast cells. Phytomedicine, 7(3): 205-7
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Singh, B., A. Chopra, N.P.S. Ishar, A. Sharma and T. Raj, 2010. Pharmacognostic and antifungal
investigations of Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Rudraksha). Indian J Pharm. Sci., 72: 261-265.
Singh, R.K. and B.L. Pandey, 1999. Anti-inflammatory activity of Elaeocarpus sphaericus fruits
extracts in rats. J. Arom. Plant Sci., 21: 1030-1032.
Singh, R.K. and G. Nath, 1999. Antimicrobial activity of Elaeocarpus sphaericus. Phytoth. Res., 13:
448-450.
Singh, R.K., S.B. Acharya and S.K. Bhattacharya, 2000. Pharmacological activity of Elaeocarpus
sphaericus. Phytother. Res., 14: 36-39.
Singh, R.K., S.K. Bhattacharya and S.B. Acharya, 2000. Studies on extracts of Elaeocarpus
sphaericus fruits on in vitro rat mast cells. Phytomed, 7: 205-207.
Storrs A., Storrs J. Trees and Shrubs of Nepal and the Himalayas. 2002. Pg 102-106.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Elaeocarpus blascoi. Version 2014.2;
www.iucnredlist.org
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12. ANNEXURE I
Table 8: Different Elaeocarpus Species and their Distribution in India
S. No. Species Tree Stem Type Leaves Flowers Fruit/Drupe Distribution Reference
Height
(In
Meters)
1. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 Buttressed at Leaves 5 - 14 x 1.5 - 4 cm, Flower- buds fusiform Drupes ca 2.5 cm long, India: In moist Kumar et
acuminatus base lanceolate,elliptic lanceolate, lanceolate or oblong- oblong, smooth, green evergreen forests al. 2013 /
elliptic-oblong, or ovate- elliptic; flowers white, 1 Flowering: July- between 1000 Storrs et.
elliptic, cuneate or tapering - 1.5 cm across; pedicels September; Fruiting: and 1500 m. al. 2002 /
into a short petiole at base, 1 - 2 cm long, October- December Meghalaya. Hooker
acuminate at apex, dentate- puberulous. Sepals 8 - Bangladesh. et.al. 1817-
serrate, veins prominent 10 mm long, lanceolate, 1911
beneath, silky when young, keeled, villous without,
glabrous with age, pubescent within,
coriaceous; petioles 1 - 1.5 minutely Villous on
cm long, thickened at apex, edges and keel. Petals 7
geniculate, pubescent. - 9 mm long, oblong-
Racemes 5 - 10 cm long, cuneate, narrowed at
stout, axillary, puberulous base, broader at apex,
laciniate to less than half
its length, long silky
68 | P a g e
hairy on both surfaces.

Stamens 35 - 40;
filaments ca 2 mm long,
puberulous; anthers 3 - 4
mm long, elliptic,
Shortly erect, awned,
puberulous. Disc glands
5, broad, 2-lobed,
pubescent. Ovary
villous, 2-loculed;
ovules in 2 rows in each
locule.
2. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 branched; Leaves 5 - 10 x 1.5 - 5 cm, Flower buds ovate- Drupes 1.5 - 3 cm India: Moist semi Hooker et.
amoenus young parts lanceolate, oblong or ovate, lanceolate or globose, across, globose, evergreen forests al. 1817-
finely usually tapering at both ends, pilose; flowers 1 - 1.5 smooth; pyrenes between 1500 1911
appressed cuneate or acute at base, cm across; white, spherical, tubercled, and 2000 m.
hairy acuminate or obtuse at apex, pedicels 8 - 10 mm long. with 3 vertical Tamil Nadu. Sri
crenate-serrate, rather thick, Sepals 5 - 6 mm long, grooves, 1-celled, 1- Lanka.
glabrous, glandular beneath, lanceolate, acute, pilose, seeded.
veins prominent beneath, reddish. Petals 8 - 10 Flowering: September
with glandular pits in their mm long, cuneate, - October.
axils; petioles 8 - 20 mm laciniate. Stamens 18 - Fruiting: March -
long. Racemes arising from 30; filaments as long as April
69 | P a g e
axils of fallen leaves, anthers, pilose; anthers 2

spreading or drooping mm long, beardless,
puberulous. Ovary 5-
loculed, pilose; styles 2
- 3 mm long.
3. Elaeocarpus 20 - 40 Conical Leaves often crowded at the Flower-buds lanceolate, Drupes 3 - 3.5 long, Distrib. India: In Kumar et
aristatus crown, ends of branchlets, 24 - 40 x ribbed; flowers pale ellipsoid; pyrenes moist deciduous al. 2013/
Ver:Assam: buttressed base 6 - 10 cm, obovate, elliptic white, 1.8 - 2 cm across, oblong, pointed at both and evergreen Storrs et.
Gerala Sopa, or oblanceolate, cuneate or drooping, fragrant; ends, compressed, forests between al. 2002 /
nagini; Garo: acute at base, rounded or pedicels 1 - 2 cm long, rugose, 1 or rarely 2- 1500 and 2000 m. Hooker
Chham subacute at apex, distantly rusty villous. Sepals 1 - loculed. West Bengal et.al. 1817-
Nangal, serrulate or subentire, 1.5 cm long, lanceolate, Flowering: April- (Darjeeling), 1911
Gangma glabrous, thinly coriaceous, narrowly triangular or June; Fruiting. July - Sikkim, Assam,
Jachhang; midrib prominent, with oblong, rusty tomentose Oct. Arunachal
Khasi: Dieng glands in the axils of lateral without, glabrous Pradesh,
Thang veins beneath; petioles 1.5 - within. Petals white, 1.5 Meghalaya.
Khapiah; 4.5 cm long, swollen at both - 1.8 cm long, Nagaland,
Nepalese: ends, geniculate, glabrous. triangular, laciniate, Manipur,
Dalchiwari Racemes 8 - 20 cm long, densely silky hairy Mizoram,
axillary, rusty villous, outside. Stamens 40 - Tripura,
glabrescent with age 60; filaments ca 1 cm, Andaman &
long, puberulous or Nicobar Islands
glabrous; anthers 4 - 5 and Maharashtra.
70 | P a g e
mm long, oblong, with 4 Bhutan,

- 5 mm long erect awns. Bangladesh and
Ovary ovoid, sericeous, Myanmar.
2-loculed; styles
subulate, longer than
anthers, tapering from a
conical base.
4. Elaeocarpus 14 - 20 branchlets Leaves 5 - 7.5 x 2 - 5 cm, Flower-buds ovoid, Drupes 1.5 cm long, India: In moist Hooker et.
blascoi more or less ovate-elliptic or elliptic, acute, more or less ellipsoid, rounded at evergreen forests al.
densely short rounded or broadly cuneate densely short sericeous; base and apex, between 2000 1817-1911/
grey silky at base, obtuse at apex, flowers white, 1-1.5 cm laterally scarcely and 2150 m. Biotik.org
obscureoly serrate, glabrous across, pedicels 1 - 1.2 compressed. Tamil Nadu.
above, sparsely appressed cm long, densely short Flowering: January; Endemic.
hirtus or glabrescent sericeous, rarely Fruiting: September
beneath, veins prominent glabrate. Sepals 10 - 11
beneath; petioles 1 - 2 cm mm long, lanceolate,
long, sparsely short grey acute, densely short
sericeous. Racemes 4 - 6 cm sericeous without,
long, axillary, 6 - 7- velvety along margin.
flowered. Petals 12 mm long,
broader towards apex,
laciniate into 11 - 14
segments, densely
71 | P a g e
sericeous without.
Stamens 33 - 36,
densely appressed
hirtellous; filaments 2 -
3.3 mm long; anthers
2.5 - 4 mm long, anther
tip produced into a
subulate, 1 mm long
awn. Disc annular, 10-
lobed. Ovary ovoid,
densely sericeous, 2 - 3-
loculed; ovules 6 in each
locule; styles sericeous
at base, 6 - 6.5 mm long.
5. Elaeocarpus 10 - 12 branchlets Leaves 7 - 15 x 2 - 5 cm, Flowers-buds ovoid or Drupes ca 4 cm long, India: In moist Storrs et.
braceanus ferruginous elliptic:, elliptic-lanceolate roundish, subtended abruptly pointed at semievergreen al. 2002 /
tomentose or oblong-lanceolate, usually by 3 laciniate, apex; pyrenes ovoid, forests between Hooker
cuneate to obtuse at base, persistent bracteoles; terete, rugose, with 3 1000 and 1500 m. et.al. 1817-
acuminate at apex, crenate- flowers white, 5 - 6 mm indistinct grooves Meghalaya, 1911
serrate, ferruginous across; pedicels ca 5 Flowering: August- Nagaland and
tomentose beneath when mm long. Sepals 2.5 - 3 October Fruiting: Manipur.
young, puberulous with age, mm long, lanceolate, April- June Myanmar.
veins prominent beneath; silky tomentose without.
72 | P a g e
petioles 1 - 2.5 cm long, Petals 2.5 mm long,

ferruginous tomentose, oblong, narrowed at
swollen and geniculate at base, broader at apex,
apex. Racemes 3.5 - 14 cm laciniate. Stamens 30 -
long, axillary, tomentose. 40; filaments
puberulous; anthers not
bearded, ca 1 mm long.
Disc-glands hairy.
Ovary villous, 2-
loculed.
6. Elaeocarpus 20 - 30 Young Leaves 12.5 - 15 x 6 - 10 cm, Flower white, buds Drupes 2 - 4 cm long, In evergreen Storrs et.
bracteatus branchlets elliptic, obovate or obovate- oblong; flowers 2 - 2.5 oblong, smooth; forests between al. 2002 /
short grey oblong, narrowed towards cm across; pedicels 2 - pyrenes oblong, pitted 1000 and 1500 m. Hooker
silky hairy base, obtuse or apiculate at 2.5 cm long, glabrous; and tubercled. Assam and et.al. 1817-
apex, repand-toothed, thinly bracts foliaceous, 1 - 2.5 Flowering: March - Arunachal 1911
coriaceous, glabrous, veins cm long, oblong- April; Fruiting: July - Pradesh.
prominent beneath; petioles obovate, sessile, dentate, Oct. Myanmar.
1 - 2.5 cm long, thickened, glabrous, persistent.
geniculate at apex, glabrous. Sepals 4 - 5, 1 - 1.5 cm
Racemes axillary, shorter long, linear-lanceolate,
than leaves. acuminate, hairy along
revolute margins. Petals
4 - 5, 1.5 - 2 cm long
73 | P a g e
cuneate-oblong, broader
at apex, bilobed, lobes
laciniate into many
subulate divisions,
sparingly silky hairy
outside and inside along
revolute margins.
Stamens 30 - 40;
filaments 2 - 3 mm long;
anthers 2 - 3 mm long,
with equally long awns.
Ovary silky villous, 2-
loculed; styles 2 - 4 mm
long; stigmas entire.
7. Elaeocarpus 15 - 25 Oval crown Leaves crowded near ends of Flower-buds ellipsoid, Drupes 2.5 - 4 cm India: In moist Kumar et
floribundus branchlets branchlets, 5 - 21 x 2 - 8 cm, sericeous; flowers long, oblong-ovoid, semievergreen al. 2013/
Ver:Assam: glabrous broadly ovate or elliptic- white, 6 - 7 mm across; pale green, smooth, forests, between Storrs et.
Jalpai; ovate, acute or cuneate to pedicels 8 - 10 mm long, fleshy; pyrenes 1 - 3- 1000 and 1500 m. al. 2002 /
Bengali: rarely rounded at base, puberulous or loculed, locules 1- West Bengal Hooker
Belphoi; bluntly acute or acuminate at glabrescent. Sepals 5 - 7 seeded, narrowed at (Darjeeling), et.al. 1817-
Hindi: apex, coarsely repand- mm long, lanceolate, both ends, shallowly Sikkim, Assam, 1911
Jalpai; serrate, subcoriaceous, thickened and tomentose rugose, 3-grooved. Arunachal
Manipuri: glabrous, glandular-punctate along margins. Petals Flowering: March - Pradesh,
74 | P a g e
Charphaai; beneath, pustulate when dry, white, 5 - 7 mm long, August.; Fruiting: Meghalaya,
Nepalese: bright red before falling; obtriangular, laciniate, October - December. Nagaland,
Koving petioles 3 - 5 cm long, ciliate along margins. Manipur,
thickened at both ends, Stamens 25 - 30; Mizoram, Tripura
geniculate, glabrous, filaments ca 1 mm long, and Andaman &
occasionally with a pair of slender, minutely Nicobar Islands
glands at apex. Racemes 10 - puberulous; anthers ca 2 Bangladesh,
15 cm long, axillary mm long, oblong, Bhutan,
puberulous, bearded, not Myanmar,
awned. Disc silky Malaysia and
villous. Ovary silky Indonesia(Java).
villous, 3-loculed. Note: Fruits
edible, often
cooked and
pickled, pulp
pleasantly acrid;
nuts made into
rosaries.
8. Elaeocarpus 10 - 20 branchlets Leaves 6.5 - 7.5 x 3.5 - 4.5 Flower-buds narrowly Drupes 2.5 mm long, India: In moist Hooker
gaussenii more or less cm, elliptic or obovate, ovoid, acute, sparsely broadly ovoid, evergreen forests et.al. 1817-
densely short broadly or narrowly cuneate appressed short hirtus; rounded at base and at 1500 m. Tamil 1911
grey silky at base, obtuse or rounded at flowers white, 4 - 5 mm apex, laterally Nadu. Endemic Biotik.org
apex, serrate, teeth often across; pedicels sparsely compressed; pyrenes to the Western
75 | P a g e
with persistent subulate appressed short hirtus or broadly ellipsoid, Ghats in

