PROJECT REPORT

ON
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING
For the partial fulfillment of the requirement of degree in

Bachelors of Business Administration with Computer Aided Management

BBA (CAM)

MAHARSHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK

SESSION: 2018-19

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

MRS. MONICA KASTURIYA NAME: POOJA SHARMA

(Project Guide, CLASS: BBA (CAM)6TH SEM

BBA Department ROLL NO.:30914

UNV. ROLL NO.:

DAV CENTENARY COLLEGE

NIT-3, FARIDABAD
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project has been made possible through the direct and indirect co-operation of several eminent
people at Infotech Solutions Ltd. for whom I wish to express my appreciation and gratitude.

Through this column, I wish to express my heartiest gratitude and thanks to my project guide and
mentor Ms. without whom this project compilation would not have been possible. Her invaluable
experience and exceptional mentoring provided me with gainful insights on practical applications
of the topic, which was indispensable for the successful completion of the project.

I would be failing in my duties if I don’t appreciate the co-operation by my beloved college, DAV
Centenary College (FBD) NIT 3.

POOJA SHARMA
 PREFACE

Project is a part of our curriculum that gives us knowledge about practical work. This also helped
us to understand the practical aspects of the conceptual studies learnt by them in the commerce
subject. The project report presented here is the part of the syllabus of the BBA degree provided
by M.D. UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK.

Each student pursuing this course is required to submit a particular project on the topic assigned
to him in his course. The essential purpose of this project is to given an exposure and detailed
outlook to the student of the practical concept, which they already studied research.

The whole report is divided into 7 segments:

 First segment consists of Introduction to the study.

 Second segment consists of Review of literature.
 Third segment consists of Research methodology.
 Fourth segment consists of Data analysis and interpretation.
 Fifth segment consists of Conclusion.
 Sixth segment consists of Biblography.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTERS TOPICS PAGE NO.

1.
INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

2.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• OBJECTIVES OF THE STTUDY
• SCOPE OF THE STUDY
• RESEARCH DESIGN
a) Sample design
b) Data collection
• LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

4.
DATAANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
5.
CONCLUSION

6.
BIBLOGRAPHY
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

The Internet (contraction of interconnected network) is the global system of interconnected

computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. It is a
network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks
of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the
inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic
mail, telephony, and file sharing.

The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the federal government of the
United States in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication with computer
networks.[1] The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for
interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. The funding of the
National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding
for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new
networking technologies, and the merger of many networks.[2] The linking of commercial networks
and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet,[3]
and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile
computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia
since the 1980s, commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every
aspect of modern life.

Most traditional communications media, including telephony, radio, television, paper mail and
newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services
such as email, Internet telephony, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video
streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website
technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet
has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet
forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers
and small businesses and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar"
presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely
online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across
entire industries.

The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for
access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies.[4] Only the overreaching
definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP
address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization,
the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning
and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may
associate with by contributing technical expertise.[5] In November 2006, the Internet was included
on USA Today's list of New Seven Wonders.[6]

The Internet is not synonymous with World Wide Web. The Internet is a massive network of
networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions of computers together globally,
forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer as long as
they are both connected to the Internet. The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of
accessing information over the medium of the Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is
built on top of the Internet.

A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or other

devices connected to one another to allow the sharing of data. An excellent example of a network
is the Internet, which connects millions of people all over the world. Below is an example image
of a home network with multiple computers and other network devices all connected to each other
and the Internet.

• Examples of network devices.

• Network