glands, glabrous above, more glabrate. Sepals 4 - 4.5 longitudinally and Varushanad Hills,
or less densely appressed mm long. lanceolate, narrowly 3-grooved, South Sahyadri.
short hirtus beneath acute, sparsely thinly obsoletely obtuse- Critically
ultimately glabrous, appressed hirtus or tuberculate. endangered
pustulate when dry, veins glabrous, pustulate Flowering: April; Frui
scarcely prominent; petioles without, velvety along ting: October.
1 - 1.5 cm long, sparsely margin. Petals 5 mm
appressed short hirtus or long, glabrous, broader
glabrous, channelled above. towards apex, laciniate
Racemes 5 - 6 cm long, into 15 linear segments,
axillary, 15 - 20-flowered. more or less united at
base forming 3 lobes.
Disc annular, velvety,
deeply furrowed
opposite petals, scarely
furrowed opposit sepals.
Stamens 17 - 20,
hirtellous filaments 8 - 1
mm long, erect or
recurved; anthers 1.5
mm long, bearded at
apex. ovary broadly
76 | P a g e
ovoid, densely sericeous

at base.
9. Elaeocarpus 50 Leaves 7 - 13 x 4 - 6.5 cm, Flower buds ovoid Drupes 2.5 - 3.5 cm India: In Hooker
glandulosus broadly ovate or elliptic, conical; flowers white, long, oblong or evergreen et.al. 1817-
Ver:Malyala cuneate at base, acute to 10 - 12 mm across; elliptic, narrowed at (especially in 1911
m: Kattu shortly acuminate at apex, pedicels 7 - 12 mm long, both ends, fleshy, Sholas) and moist
Kara; crenate-serrate, crenations reddish, pubescent. rugose; pyrenes deciduous forests
Marathi: often with linear glands, Sepals 5 - 6 mm long, oblong, 2-locular, 2- of Western Ghats
Kasa; Tamil: coriaceous, glabrous above, ovate, acute, brown, seeded. between 1000
Bikki glandular beneath, domatia glandular pubescent. Flowering: March - and 2000 m.
often present, pustulate when Petals 6 - 8 mm long, December.; Fruiting: Maharashtra,
dry; petioles 2 - 3.5 cm long, cuneate, narrowed at July - April. Karnataka, Tamil
glandular at apex. Racemes 4 base, broader at apex, Nadu and kerala.
- 10 cm long, axillary, laciniate to about half S.Asia.
puberulous when young. way down, ciliate along Note: Fruits used
margins. Stamens 40 - as emetic, useful
45 in groups; filaments for rheumatism,
1 - 2 mm long, curved, pneumonia,
puberulous; anthers 2 - 3 ulcers, piles and
mm long, oblong, leprosy. Wood is
glabrous. Ovary pilose, white, strong and
2-locular; styles short, soft suitable for
conical, hairy match boxes.
77 | P a g e
10. Elaeocarpus 10 - 15 branchlets Leaves 30 - 45 x 10 - 15 cm, Flower buds oblong; Drupes 3 - 5 cm long, India: In moist Storrs et.
grandifolius rusty obovate-oblong to obovate, flowers creamy white, 2 oblong, puberulous; semi evergreen al. 2002 /
tomentose cuneate to acute at base, - 3 cm across; pedicels pyrenes lacunose forests between Hooker
acute or obtuse at apex, 1.5 - 3 cm long, hairy. wrinkled, somewhat 1000 and 1500 m. et.al. 1817-
obscurely repand-serrate, Sepals 1 - 1.5 cm long, compressed. Assam. 1911
glabrous above, puberulous linear-lanceolate, rusty Flowering: A Myanmar.
beneath, especially on veins; tomentose. Petals 2 - 2.5 pril; Fruiting: April-
petioles 4 - 5 cm long, cm long, narrowed at June.
thickened, geniculate, base, 2-lobed; lobes
puberulous. Racemes 10 - 20 twisted, appressed rusty
cm long, axillary, rusty pubescent. Stamens 30 -
tomentose. 50; filaments 2 - 3 mm
long; anthers 6 - 8 mm
long, with awns as long
as or slightly longer than
anthers. Ovary oblong,
densely villous.
11. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 branchlets Leaves 5 - 20 x 2 - 6 cm, Flower-buds broadly Drupes 2.3 cm long, India: In moist Hooker
helferi puberulous oblong-lanceolate or elliptic, ovoid, obtuse; flowers oblong-ovoid; pyrenes evergreen forests et.al. 1817-
rounded at base, acute to white, 5 - 10 mm across; oblong-ovoid, rugose, of Andaman & 1911
cuspidate or shortly pedicels 4 - 6 mm long, with longitudinal Nicobar Islands.
acuminate at apex, crenate- grey puberulous. Sepals grooves, 2 - 3-loculed. Myanmar.
serrate, coriaceous, glabrous, 2 - 4 mm long, ovate- Flowering: April-
78 | P a g e
veins prominent beneath; lanceolate, acute, hairy. June; Fruiting:

petioles 2 - 2.5 cm long, Petals 4 - 7 mm long, August. - October
glabrous, thickened, cuneate at base, broader
somewhat geniculate. at apex, laciniate half
Racemes 3 - 8 cm long, way down, ciliate along
axillary margins. Stamens 35 -
45; filaments short;
anthers ca 1 mm long,
bearded at tip. Ovary
globose, hairy, 3-
loculed; styles ca 2 mm
long; stigmas entire.
12. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 branchlets Leaves 6 - 15 x 3 - 6 cm, Flower buds pyramidal; Drupes 2 - 3 cm long, India: In Storrs et.
hygrophyllus glabrous obovate, oblanceolate, flowers white, 6 - 8 mm lanceolate, pointed at evergreen forests al. 2002 /
cuneate-oblong, cuneate at across; pedicels 5 - 6 both ends; pyrenes in swampy Hooker
base, bluntly apiculate or mm long, sericeous. compressed, tubercled. places, between et.al. 1817-
rounded at apex, cuspldately Sepals 5 - 6 mm long, Flowering: March - 800 and l000 m. 1911
crenate-serrate, glabrous, lanceolate, acute, May; Fruiting: July - Assam.
midrib stout; petioles 10 - 12 sericeous without, September Myanmar.
mm long, stout, flattened velvety along margins.
above, swollen at both ends, Petals 6 - 7 mm long,
geniculate, glabrous. cuneate, laciniate,
Racemes 5 - 10 cm long, glabrous. Stamens 30 -
79 | P a g e
puberulous, glabrescent with 40; filaments short,

age. minutely puberulous;
anthers not bearded.
Ovary villous, 3-
loculed.
13. Elaeocarpus up to 20 Young stem Leaves 5 - 15 x 2 - 4 cm, Flower-buds ovate- Drupes 2.5 - 3 cm India: In moist Kumar et
lancifolius pubescent elliptic, lanceolate, elliptic- lanceolate, subtended by long, oblong-ovoid to deciduous and al. 2013 /
Ver:Khasi: lanceolate or oblanceolate, small, linear-lanceolate, ellipsoid, green; evergreen forests Storrs et.
Dieng-soh- cuneate to attenuate at base, caducous bracts; flowers pyrenes oblong, between 1500 al. 2002 /
khyllam; acute to acuminate at apex, white, 6 - 9 mm across; strongly rugose, with 3 and 2200 m. Hooker
Nepal: distantly crenate-serrate, pedicels 8 - 12 mm long, longitudinal grooves, West et.al. 1817-
Bhadrase, glabrous or sparsely slender, puberulous. unilocular, 1-seeded Bengal(Darjeelin 1911
Bhadrass pubescent beneath, pustulate Sepals 3 - 5 mm long, Flowering: March - g), Sikkim,
beneath when dry, thinly lanceolate, keeled, August.; Fruiting: Assam,
coriaceous or chartaceous; puberulous or glabrate October. - December. Meghalaya,
petioles 7 - 15 mm long, without, silky Nagaland,
puberulous or glabrous, puberulous within. Manipur,
obscurely geniculate at apex. Petals white, 4 - 6 mm Karnataka and
Racemes 5 - 8.5 cm long, long, obtriangular, Andhra Pradesh.
axillary, Puberulous. laciniate, ciliate. Nepal, Bhutan,
Stamens 15 - 30; Myanmar,
filaments ca 2.5 mm S.China, Taiwan,
long, pubescent; anthers Hongkong and
80 | P a g e
1.5 - 2 mm long, oblong Indonesia(Java).

with short bristles at Note: Fruits are
apex, puberulous. Disc edible, wood
of 5 rounded glands, suitable for
hairy. Ovary villous, 3- making tea
loculed; styles villous at boxes, charcoal
base and also used or
house building.
Nuts used for
rosaries,
necklace,
bracelets.
14. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 branchlets Leaves 6 - 15 x 3 - 7 cm, Flower- buds ovoid- Drupes 2 cm long, India: In moist Hooker
lucidus pubescent elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, conical; flowers white, 6 oblong-ovoid, deciduous and et.al. 1817-
obtuse or rounded at base, - 8 mm across; pedicels unilocular, 1-seeded. semievergreen 1911
acute to acuminate at apex, 4 - 6 mm long, Flowering: February. - forests. between
serrate-mucronate, veins puberulous. Sepals 4 - 5 May; Fruiting: July - 1000 and 1200 m.
prominent beneath, glabrous mm long, lanceolate, September West Bengal,
to more or less puberulous glandular pubescent. Assam,
along the midrib; petioles 1.5 Petals 4 - 6 mm long, Meghalaya and
- 3 cm long with 2 glands laciniate half way down, Andhra Pradesh.
near apex. Racemes 6 - 12 glabrous. Stamens 20 - Bangladesh.
cm long, axillary. 30, arranged in groups,
81 | P a g e
with reddish glands

between groups;
filaments ca 1 mm long;
anthers ca 1 mm long,
puberulous, not bearded.
Disc thick, 5-lobed,
villous
15. Elaeocarpus 10 - 20 branchlets Leaves 6 - 20 x 3 - 12 cm, Flowers buds lanceolate Flowering. February. - India: In moist Hooker
macrocerus pubescent or obovate-oblong, or ovoid, acute, 5- March; Fruiting: May evergreen and et.al. 1817-
Ver: Pani glabrescent oblanceolate or spathulate, ribbed; flowers dull - June. semievergreen 1911
sopa, cuneate at base, obtuse or white, 2 - 2.5 cm across; forests between
Phutkuli subacute at apex, distantly pedicels 2 - 3 cm long, 500 and 1000 m
cuspidately crenate-serrate, slender, puberulous or Assam and
thinly coriaceous, glabrous. glabrate. Sepals 1.5 - 2 Andaman &
Racemes 3 - 10 cm long cm long, linear- Nicobar
axillary, corymbose, lanceolate, ovate- Islands(Nicobar
puberulous. lanceolate or oblong, Islands).
glabrous within, greyish Myanntar, Indo-
hairy without, margin China, Malay
thickened, tomentose. Peninsula and
Petals 2 - 2.5 cm long Indonesia.
oblong-cuneate,
narrowed at base,
82 | P a g e
broader at apex,
laciniate, canescent
within, pilose without.
Stamens 30 - 60;
filaments 3 - 4 mm long,
hairy; anthers 3 - 4 mm
long, oblong,
puberulous, with 3 - 4
mm long, erect awns.
Ovary ovoid, acute to
obtuse, smooth pyrenes
terete, strongly
tubercled, unilocular, 1-
seeded.
16. Elaeocarpus up to 50 Leaves 5 - 10 x 2.5 - 4.5 cm, ovate, Flower-buds ovoid or Drupes 1.5 - 2 cm India: In Storrs et.
munroii crowded ovate-lanceolate or obovate, ovate-lanceolate; long, ellipsoid, evergreen forests al. 2002 /
Ver:Kannad towards ends rounded and subcordate or flowers white, 1 - 1.5 yellowish-green of Western Ghats Hooker
a: Kabikki, of branchlets. truncate at base, caudate- cm across; pedicels 5 - turning to bluish when between 700 and et.al. 1817-
idanji Mara; acuminate or acute at apex, 15 mm long, glabrous, ripe, smooth, shining; 2000 m. 1911
Malyalam: crenate-serrate, crenations curved in fruits. Sepals pyrenes unilocular, 1- Maharashtra, Biotik.org
Pungari; often with a gland, 7 - 9 mm long, linear- seeded. Flowering: Karnataka, Tamil
Tamil: chartaceous, glabrous, veins lanceolate, acute, almost September - Nadu and Kerala;
Narebikki prominent beneath; petioles glabrous. Petals 7 - 9 November.; Fruiting: rare.
83 | P a g e
2.5 - 3.5 cm long, slender, mm long, elliptic- January - April. Endemic.

glabrous. oblong, narrowed at Endemic to the
base, broad at apex, Western Ghats-
laciniate, silky hairy on South and Central
both surfaces. Stamens Sahyadris. Fruits
20 - 40; filaments 1 mm are eaten by local
long, pubescent; anthers people.
3 - 4 mm long, oblong,
awns ca 1 mm long,
reflexed. Ovary silky
pubescent, 2-loculed,
ovules 2; styles longer
than stamens, tapering,
hairy at base.
17. Elaeocarpus 20 - 30 branchlets Leaves 7 - 20 x 4 - 9 cm, Flower buds ellipsoid or Drupes 1.5 - 2 cm India: In moist Storrs et.
petiolatus glabrate elliptic-lanceolate or oblong- oblong-oblanceolate; long, oblong-ovoid, deciduous forests al. 2002 /
Ver:Holthak: elliptic, narrowed at base, flowers white, ca 1.5 cm smooth; pyrenes between 800 and Hooker
Tripura: Hun bluntly acuminate or acute at across; pedicels 5 - 12 rugose, tubercled, 1000 m. Assam et.al. 1817-
apex, distantly serrulate or mm long curved at apex, indistinctly 4-ridged, and Andaman & 1911
subentire, glabrous, puberulous. Sepals 6 - 8 unilocular, 1-seeded. Nicobar Islands.
coriaceous, veins prominent; mm long, lanceolate, Flowering: Bangladesh,
petioles 2 - 6.5 cm long glabrous without December- - Myanmar,
glabrous, geniculate at apex. puberulous and keeled March; Fruiting: July - Malaysia and
84 | P a g e
Racemes 7 - 12 cm long, within, margins villous. September. Indonesia.

axillary, glabrate. Petals 7 - 9 mm long,
oblong, broad and
saccate at base,
narrowed at apex,
laciniate, silky on both
surfaces, ridged in
centre. Stamens 20 - 30;
filaments shorter than
anthers, adpressed
pubescent or glabrate;
anthers 2 - 2.5 mm long,
oblong, shortly awned,
awns reflexed,
puberulous or
glabrescent. Disc of 2 -
10, round, glabrescet
glands. Ovary oblong,
glabrous, 2-loculed,
with 2 superposed rows
of ovules; styles slender
tapering.
85 | P a g e
18. Elaeocarpus 5 - 20 Branches Leaves 5 - 12 x 2 - 3.5 cm, Flower buds ovoid or Drupes 1.5 - 2 cm India: In moist Kumar et
prunifolius glabrous oblong-lanceolate to elliptic- oblong-lanceolate, long, oblong-ovoid; deciduous and al. 2013/
Ver:Khasi: lanceolate, cuneate at base, adpressed hairy; flowers pyrenes 10 - 12 mm semi evergreen Storrs et.
Soh- acute to acuminate at apex, white or pale yellow, 5 - long, ovoid, pointed at forests between al. 2002 /
khyllem-ai- crenate-serrate or subentire, 10 mm across; pedicels tip, rugose, obscurely 1000 and 1500 m. Hooker
blang, subcoriaceous, glabrous, 5 - 6 mm long; bracts 3-angled. West Bengal et.al. 1817-
Dieng-la- glands present or absent; leafy, broadly Flowering: January - (Darjeeling), 1911
khmar petioles 1 - 3 cm long, spathulate, caducous. March; Fruiting: Meghalaya and
swollen and geniculate at Sepals 5 - 8 mm long, August - October Manipur.
apex. Racemes 3 - 9 cm oblong-lanceolate, Bangladesh.
long, axillary, silky pilose or glabrate
pubescent, puberulous with without, thinly
age. adpressed hairy and
distantly pouched at
base within, margins
villous. petals 5 - 10 mm
long, oblong, broad
sacciform with 2 pits at
base, narrowed at apex,
laciniate, rarely entire,
adpressed silky on both
surfaces. Stamens 15 -
30, minutely
86 | P a g e
puberulous; filaments
short; anthers ca 2 mm
long with short awns.
Ovary oblong or ovoid,
sericeous
19. Elaeocarpus 30 - 40 young parts Leaves 7.5 - 15 x 4 - 7 cm, Flower-buds elliptic; Drupes 1.5 - 1.8 cm In Shola forests Hooker
recurvatus covered with oblong-ovate or elliptic, flowers white, 1.5 - 1.8 long, ovoid or elliptic, of Western Ghats et.al. 1817-
dense rusty or cucullate, folded back cm across; pedicels 1.5 - fleshy, green, shining; between 2000 1911
greyish lenghtwise resembling an 1.8 cm long, hispid pyrenes 3-loculed. and 2500 m. Biotik.org
tomentum of inverted boat without keel, tomentose. Sepals 1.5 Flowering: March - Tamil Nadu and
stellate hairs narrowed at base, shortly cm long, lanceolate, July; Fruiting: July - Kerala; rare.
acuminate or acute at apex, densely tomentose February. Endemic.
shallowly serrate, serrations without, glabrous Endemic to the
tipped with short hairs, within. Petals 1.5 cm Western Ghats-
coriaceous, cinnaamom long, oblong-cuneate, confined to the
tomentose beneath; petioles narrowed at base, broad Anamalai, Palani
1.5 - 2.5 cm long, sometimes at apex, laciniate, and Nilgiris.
up to 4 cm long, stout, appressed long hairy. threatned
thickened at apex, Stamens 20 - 30;
tomentose. Racemes 5 - 10 filaments ca 1 mm long,
cm long, axillary, densely puberuious; anthers 2.5 -
rusty tomentose. 4 mm long, oblong,
puberulous, awns ca 1
87 | P a g e
mm long, slender, erect.

Ovary, elliptic or
oblong-ovoid, densely
hairy, 3-loculed; styles
slender.
20. Elaeocarpus 25 - 35 old trees Leaves usually crowded at Flower-buds cylindric, Drupes 3 - 3.5 cm India: In moist Hooker
rugosus buttressed at ends of branchlets, 16 - 35 x conical, ovoid or long, obovoid or deciduous and et.al. 1817-
Ver:Assam: base; 7 - 15 cm, obovate, oblong oblanceolate, 5-ribbed; oblong, greenish evergreen forests 1911
Gatronga, branehlets or oblanceolate, narrowed flowers pale white, 1 - yellow; pyrenes between 1000
Phulchampa, rufous hairy and obtuse at base, bluntly 1.5 cm across; pedicels compressed, sharp and 1500 m.
Bor chopa, apiculate, obtuse or subacute 2 - 2.5 cm long, edged, strongly Assam,
Bor potao; at apex, distantly minute tomentose; bracts leafy, rugose, unilocular, 1- Arunachal
Garo: serrate or subentire, 2 - 3 cm long, seeded. Pradesh,
Ankhi-ai- coriaceous, glabrous, midrib oblanceolate, serrate, Flowering: February - Meghalaya,
phak. prominent; petioles 1.5 - 2 caducous. Sepals 1 - 1.5 April; Fruiting: Tamil Nadu and
cm long on flowering cm long, linear- September - October Andaman &
branchlets, shorter on young lanceolate, acuminate, Nicobar Islands
branchlets, swollen at both buff tomentose without. (Andaman
ends, puberulous. Racemes Petals 1 - 1.8 cm long, Islands).
10 - 16 cm long, axillary, oblong-cuneate, Bangladesh,
pubescent. narrowed at base, Myanmar and
broader at apex, Malaysia.
tomentose or silky hairy
88 | P a g e
without, globrous
within. Disc a shallow
cup, pubescent. Stamens
30 - 60; filaments 1.5 -
2.5 mm long,
puberulous; anthers 5 - 6
mm long, oblong,
puberulous; awns
shorter than anthers,
erect or reflexed at
length. Ovary oblong-
ovoid, silky villous, 2-
loculed; styles longer
than ovary, tapering
above.
21. Elaeocarpus 25 - 30 branchlets Leaves 5 - 13 x 2.5 - 6 cm, Flower buds ovoid- Drupes 2.5 - 3.5 cm India: In moist Storrs et.
serratus with persistent oblong, obovate or elliptic lanceolate or ovoid- long, oblong-obovoid deciduous to al. 2002 /
Ver:Kannad leaf scars cuneate acute or obtuse at conical; flowers creamy or ellipsoid, obtuse at semievergreen Hooker
a: Beejada base, acute, obtuse or shortly white, pedicels 8 - 10 apex, greenish yellow; forests of et.al. 1817-
mara, Danda acuminate at apex, repand- mm across; 8 - 10 mm pyrenes 2 - 2.5 cm Western Ghats, 1911
amba; serrate or crenate, long, pubescent initially long, oblong, acute at 1500 m. Biotik.org
Malyalam: coriaceous, glabrous, veins becoming puberulous apex, rugose or Mahasrashtra,
Nalla karra, prominent beneath; pustulate and pustulate. Petals 7 - tuberculate, 1 - 2 (- 3)- Karnataka, Tamil
89 | P a g e
Valiya Kara, when dry; petioles 2 - 3 cm 8 mm long, obovate, loculed, 1 - 2-seeded. Nadu, Kerala and
Perin kara; long, glandular pubescent, cuneate, narrowed at Flowering: March - Sikkim.
Tamil: Ularg rarley glabrous. Racemes 4 - base, laciniate, glabrous, June; Fruiting: July - SriLanka, Nepal,
Karai; 8 cm long, axillary, occasionally pustulate. October. Bhutan,
English: drooping, pustulate. Stamens 30 - 35; Myanmar, China,
Ceylon filaments ca 1 mm long, Malaysia and
Olive puberulous; anthers ca 2 Indonesia(Java).
mm long,oblong, Notes. Fruits are
puberulous, bearded. eaten and also
Disc thick, glandular pickled by local
woolly. Ovary oblong or people. Wood
obovoid, pilose, 2 - 3- suitable for
loculed; styles 3 - 4 mm packing cases and
long subulate, hairy; match boxes.
stigmas entire. Leaves used for
treating
rheumatism and
as an antidote for
poison.
22. Elaeocarpus 20 - 40 Dense crown, Leaves 7 - 15 x 2.5 - 5 cm, Flower-buds ovoid- Drupes 1.5 - 2.5 cm India: In moist Kumar et
sphaericus/g oval, often oblong-lanceolate, conical; flowers white, 8 across, globose, deep evergreen forests al. 2013/
anitrus buttressed at oblanceolate or elliptic, - 10 mm across nodding; blue or purple and between 1500 Storrs et.
Ver:Assam: base young cuneate or acute at base, pedicels 8 - 9 mm long, succulent when ripe, and 2000 m. al. 2002 /
90 | P a g e
Rudrai; parts acute or acuminate at apex, hairy. Sepals 6 - 7 mm mealy outside, usually Bihar, West Hooker
Bengal: puberulous minutely crenate-serrate or long, linear-lanceolate 5-loculed; pyrenes Bengal et.al. 1817-
Rudrakya, subentire, thinly sericeous or oblong, acuminate, globose, usually 5- (Darjeeling), 1911
Rudraksh; becoming glabrous, often silky canescent outside, locular, rarely 1 - 4 - Sikkim,
Gujarat/Hind with glands at the branches 1-ribbed inside. Petals or 6 - 10-locular, 5- Arunachal
i/Malyalam/ of lateral nerves beneath, white, 7 - 9 mm long, seeded, strongly Pradesh, Assam,
Sanskrit: chartaceous; petioles 1 - 1.5 oblong or obtriangular tubercled and marked Nagaland,
Rudraksh; cm long, sharply margined, laciniate, pubescent with as many Manipur and
Kannada: pubescent. Racemes 5 - 8 cm along margins near base. longitudinal furrows as Maharashtra.
Rudrakshi; long, axillary: drooping, Stamens 30 - 40; locules. Nepal,
Khasi: Soh glabrous. filaments ca 1 mm long, Flowering: January - Bangladesh,
Langseki; puberulous; anthers 2.5 - March & August - Myanmar and
Tamil: 4 mm long, puberulous, September; Fruiting: Malaya.
Akkam, acuminate bearing short, April- July & October. Notes. The sour
Rudrakai; white bristles at apex, - December fruit pulp is
Telegu: locules unequal. Ovary edible; the stones
Rudrakshalu globose, silky villous, 4 are used as beads
; English: - 5-loculed, rarely 1 - 4 for rosaries,
Wooden or 6 - 10-loculed; styles bracelets and
Beggar bead, longer than stamens. necklaces.
The utrasum Sometimes
bead tree. cultivated for its
tubercled stones.
91 | P a g e
23. Elaeocarpus 15 - 20 Leaves 10 - 15 x 3.5 - 6 cm, Flower buds ovoid, Drupes 3 - 4 cm long, India: In Hooker
stapfianus oblong or oblong-obovate, acute, glabrescent; ovate to oblong; semievergreen et.al. 1817-
narrowed at base, obtusely flowers white, 1.5 - 2 pyrenes 2.5 cm long, forests between 1911
acuminate at apex, distantly cm across; pedicels 2 - 3 pointed at both ends, 800 and 1000 m.
serrulate or subentire, thinly cm long; bracts minute, compressed, muricate, Arunachal
coriaceous, glabrous; caducous. Sepals 1.5 - margins ridged; ridges Pradesh.
petioles 1 - 2.5 cm long. 1.7 cm long, glabrescent denticulate, unilocular. Indo-China.
Racemes 4 - 7 cm long, or sparsely pubescent Flowering: March -
axillary, few-flowered. without. Petals 1.5 - 2 April; Fruiting: June -
cm long, narrowed at August
base, broad at apex, tip
2-lobed, laciniate into
many segments, silky
pilose. Stamens 20 - 25;
filaments shorter than
anthers, pubescent;
anthers 4 - 6 mm long
with equally long awns.
Ovary oblong-ovoid,
sericeous, 2-loculed.
24. Elaeocarpus 15 - 35 aerial roots at Leaves 6 - 24 x 3 - 8.5 cm, Flower-buds oblong- Drupes 2 - 3.5 cm India: In moist Hooker
tectorius base in elliptic-oblong to ovate- ovoid, acute; flowers long, ellipsoid or deciduous and et.al. 1817-
Ver:Assam: swampy oblong, broadly cuneate to white, 10 - 12 mm oblong-ovoid, evergreen forests 1911
92 | P a g e
Poreng, places; rounded at base, acute to across; pedicels 5 - 7 greenish-yellow; between 1500
seleng; branchlets acuminate at apex, repand- mm long, grey pyrenes 2 - 3-locular, and 2000 m.
Garo: rusty serrate, veins prominent puberulous. Sepals 5 - 6 with 2 longitudinal Bihar, West
Agong, pubescent. beneath, coriaceous, rusty mm long, lanceolate or grooves prominently Bengal, Sikkim,
Bolrogong; pubescent when young, ovate, acute, densely rugose, locules 1- Assam,
Kannad: glabrous with age; petioles 1 villous along margins. seeded. Arunachal
Hinnalatorde - 5 cm long, thickened at Petals 5 - 7 mm long, Flowering: May - Pradesh,
; Khasi: both ends, often with 2 cuneate-oblong or June; Fruiting: August Meghalaya,
Dienglasw; glands near apex, glabrous. obtriangular, laciniate at - October Nagaland,
Malyalam: Racemes 4 - 15 cm long, apex, ciliate along Manipur,
Kattu Kara, axillary, pubescent. margins. Stamens 40 - Mizoram,
Malam Kara; 50; filaments 1 - 3.5 mm Tripura, Orissa,
Oriya: Nard long, glabrous or Maharashtra,
Champa, minutely puberulous; Andhra Pradesh,
Panasia, anthers ca 1 mm long, Karnataka, Tamil
Patragundi; oblong, puberulous, Nadu, Kerala and
Tamil: Bikki rarely with a few bristles Andaman &
at apex. Disc thick, 5- Nicobar Islands
lobed, tomentose. (Andaman
Ovary, oblong to ovoid, Islands).
downy, 3-loculed; styles Sri Lanka, Nepal,
ca 2 mm long, hairy. Bhutan,
Bangladesh,
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Myanmar, Indo-
China, China,
Malaysia and
Indonesia
(Sumatra).
25. Elaeocarpus 80 - 90 occasionally Leaves crowded at ends of Flower buds lanceolate, Flower buds India: In Storrs et.
tuberculatus buttressed at branchlets, 6 - 20 x 4 - 12.5 ribbed; flowers 2 - 2.5 lanceolate, ribbed; evergreen forests al. 2002 /
Ver: base, bark grey cm, obovate, narrowed, cm across, drooping; flowers 2 - 2.5 cm between 1000 Hooker
Kannad: and white rounded or truncate at base, pedicels 1.5 - 2.5 cm across, drooping; and 1500 m et.al. 1817-
Bhutali, mottled; wood rounded to obtuse, long, softly rufous pedicels 1.5 - 2.5 cm Maharashtra, 1911
Dandemara; brown sometimes retuse or acute at tomentose, recurved. long, softly rufous Karnataka, Tamil Biotik.org
Marathi: streaked with apex, obscurely crenate- Sepals 1 - 1.5 cm long, tomentose, recurved. Nadu, Kerala and
Rudrak; darker colour. dentate, or subentire, linear-lanceolate or Sepals 1 - 1.5 cm long, Andaman &
Tamil: subcoriaceous, glabrous, oblong, acute, hairy. linear-lanceolate or Nicobar
Rutthracham veins prominent beneath, Petals 1.5 - 2 cm long, oblong, acute, hairy. Islands(Andaman
; Malyalam: midrib rufous hairy; petioles oblong-cuneate, Petals 1.5 - 2 cm long, Islands); rare.
Pilahi, 1.5 - 4 cm long, thickened at narrowed at base, oblong-cuneate, Malaysia.
Naggara; apex, rufous hairy. Racemes broader at apex, narrowed at base, Notes. Nuts used
English: 3 - 12 cm long, axillary, laciniate, silky hairy broader at apex, as a substitute of
Deccan olive rufous hairy. without. Stamens 40 - laciniate, silky hairy 'Rudraksha'
80; filaments 1.5 - 2 mm without. Stamens 40 - (Elaeocarpus
long, pubescent; anthers 80; filaments 1.5 - 2 sphaericus); used
4 - 6 mm long, oblong, mm long, pubescent; as beads for
94 | P a g e
puberulous, with awns anthers 4 - 6 mm long, rosaries

almost as long as oblong, puberulous, necklaces and
anthers. Ovary oblong, with awns almost as bracelets. Wood
silky tomentose, 2- long as anthers. Ovary used for
locular; styles hairy at oblong, silky planking, packing
base. tomentose, 2-locular; cases and splints.
styles hairy at base.
Flowering:
December- -
Febuary; Fruiting:
May - October.
26. Elaeocarpus 10 - 25 branchlets Leaves 7 - 26 x 3 - 7.5 cm, Flower-buds lanceolate Drupes 1.5 - 2 cm India: In Hooker
varunna grey silky elliptic or elliptic-oblong, or ovoid-lanceolate; long, oblong to semievergreen et.al. 1817-
Ver: Assam: pilose subacute or rounded at base, flowers white, ca 1.5 cm oblong- ovoid, forests between 1911
Bhadraik/Bh finely acuminate at apex, across; pedicels 5 - 12 rounded at ends, 1000 and 1500 m.
adraksha, cuspidately crenate-serrate, mm long, stout, curved, shining; pyrenes Uttarakhand,
Niganibual; glabrous above, sparsely sericeous. Sepals 6 - 7 subterete, pointed at West
Khasi: pubescent on veins beneath, mm long, lanceolate, base, 3-grooved, finely Bengal(Darjeelin
Dieng-ri- often with glands in axils of narrowly triangular or rugose, hirsute, g), Sikkim,
lam, Dieng- lateral veins towards the ovate-lanceolate, silky unilocular Flowering: Assam,
si-sah, margin, chartaceous or thinly tomentose. Petals white, February - Arunachal
Dieng-soh- coriaceous; petioles 3 - 6.5 5 - 6 mm long, oblong, April; Fruiting: July - Pradesh,
dhakap; cm long, thickened and broad and thickened at October Meghalaya and
95 | P a g e
Naga: Pong- geniculate at apex, base narrowed at apex, Nagaland.

o-test; glabrescent. laciniate, pale and silky Nepal,
Nepal: below apex outside. Bangladesh,
Bhadrase Stamens 25 - 30; Myanmar and
filaments 5 - 8 mm long; Malaya.
anthers shortly awned, Notes. Wood
awns ref1exed, suitable for
puberulous. Disc 10- making tea
lobed red. Ovary ovoid- boxes.
oblong, villous.
27. Elaeocarpus 10 - 15 branchlets Leaves 6 - 12 x 3 - 5 cm, Flower-buds ovoid or Drupes 4 - 5 x 2.5 cm, India: In Storrs et.
venustus glabrous elliptic or obovate, attenuate ovoid-lanceolate, acute; oblong-ovoid, smooth, evergreen forests al. 2002 /
Ver:Tamil: at base, acute at apex, flowers white, 2 - 2.5 shining green; pyrenes of Western Ghats Biotik.org
Tamarai minutely cuspidate-serrate, cm across; pedicels 1.5 - ovoid, tubercled, between 1000
glabrous, coriaceous, veins 2 cm long. glabrous. unilocular. and 1500 m.
prominently impressed Sepals 1 - 1.5 cm long, Flowering: July - Tamil Nadu and
above, axils of primary veins lanceolate, glabrous September.; Fruiting: Kerala; rare.
with glands beneath; petioles without, pubescent October - December Endemic.
1 - 2 cm long, glabrous. within. Petals 1.5 - 2 cm Notes. The trees
Racemes 4 - 7 cm long, long, narrowed at base, are handsome and
axillary, glabrous. broader at apex, are potential
laciniate, silky without ornamental and
and at base within. shade plants for
96 | P a g e
Stamens 30 - 50; anthers their large white

minutely puberulous, flowers and
shortly awned or evergreen foliage.
mucronate. Disc 10-
lobed. Ovary oblong,
pubescent, 2-loculed.
28. Elaeocarpus 15 - 30 stems Leaves 15 - 25 x 7 - 12 cm, Flower-buds ovoid; Drupes oblong-ovoid, India: In moist
wallichii sometimes oblong to elliptic or obovate- flowers white, 5 - 6 mm 2 cm long; pyrenes deciduous forests
stilted on oblong rounded at base, across; pedicels 7.5 - 10 tubercled. between 800 and
aerial roots; acuminate at apex, distantly mm long, puberulous. 1000 m.
branchlets serrate or subentire, glabrous Sepals 2 - 5 mm long, Assam(Goal-
greyish or above, puberulous or tawny lanceolate or oblong- para) and Orissa.
tawny tomentose; petioles 2 - 5 cm lanceolate, acute. Petals Myanmar.
tomentose. long, geniculate, often with 2 4 - 5 mm long, cuneate,
glands at apex. Racemes 10 - laciniate, glabrous.
20 cm long, axillary, Stamens 20 - 30; anthers
tomentose. bearded. Ovary oblong-
ovoid, villous, 3-
loculed.
29. Elaeocarpus 10 - 20 branchlets Leaves 13 - 20 x 6 - 9 cm, Flower-buds ovate- Drupes 4 - 4.5 cm India: In Kumar et
sikkimensis pubescent. ovate-oblong or elliptic, lanceolate, pointed, long, ellipsoid to semievergreen al. 2013/
Ver:Assam: acute to cuneate at base, sericeous, subtended by oblongoid; pyrenes forests between Storrs et.
Seleng; acute or acuminate at apex, subpersistent, boat- ovoid-ellipsoid, 1500 and 2000 m. al. 2002
97 | P a g e
Nepalese: distinctly cuspidate, serrate, shaped, hairy bracteoles; tubercled, 3-loculed West Bengal
Bhadrase glabrous, thinly coriaceous, flowers white, 6 - 8 mm Flowering: January - (Darjeeling),
often with glands in axils of across; pedicels 7 - 15 March; Fruiting: July - Sikkim and
lateral veins along midrib; mm long, hairy. Sepals August. Assam.
petioles 2 - 6 cm long, lanceolate, sparsely Bhutan.
thickened at both ends, with pilose to adpressed
2 leafy processes at apex. pubescent outside,
Racemes 6 - 10 cm long, glabrous and keeled
axillary, pilose. within. Petals white,
obtriangular, laciniate,
glabrous. Stamens 20 -
30, ca 4 - 5 mm long;
anthers bearded at apex.
Disc thick, obscurely
lobed, sericeous. Ovary
conical, sericeous, 3-
loculed; styles
persistent.
30. Elaeocarpus 18-20 Branchlets, Elliptic or elliptic-oblong, 3- Small, sepals 0.5 cm, Drupe one seeded in Storrs et.
stipularis petioles 7 blades, petioles 2.5 cm pedicels longer than thin pulp. al. 2002
underside of long; stipules broad, sepals, torus of 5
leaves and palmately lobed, 3-5 nerved. distinct globose
inflorescence, truncate, ovary 3 celled
98 | P a g e
tomentose with 2 collateral ovules.

31. Elaeocarpus 20 Two-year-old Petiole yellow-brown, 0.7- Flowers bisexual; buds Drupe ovoid, ca. 3.5 × 1400-2600 m Storrs et.
lacunosus branches with 1.5 cm, not swollen at ends, 4-5 mm, narrowly 2-3 cm; exocarp Cambodia, India, al. 2002 /
dense whitish puberulent; leaf blade ovoid. Sepals 5, obscure, glabrous; Indonesia, Laos,
or yellowish brown, oblong-oblanceolate lanceolate, 4-5 mm, endocarp bony, ca. 4 Malaysia,
white lenticels, or oblong to elliptic, 8-17 × both surfaces mm thick, lacunose. Myanmar,
glabrous. 4-7 cm, thinly leathery, puberulent. Petals 5, Fl. Apr-May, fr. May- Thailand,
Branchlets abaxially glabrous or obovate, slightly longer Jun. Vietnam
puberulent. puberulent only on midvein, than sepals, abaxially
adaxially glabrous, lateral glabrous, adaxially
veins 7 or 8 per side, pubescent at base,
conspicuous on both margin ciliate, laciniate
surfaces, vienlets in upper 1/2; segments
conspicious abaxially, 20-25. Stamens 30-40;
inconspicuous adaxially, filaments fascicled,
base cuneate or obtuse, glabrous; anthers not
margin minutely crenate or awned but pubescent at
serrate, apex acuminate or apices. Disk 5-lobed,
slightly acute. Raceme 5-12 completely separated,
cm, multi-flowered; densely tomentose.
peduncle puberulent. Pedicel Ovary 3-loculed,
4-6 mm, slender, brown densely tomentose; style
puberulent, without glabrous in upper 1/2;
99 | P a g e
persistent bracteoles. ovules 2 per locule.

32. Elaeocarpus Storrs et.
robustus al. 2002
oblongus al. 2002
ferrugineus al. 2002
obtusus al. 2002

monoceras al. 2002
37. Elaeocarpus 16 m Stipules Leaves alternate, simple, Flowers ca. 14 mm in Fruits ca. 11 mm long, India, Andaman Storrs et.
griffithii dropped early glabrous, with long petioles diameter, green-white, green-blue, fleshy Islands, Birma, al. 2002
and domatia in secondary with only slightly drupe Thailand,
vein axils fimbriate petal margins, Peninsular
placed in racemes Malaysia,
Sumatra, Java,
Borneo (Sarawak,
Brunei, Sabah,
West-, South-
and East-
Kalimantan).
Notes: The fruits
100 | P a g e
are edible.
Locally the bark
is used to
produce anti-
malaria medicin.
38. Elaeocarpus 20 m Branches with Leaves simple, alternate, Inflorescence axillary Drupe, ellipsoid, 4 × 3 Endemic to the Biotik.org8
variablis branchlets tere spiral, clustered at twig ends; racemes, purple, to 15 cm, 1-seeded Western Ghats
te with petiole 3 cm long, cm long; pedicel 1 cm occasional in
fallen leafscars planoconvex in cross long, purple; flowers South, Central
, lenticellate section, purple; lamina to 8 × white with laciniate and south
5 cm, broad elliptic to petals; anthers neither Maharashtra
elliptic- oblong, apex bearded and nor awned. Sahyadris
acuminate, base acute,
margin serrate, sub
coriaceous, glabrous, red
when senescent; midrib and
nerves purple; secondary
nerves ca. 7 pairs, forked
with glabrous domatia at
axils beneath; tertiary nerves
reticulo percurrent.
8
Biodiversity Informatics and co-operaton in taxonomy for Interactive shared knowkledge base(BIOTIK); Indian Species. Website: http://biotik.org/index.html
101 | P a g e
13. ANNEXURE II: SIGNIFICANCE OF MUKHAS OR FACES

S. No. Name Numb Legend/belief Benefits9 Estimated price10 Representative
er of image11
faces
1. Ek mukhi / one faced 1 Rare, most superior, Helps in concentration, can brings immense Rs.1400-2700
represents one power, wealth, luxuries, fame, and boost the
omnipotent god/power confidence, headache, heart disease and right
eye defect. Elaeocarpus augustifolius seeds
are usually sold as cashew-nut shapes ek
mukhi.
2. Dwi mukhi/ double 2 Considered as Ardh- The one wears this, get the shivkataksh & Rs.350-480
faced nari swaroop of shiva- obtain the victories of life as desired. They
parvati or represents achieve the beneficial aspects of the nine
male-female balance planets, well balanced mental status, sharp &
philosophical mind & brain & live a luxurious
life. Good for mental peace and pregnancies,
cures diseases of left eye, kidney & intestine.
9
As claimed by practitioners and dealers
10
Depending upon size, type, clarity of grooves, origin- Nepalese, Indian or Indonesian.
11
Rudraksha-ratna.com
102 | P a g e
3. Tri-mukhi/triple faced 3 Represents fire Win in all their official & business efforts. Rs. 220-470
Wearing 3-mukhi Rudraksh relives one from
the sins, gives immunity to wearer and
blessings of god of fire, attains success in his
efforts, helps wearer in learning, concentration
and knowledge. Cures blood defect, plague,
small pox, digestive problems, blood pressure,
weakness, disturbed menstrual cycle,
spontaneous abortion and ulcer
4. Chatur mukhi/four 4 Represents creator of The wearer acquire good knowledge in Rs.60-250
faced universe i.e Lord education; have good memory power ; they
Brahma are able to solve other's problems, attractive
personalities; they get rid of the sins & have
pleasure in the family. It also gives the wearer
the creative power and provides him learning
and knowledge, governs logical, concrete, and
structural thinking. It increases wit and
intelligence. Cures mental disease, paralysis,
yellow fever, and nasal disease.
5. Panch mukhi/ five 5 Represents Lord Shiva Imparts success to wearer in all their efforts; 30-220
faced protection from enemies. Cures diseases
related to bone marrow, liver, kidney, feet,
thigh, ear, diseases of fat and diabetes.
103 | P a g e
6. Shan mukhi/ six faced 6 Represents Lord Wearer acquires mental stability and will 60-270
Subrahmanya power. Become good orators, gives learning,
wisdom and knowledge and increases will
power enhances the vocal & mental power of
the wearer. Protected from the mental stress,
fits, ailments related to reproductive organs,
urinary tract, prostate, mouth and throat.
7. Sapt mukhi/ seven 7 Represents seven Wearer will attain high social status, success 220-470
faced goddess(Brahmi, and money. The untimely death will never
Maheshwari, even come near them & shall be protected
Kowmari, Vaishnavi, from any weapon. Prosperous life with
Varahi, Indrani, progress in business and service. Helpful in
Chamundi ) diseases like colic pain, pain in bone and
muscles, paralysis, long term disease,
impotency, worries and hopelessness.
8. Astha mukhi/ eight 8 Represents eight Improves growth in business. Protection from 1180-2700
faced goddess (seven evil. They will master in thinking far ahead &
goddess + Ganga) concentration. Protection from paralytic
attack, ailments of lung, feet, skin and eye,
hydrocele etc.
104 | P a g e
9. Nav mukhi/ nine faced 9 Represents divine Beneficial in any type of heart disease, wearer 1900-4200
energy blessed with energy, power, dynamism and
fearlessness. Persons who lack self-confidence
and suffering from depression should wear.
Helpful in ailments like lung diseases, fever,
eye pain, bowel pain, skin disease, body pain.
10. Das mukhi/ten faced 10 Represents Lord Wearer blessed with peace of mind. Removes 1900-4000
Vishnu all evils. Wearer is blessed by the navagrahas
(nine planets) attain subhiksha. They win in all
the judicial cases & the vasthu dhosha is
cleared. Helpful to achieve success in all acts
and helps its user to become popular.
11. Ek dasha mukhi/ 11 Represents god Wearer attain courage and confidence, blesses 2360-3900
eleven faced Anjaney with wisdom, right judgment, powerful
vocabulary, adventurous life and success,
maintenance of entire neurophysiology
12. Dhavdasha mukhi/ 12 Represents combine Attract knowledge and riches and all the earthly 3250-6000
twelve faced form of Lord Vishnu pleasures and material gains and protects from
and Goddess Laxmi accidents. Recommended for cure of several
illnesses including heart disease, lung disease,
skin disease, eyesight, and hiatus of stomach,
oesophagus, and bowel problems.
105 | P a g e
13. Tridasha mukhi/ 13 Represents combine Helpful for meditation and spiritual attainments, 6300-11900
thirteen faced form of Kamdhenu fulfils all the desires and expectations for
and Manmatha luxury, knowledge and materialistic desires
14. Chaturdasha mukhi/ 14 Represents eyes of Blesses wearer with knowledge, intelligence 15900-37000
fourteen faced Lord Shiva and power, it grants to attain wearer’s objectives
and accomplish the eventual goal in life, cure
several diseases, improves concentration
15. Fifteen mukhi 15 Lord Pashupati Wearer of this rudraksh gets wealth due to the 15900-37000
rudraksh blessing of Lord Pashupati. Helpful in spiritual
enhancement and concentration power.
16. Sixteen mukhi 16 Known as “Jay” It helps him to achieve all possible comforts & 24000-36000
rudraksh liberates wearer from all the sins.
17. Seventeen mukhi 17 Lord Vishwakrama Wearer attains success in getting all the 40000-99000
rudraksh comforts & happiness of life, liberates from all
sins
106 | P a g e
18. Eighteen mukhi 18 Bhumi rudraksha Wearer becomes immune to any kind of disease 94000-180000
rudraksh as his resistance power is greatly increased.
Comfort, happiness are bestowed upon him,
keeping him away from evil.
19. Nineteen mukhi 19 Lord Narayan Wearer is forever relieved from diseases. 370000-450000
rudraksh Happiness, wealth & success are all showered
on him.
20. Twenty mukhi 20 Lord Brahma Wearer gets rid of worldly charms & thus, 700000-1500000
rudraksh attains Moksha. He is devoted to spiritualism &
adopts the path of truth.
21. Twenty-one mukhi 21 Kuber rudraksha Protects a man from all evils & mishaps. Wearer 1400000-2500000
rudraksh is blessed with every possible comfort,
happiness & success.
107 | P a g e
14.ANNEXURE III
108 | P a g e
109 | P a g e
110 | P a g e
111 | P a g e
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116 | P a g e
117 | P a g e
PART 2
ECOLOGY, CULTURE AND

CONSERVATION OF THE SACRED
BIKKI (ELAEOCARPUS SERRATUS)
TREES OF THE NILGIRIS DISTRICT,
WESTERN GHATS, INDIA
118 | P a g e
ABSTRACT
This report was prepared as part of a project

awarded to the NNHS by INTACH to undertake a
ECOLOGY, CULTURE AND survey of the status of Elaeocarpus trees that
were venerated in the Nilgiris. NNHS is grateful
CONSERVATION OF THE to INTACH for their support to the project. We
remain indebted to the Badaga people of the
SACRED BIKKI Nilgiris who opened their homes and villages to
us, when we approached them for information
on their beloved Bikki.
(ELAEOCARPUS SERRATUS)
Nilgiri Natural History Society
TREES OF THE NILGIRIS
DISTRICT, WESTERN GHATS,
INDIA
Ecology, Culture and Conservation of the Sacred
Bikki (Elaeocarpus serratus) Trees of the Nilgiris
District, Western Ghats, India
Project completion report submitted to

Division of Natural Heritage
INTACH, New Delhi
Submitted by
Nilgiri Natural History Society, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
May 2016
1
CONTENTS
1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3
2. Materials and methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.1 Site description…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
2.1.1 Land………..………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…5
2.1.2 People……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
2.1.3 Tree……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2 Project implementation strategy……………………………………………………………………………………………...8
3. Results……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
3.1 Ecology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
3.2 Culture……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………14
3.3 Trade………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………14
4. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16
4.1 Elaeocarpus tress in the wild………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
4.2 Cultural significance……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….17
4.3 Conservation……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….17
5. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………….18
6. References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
List of tables:
Table 1. Work plan for project implementation
Table 2. Characteristics of surveyed forest fragments
Table 3. Characteristics of surveyed Badaga villages
Table 4. Information collected from Badaga villages on the socio-cultural aspects of the Bikki
Table 5. Village wise number of protected Bikki trees and their protection and significance
List of Maps and figures

Map 1. Location of study site and bikki trees with habitations
Map 2- Location of Bikki trees in Longwood Shola
Map 3- Location of Bikki trees in Perar forest
Map 4- Location of trees in Bikkapathy mund forest
Fig 1- Population structure of all E. serratus trees surveyed in the forests
Fig 2- Population structure of E. serratus trees of Longwood Shola
Fig 3- Population structure of E. serratus trees of Perar Shola
2
1. Introduction:
Sacred trees can be defined as trees that are venerated, worshipped and adored, set apart
from other trees, found in forests or groves, and venerated as a single individual or as a
whole species (Dafni, 2006). Even today in many cultures within India there are no temples
and the deity may reside under a tree or may also be embodied in the tree (Chandran and
Gadgil, 1998).
India with its rich and ancient culture has practised conservation through maintaining sacred
groves, worship of trees and animals, placing restrictions on hunting of certain species during
particular seasons etc. While this may or may not translate to direct conservation, it plays an
important role in creating a direct and tangible link with Nature. Many times sacred groves
are considered remnant forests of the original vegetation. Bhagwat et al. 2014 discuss how
sacred groves play an important role as cultural drivers of reforestation. In their study which
looked at two sacred groves along the Western Ghats they were able to prove that these
groves were fairly young only 400 years old and may have been the result of an active
reforestation drive.
In this Anthropocenic era, it is accepted that human beings as a species have had the
maximum impact on the planet, with the negative
impacts far outweighing the positive ones (Steffen
et l. 2007). In traditional practices of conservation
as exemplified in the practice of sacred groves and
worship of trees, we see a not so distant history
where human beings strived to preserve Nature in
considering it holy (Gadgil and Vartak 1981,
Chandran and Gadgil 1998). That these practices
are still alive, and not only part of folklore or
history is visible in many parts of the world and in
India in particular.
The Nilgiris district is part of the Western Ghats,
an important biodiversity region for India. The
district is home to many endemic plants and
animals as also to many unique communities.
Many of the practises of the local community
speak of their deep links with Nature. One such
practise is that of venerating the sacred Bikki
(Elaeocarpus serratus) tree one among the many
3
sacred trees of this region. This practise has been documented only as comments in early
anthropological writings and has received very little attention. Through this work we wish to
highlight the practise while also asking questions about the status of the tree.
We are keen to understand the following-
1. What is the status of the Bikki (Elaeocarpus serratus) in natural as well as managed -
landscapes of the Nilgiris?
2. What are the belief systems and cultural rituals associated with the Bikki?
3. What are the threats to the Bikki?
The project was designed with an action research approach and tries to balance the research
with communication and outreach. The project was made possible through a grant given by
Division of Natural Heritage, INTACH, India and implemented by the Nilgiri Natural History
Society (NNHS/www.nnhs.in), registered as per the Tamil Nadu Societies Registration Act.
NNHS works in the area of conservation education and outreach through small research
projects and assists with field work in many ecological and native species restoration
projects. The society has a membership of 200+ members and publishes a biannual
newsletter which is circulated widely.
Through this project on the sacred Bikki trees we intend to improve our understanding on
the traditional conservation practices while also raising important questions like-‘Are sacred
species free from threats and pressures?’ Empirical evidence shows us as with the case of the
Elaeocarpus granitus seeds
(rudraksh)which have healing and
mystical powers that unregulated
demand for the seeds have led to
the decline of the species due to
overexploitation by the market (Khan
et al 2005). We realise that all
species that are venerated may not
be protected, and scientific studies
play an important role here to
highlight the issues of over
exploitation and need for protection. At the same time protected species that have no
connection to communities and cultures are also at the brink of extinction, science alone
cannot save them.
4
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Site description

2.1.1 Land
The Nilgiris district is a mountainous region located in the Southern Western Ghats and lies in
the state of Tamil Nadu state (Refer Map 1 – Nilgiris district). The district is an integral part of
the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, the first biosphere for India; even though it lies in three states
of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, it was given the name of the district. This highlights the
special status that the region has enjoyed because of the Nilgiri Mountains also called the
Blue Mountains. Altitudes range from 300 to 2600masl. More than 50% of the district is
forested with dry thorn, savanna-woodland, dry & moist deciduous, dry, semi and moist
evergreen, montane grasslands and montane evergreen (shola) forests. A large part of the
forest was converted to plantations of Acacia, Eucalyptus and Cinchona which have played a
role in the fragmentation of the forests. The forests of the district are home to an array of
endemic, rare and threatened fauna from the tiger, elephants, lion tailed macaques, and a
range of rare birds from visitors to residents. The district receives annual rainfall up to
2000mm on an average annually from both the south west and north east monsoons.
2.1.2 People
The district has an overall population of approximately 7, 30,000. The district is
predominantly rural and relies on the plantation economy, mainly that of tea. The tourism
industry also plays an important role in the economy of the district. The district is home to
some of the most vulnerable communities of India the adivasis, but they are only 1% of the
population and there are more than 7 distinct groups who live here. These groups have their
traditions and beliefs and are closely linked to the ecology of the region. The Badaga are an
important community of the district who do not have tribal status as per government records
but are in many ways tribal in their life, culture and economy. They live in close knit family
units and in villages or hattis that are a group of houses clustered together. The Badagas
constitute 18% of the district population and live in approximately 435 villages. Most of their
habitations have sacred trees of the Bikki (Elaeocarpus serratus) which is considered holy and
an indicator of a spring or other water source. Though much work has been done on the
cultural and economic history of the Badagas there has been no documentation of these
sacred trees that are an important part of the village.
2.1.3 Tree
The genus Elaeocarpus belongs to the family Elaeocarpaceae, comprising 350 species
distributed in the palaeotropics. Thirty three species of this genus occur in India of which ten
are endemic of which eight are found in the Western Ghats alone (Murthi 1993). One
character that helps to distinguish this genus is that at the time of senescence the leaves turn
5
scarlet red. All the species of Elaeocarpus bear flowers during a particular period in a year,
however these trees are found to produce flowers in lesser quantity throughout the year.
Elaeocarpus serratus L. (Wild Olive Tree) Elaeocarpaceae. Vernacular names from TheNilgiris:
Bikki (Baduga&Kurumba); Wikka maram (Irula); Olankarari, Saelamram (Tamil). Elaeocarpus
serratus is an evergreen shola tree found above 900-1600m. The mature leaves turn red and
the tree can be easily recognized by the presence of red leaves in the canopy and as a red
leaf carpet on the forest floor. It is found in the Indian Subcontinent, Indo-China and South
East Asia. The flowers are present in axillary racemes of pink to red in colour, flowering
occurs during April-May and July-August. The flowers are mainly visited by carrion flies. The
tree produces smooth, ovoid green edible fruits during the month of March -April. The fruit
has a single stony seed with sculpturing on the surface. The fruits are high in starch and sugar
and have low amounts of protein and iron.
Photo: Shola canopy Photo: Fruits and red leaves of Bikki
Photo: Bikki seeds in the wild Photo: Bkki Tree
6
Map 1- Location of Study site and Bikki trees surveyed within habitations
7
2.2. Project implementation strategy
The table 1 below gives details of work plans, actual time line, sites and expected outputs.
Table 1- Work plan for project implementation
Activity Month Sites Output

Kotagiri, Coonoor
Initial survey to implement survey February- and Punanjanur GPS Location of trees and
on cultural aspects Mar (Sigur) cultural background
Verify the cultural
Kotagiri, Coonoor information gathered and
Village meetings at important and come up with restoration
villages March Punanjanur(Sigur) plan if required
Kotagiri, Coonoor
Locate nearest shola patches to and
sacred trees March Punanjanur(Sigur) Maps
mid-March Kotagiri, Coonoor
Ecological assessment of (end of and Data on regeneration
regeneration status in Sholas March) Punanjanur(Sigur) status
Poster designing and production end March
bilingual (mid-April) Ooty Chandru Posters for distribution
Kotagiri and Restoration plans, sapling
Consultative meetings April Coonoor distribution and planting
Mar-31(April
Draft report 15)
April 15th
Final report (April 30)
Note- Punanjanur location was changed to Sigur, since we wanted to focus on the Badaga community. Permits for work in
the Punanjanur area forests was not possible at this time owing to fire prevention measures of the Forest department.
The project had three main components (also refer table 1) details of methods undertaken
towards these are elaborated below-
i) Surveys:
 Method for Ecological surveys
Three forest fragments Bikkapathymund, Perar and Longwood Shola were selected based on
their proximity to the Badaga habitations. These forests could have been the source for the
trees which are planted in the habitations. We undertook linear paths within these forests
and searched for the study species (Elaeocarpus serratus), 5m on either side of the path.
Some characteristics of the forest fragments and the estimated size of the transects are given
in table 2.
8
Table 2- Characteristics of surveyed forest fragments
Name of Estimated area of Length of transect Vegetation type Altitude Current

forest survey sq.kms km masl protection
fragment status
Longwood .25 3 Evergreen 2034 Protected
Shola and
regulated
access
Perar .04 2.2 Evergreen, 2300 Less
Plantations protected
more
accessible
Bikkapathy 1 4.3 Evergreen, 2000 Protected
mund Grassland, since less
Plantations accessible
Along each transect adult trees were physically located, GPS reading was taken, Diameter at
breast height (dbh) in cms was recorded, height of tree was estimated in meters and
seedlings were counted around a 5m radius from the adult tree.
 Methods for Socio- cultural survey

In consultation with a senior cultural anthropologist and expert on the Nilgiris, Rev Phillip K.
Mulley, important Badaga villages were selected. A list of 10 villages was initially prepared
and later on four more villages were added to the survey. List of villages, locations and
number of persons interviewed in each village are given in table-3.
Table 3-Characteristics of surveyed Badaga villages
S.No Name of village Taluk #persons
interviewed
1 Kengamudi Kotagiri 4
2 Anaihatty Kotagiri 3
3 Thandanaadu Kotagiri 10
4 Kaathukuli Kotagiri 9
5 Kannerimukku Kotagiri 1
6 Bikkapathymund Kotagiri 3
7 Hubbathalai Coonoor 8
8 Melur Coonoor 5
9 Koderi Coonoor 2
10 Ellithorai Coonoor 12
11 Kaasholai Coonoor 3
12 Akoni Ooty 7
13 Melur Ooty 8
14 Hullati Ooty 4
Day time visits were made to each village to set up initial conversations and introduce our
project. Depending on resident’s willingness and advice detailed meetings were set up in the
9
village itself. At these meetings the following questions as presented in table 4 were
administered. Information regarding the description and notes about the tree, dbh and
height of the tree were made by the researchers with permission from the village headman.
Table 4- Information collected from Badaga villages on the socio cultural aspects of the Bikki
Describe
location
Name of tree
of area relative
Name of or Name Local to the GPS DBH in cms
Date Surveyors village of tree Name village location (=girth/3.1416)
Estimated Planted
height in Estimated or Year of Story associated Festivals associated with
m age in yrs Natural planting with tree the tree
Names, age
and gender of
Describe the area 10m around people
Notes about the tree the tree interviewed
 Communication
Photographs taken during the survey have
been compiled and edited. A bilingual
poster has been prepared to highlight the
importance of the Bikki trees and to also
throw more light on the other sacred trees
of the region (Annexure 1). A discussion
with village elders has been organised to
discuss the issues with regard to protection
of the trees and actions needed for the
future.
10
 Outreach
As an outreach strategy we prepared a
package of 10 sacred trees and distributed
this to two important villages Akoni, and
Melur, since they did not have the tree and
wanted to revive the trees in their village.
These visits have enabled us to share results
of the survey and distribute posters and
more saplings. A decision was taken to plant
these only after June, since we were
experiencing a very dry summer this year.
3. Results
3.1 Ecology
From the survey conducted in the forests we found that out of the three forest fragments,
only two had more than 10 adult trees present in them, in the third fragment a complete
census yielded only 4 adult trees. In only one forest fragment we located seedlings (total
number less than 5) and in two fragments there were a total of 4 individuals in the sapling
category (dbh<10cms).
The population graphs show populations of the study species are not regenerating and there
seem to be bottlenecks in the life stages. Recruitment levels are low and there is an absence
of seedling from all three forest fragments (Refer Fig 1). All the studied populations show a
presence of large (above 80cm dbh) adult trees, more than one fifth of the total individual
trees belong to this category (Fig 1). Populations located within the forest fragments of
Longwood and Perar showed the same characteristics of poor regeneration and low
recruitment from each size class (refer Fig 2&3). Looking at the distribution of the trees
within the forest fragments (refer Maps 2,3,4) we observed that in Longwood Shola and
Perar the trees were more clustered whereas in Bikkapathymund we observed that they
were very distant from each other. This could also be a result of the extensive plantations
and grasslands that cut through the Shola in Bikkapathymund.
From the assessment of the trees within village grounds we observed that all trees were in
fruiting condition, some trees were also in partial flowering. The leaves were mostly in dark
green condition with about on an average 5% in red leaves which were mature and ready to
fall. We observed many fallen fruits on the ground below. We noticed that a number of the
fruits were predated by rodents and also cracked open. Many seeds (fruit coats absent) were
fallen on the ground indicating consumption and dispersal by some medium sized birds.
Monkeys were observed feeding on the fruits on the canopy and also resting on the tree.
Giant squirrels were observed feeding on the fruit and also nesting in one of the trees. One
11
elder caretaker at Koderi village told us that the Bears were observed feeding on the fruits
too.
Fig 1- Population structure of all E. serratus trees surveyed in the forests
15
# of individuals
Pop struct ELA SER total n=34

10
5
0
Size classes
Fig 2- Population structure of E. serratus trees of Longwood Shola
Pop struct ELA SER lwd n=16

10
# of individuals
8
6
4
2
0
Size class
4 Pop struct ELA SER per n=12

# of individuals
2
#individuals
0
≤10 >10≤30 >30≤50 >50≤70 >70≤90 >90≤110 >110≤130
size class
Fig 3- Population structure of E. serratus trees of Perar Shola
12
Map 2- Location of Bikki trees in Longwood Shola
Map 3- Location of Bikki trees in Perar forest
13
Map 4- Location of trees in Bikkapathy mund forest
3.2 Culture
Through the individual interviews and focus group discussions we were able to record local
people’s beliefs, stories and practises associated with the Bikki trees. In all of the 14
habitations visited and approximately 24 interviews and discussions conducted, we were able
to converse with 20 women and 60men from the community. The age of our respondents
varied from 22 to 85 years. We found the people very welcoming and open to talking about
the Bikki tree which was special to their village. Table 5 below gives an overall picture of the
number of trees in each surveyed village and its protection and significance
3.3 Trade
Through individual interviews and focus group discussions we enquired
about the trade in the species. Respondents told us that only the fruit
(mostly fallen) were collected and sold in the local market. We noticed
on our surveys that by the end of March fruit sellers along roadsides
were selling Bikki fruits (also in Picture). We have observed fruits being
sold in markets of Ooty, Coonoor and Kotagiri. We have in the past
years of our work in the Nilgiris come across an
informal trade and small scale demand for the
seeds of E.tuberculatus. Upon further inquiry we
were told that one in a hundred seeds of this
species will have a hooked apex and these seeds
were highly priced and fetch up to Rs 100 per
seed. We have not observed any trade in this in
E.tuberculatus Photo: Bikki fruits sold by the
the past two years. In the neighbouring state of
seeds roadside
14
Karnataka, the Soliga community people are engaged in collecting the seeds of E.tuberculatus and
there have been indications that sometimes the trees are damaged with all the digging that happens
around the roots in search of old seeds in the forest soil.
Table 5 – Village wise number of protected Bikki trees and their protection and significance
S.No Name of village # of Level of Significance of tree

protected protection
Bikki trees in relative
terms
1 Kengamudi 1 Low Water, Hette
2 Anaihatty 1 Medium Hette

3 Thandanaadu 3 Medium Temple, Hette,
Memorial, Water
4 Kaathukuli 1 Medium Temple

5 Kannerimukku 2 High Temple
6 Bikkapathymund 1 Medium Sacred grove
7 Hubbathalai 4 Low Hette,

8 Melur 1 Medium Sacred grove
9 Koderi 1 Low Shrine

10 Ellithorai 1 High Hette
11 Kaasholai 2 Low Temple
12 Akoni NA
13 Melur NA
14 Hullati NA
With regard to the location of the trees we found them mostly located either at the entrance
to the village, or at a temple site within the boundaries of the village. We also found trees
growing and protected within people's tea lands and private properties, sometimes located
on the village common grounds. The Bikki trees can be found growing in side tea plantation
and commonly along the roadsides. In the case of the tree at Melur, it is located within the
sacred grove grounds. In the village of Kathukuli we found at least seven sacred trees that
were planted around the temple. In Yeddapalli village the area around the Bikki tree is
cemented and the ground is used to host weddings and other ceremonies. The elders gather
around the tree most evenings to socialise. It was interesting to note that this was perhaps
one of the oldest trees in our survey and close to drying up.
15
In relation to the age of the trees, most of the Bikki trees we surveyed which were venerated
were older with a dbh ranging from 50-312cm. We were not allowed to take measurements
of some of the trees, especially not by the women in the team. In many instances the elders
were not comfortable that the men in the survey team also take the measurements, in which
case we did not take the reading. We also observed that the trees in the village habitations
tended not to grow so tall, all were below 12m height and had spreading crowns. When we
asked people about the age of the trees the oldest tree was believed to be 300 years old and
found in Koderi, near Coonoor (Refer Map). In one case a very young sapling was newly
planted since the older tree had start to dry, this was in the village of Nanjanad close to
Kotagiri. In response to our question about whether the tree was planted or occurring
naturally we observed that 50% of the trees were naturally occurring, 25% were planted and
origin of 25% was not known to the respondents.
In response to our question on a story about the tree we were told the following - the tree
was special to the Hette Amman who is held with sacred regard in this region. In one instance
a family mentions that they guard and venerate the Bikki in their tea land since it was planted
there to commemorate the killing of an elder woman by a leopard at that very spot where
the tree is growing now. In many instances the tree was found to grow above the source of a
spring. Interesting stories and comments about the tree are in quotes below-"This tree is part
of 5 other sacred trees as part of this temple ground. A sacred stone (kaval daivam) is planted
in front of the tree. There are a total of 8 such stones around the temple". In another quote
from two elderly women of Koderi village "We only eat the fruits fallen on the ground. Once a
group of boys climbed the tree to eat the fruit and we warned them from doing that. Hette
amma has been very happy since then and the tree has been growing wider and putting out
more branches". Priests of the village told us about the tree at Khairben -"Footsteps of Adhi
seshan - the tree is shaped like the hood of the cobra- this tree protects the Krishna temple
nearby”. The village people had tried to raise other trees at this site but it seems that only the
Bikki survived. In one of the villages we visited an elder woman more than 75 years
remembers the elderly woman who brought the sapling and planted it about 70 years ago,
today the tree is a big one that is located at the entrance to their village.
4. Discussion
4.1Elaeocarpus trees in the wild
The Elaeocarpus serratus populations that were surveyed as part of the study are located in
Sholas which are highly fragmented, because of tea plantations, Acacia and Eucalyptus
plantations, human habitations and roads. Within these unique forest fragments many rare
endemic and threatened species find refuge. Much of the flora of these Sholas has been well
studied. While much information is available on the presence or absence of species, much
less is available on its population status. We found this in the case of the E.serratus trees,
16
there is a lack of clarity on its population status. In our rapid
assessment we are able to highlight that the species is showing
some bottlenecks with regard to regeneration (absence of
seedlings in the forest) and recruitment (inadequate
representation in size classes). The population shows a
prevalence of older trees, this may be characteristic of tropical
evergreen forests, where shade tolerant species dominate the
under-storey and other light seeking species have to wait for a
tree fall gap before they can emerge. In a study conducted on a
related species E.venustus which is highly endemic and found
only in the southern Western Ghats, regeneration was found to
be very poor except in one region where the forest has been
cleared for cardamom plantations and canopy openness had
triggered seedling regeneration (Irwin et al 2013).
4.2. Cultural significance

The Badagas of the Nilgiris are probably the only community that attach a cultural
significance to the Bikki or Elaeocarpus serratus trees in India. This relationship with the tree
symbolises many of the attributes that Dafni (2006) explains in his paper on ‘sacred trees’. In
the case of the Nilgiris too the tree was associated with a very important deity “Hette
amman” who is believed to reside near the tree. The tree is also given much importance for
being a source of springs and fresh water. The ecology of springs in the mountains of the
Nilgiris in relatively under studied. These large trees in the middle of a habitation or next to a
temple ground were believed to have healing powers. One resident, a lady, referring to the
sacred tree which was close to her house told us about the special protection from illness she
derives by being so close to the tree. The tree as a healer was also part of the reasons that
people gave us to the significance of the tree.
4.3. Conservation
Our assessment of the populations in the wild have indicated the need to further study the
tree in its natural habitat and to assess whether or not its distribution, density and
population structure indicate a healthy population. From the surveys done so far we feel that
this species is under threat and warrants more investigation about its ecological status. The
population structures we studied indicate a stressed population. Many species are
threatened globally because of their restricted geography and degradation of their
landscapes. The forests in the Nilgiris are highly fragmented and also under threat from
invasive species. These factors that contribute to the decline of a species needs to be taken
into account especially in the light of changing climate and environmental change.
17
While conservation has benefitted from turning the spotlight on one or two ‘Apex’ species it
is time to take stock of all the species that were lost only because they were not so
charismatic. This approach from a species to a landscape focus has been the subject of much
discussion and intervention in recent times. The landscape approach has helped to foster a
more holistic thinking with regard to species loss and protection. The landscape focus will
also bring in the thinking of the various parts of the puzzle which will range from over
extraction of plant products, to loss in habitat to degradation of available habitat.
The inclusion of more stakeholders for the conservation and protection of the species is an
important aspect to consider while planning for a conservation strategy for Elaeocarpus
serratus. In the case of this species the sacredness of the species already ensures that it
receives protection, but loss of habitat, changes in climatic conditions, disturbance in the
network of underground springs etc may lead to threats to the species. An effective strategy
would be to increase awareness so that lay people can recognise the different Elaeocarpus
trees. This would be important to town planners and other officers of the line departments,
in order that important trees are spared when road works or water pipes are laid.
5. Conclusion
The elders that we met in the course of our work have expressed an interest to look more
deeply at the issues related to the sacred trees. Our survey yielded primary information on
the status of these trees. We would like to discuss further with the elders if they would
consider undertaking some joint programs with us to restore the sacred groves, reforest
some of the degraded ones and plant native trees along their water sources. We also found
in many villages that the stories related to the trees and their significance were not known
and if at all known only by the elders. We would like to discuss with the community if they
would be interested in documenting their stories and reviving many of them, even just as an
oral account.
We would like to emphasise the important role that sacred trees and community
conservation efforts can play in increasing awareness amongst the common people about
certain species and their benefits to humankind. The practise of worship and setting aside
trees or large tracts of groves as sacred ground may have helped species find refuges and
make available the seed banks for species recovery programs. Sacred trees like the Bikki play
an important role in establishing the connections between people and Nature. These roles
need to be highlighted and made part of school curriculums and education programs in order
that Nature is not always associated with the exotic and the distant but can be related to in
common terms.
18
In a recent article on large old trees authors Blicharska, Malgorzata, and Grzegorz Mikusiński
(2014) discuss how inspite of the known benefits accruing to society by the presence of these
trees how it fails to be incorporated in conservation policies and management guidelines.
The authors give evidence from across the world of aesthetic, symbolic, religious, and historic
values, that these trees hold and emphasise the role they can play in positive synergies
between social and ecological benefits. So also the large older Bikki trees are indeed
protected by local communities in the Nilgiris. How can these efforts be extended to the
populations in the wild will be an area of community based conservation which needs to be
taken up for the long term conservation of the species.
6. References
Bhagwat, S. A., Nogué, S., & Willis, K. J. (2014). Cultural drivers of reforestation in tropical forest groves of the
Western Ghats of India. Forest Ecology and Management, 329, 393-400
Blicharska, Malgorzata, and Grzegorz Mikusiński. "Incorporating social and cultural significance of large old trees
in conservation policy."Conservation biology 28.6 (2014): 1558-1567.
Chandran, S,M.D.and M. Gadgil. (1998).LIFESTYLE AND ECOLOGY. Edited Baidyanath Saraswati. pp237
Dafni, A (2006): On the typology and the worship status of sacred trees with a special reference to the Middle
EastJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethomedicine.2:26
Gadgil M, Vartak VD: Sacred groves of Maharashtra: an inventory.1981.in Glimpses in India Ethnobotany Edited
by: Jain SK. New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1981:279-294.
Khan, M. L., Bhuyan, P., and R. S.Tripathi (2005). Effects of forest disturbance on fruit set,seed dispersal and
predation of Rudraksh (Elaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.) in northeast India. Current Science 88(1):133-142
Steffen, W., Crutzen, P.J. and J. R McNeill (2007). The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great
Forces of Nature?Ambio: 36(8):614
19
Murthi, S.K. (1993). Elaeocarpaceae, pp. 529–562. In: Sharma, B.D. & M. Sanjappa (eds.). F1ora of India 3: 562.
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 639pp
Irwin, S.J., D. Narasimhan & V.M. Suresh (2013). Ecology, distribution and population status of Elaeocarpus
venustus Bedd. (Oxalidales: Elaeocarpaceae), a threatened tree species from Agasthiyamalai Biosphere Reserve,
southern Western Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 5(9): 4378–4384; http://dx.doi.
org/10.11609/JoTT.o3309.4378-84
Annexure 1: Poster
20

Rudraksh: Geographical Distribution, Reason For Decline & Measures To Enhance Propagation

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Rudraksh: Geographical Distribution, Reason For Decline & Measures To Enhance Propagation

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RUDRAKSH

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, REASON FOR

Indian National Trust For Art and Cultural Heritage

Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural

Report Researched and Compiled By:

Cover Page Pictures:

Top Left: Naturally Germinating Rudraksh Seeds in Dehradun

Folklore and Spell Crafts 37

6. Fake beads ............................................................................................................................. 38

Identifying Rudraksh by Cutting 43

Copper Coin Test 43

X-Rays and CT Scans 43

7. Rudraksha Trade in India....................................................................................................... 45

Supply and Demand 52

8. Propagation of Rudraksh tree- a CHALLENGE ................................................................... 57

Propagation by Stem Cutting and Grafting: 58

Figure 1: Elaeocarpus sphaericus Details ....................................................................................... 12

Table 1: Different Elaeocarpus Species Recorded from India 20

Map 1: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus Species in India ................................................. 8

2. RUDRAKSH IN HINDU MYTHOLOGY

Image 1: Shivling Adorned with Rudraksh Beads at Tapkeshwar Mahadev Temple in

Translation: A person who wears

Image 2: Another Shivling Decorated with Rudraksh

Image 3: A 12th Century Sculptor of Lord Shiva Adorned with Rudraksha

3. ELAEOCARPUS - GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Map 1: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus Species in India

Map 2: Geographical Distribution of Elaeocarpus in Asia

Image 6: One Year Old Rudraksh Saplings in a Nursery in Haridwar

Figure 1: Elaeocarpus sphaericus Details

Image 9: Young Leaves of a Rudraksh Tree

Image 10: Inflorescence in 3 Faced Rudraksh Tree

Image 11: Unripe Fruits of Rudraksh

Image 12: Mature Rudraksh Tree showing Buttressed Trunk

Image 13: Rough bark of Rudraksh Tree

4. RUDRAKSH - THE SEED

Image 15: Bead Description Elaeocarpus ganitrus (Indian Rough Bead)

Image 16: Cross-section of Elaeocarpus varunna Seeds

Rudrakash- General Description

Species: More than 360 known species worldwide

Tamil/Kannada: Rudrakshi, Tamarai;

Assam: Rudrai, Seleng;

Miri & Abor: Ludrai-asing;

Sylhat & Tripura: Ludrai;

Different Elaeocarpus Species and their Geographical Distribution

Table 1: Different Elaeocarpus Species Recorded from India

S. No. Species Distribution Status Uses

1. Elaeocarpus acuminatus India, NA NA

8. Elaeocarpus gaussenii India Critically NA

20. Elaeocarpus rugosus India, NA NA

21. Elaeocarpus serratus India, Sri- NA Fruits are eaten and

(Java). rheumatism and as

Pilahi, Naggara; English: beads for rosaries

37. Elaeocarpus griffithii India, NA The fruits are edible.

Image 18: Elaeocarpus ganitrus/sphaericus Nepalese; (Right) Indian 5 Mukhi

Image 21: Elaeocarpus Species (4 mukhi); (Right) Elaeocarpus varunna - 3 Mukhi

Image 22: Elaeocarpus (Nepalese) 12 mukhi; Front and Rear View

Image 23: Elaeocarpus munroii- Fruit and Fruiting Branch

Image 24: Elaeocarpus recurvatus- Inflorescence and Fruiting Branch

Image 25: Elaeocarpus blascoi- Herbarium Record

Image 26: Elaeocarpus gaussenii- Herbarium Record

Image 27: Elaeocarpus serratus Inflorescence, Fruiting Branch and Seeds

Image 28: Elaeocarpus tuberculatus: Infloresence & Fruit

Image 29: Elaeocarpus variabilis inflorescence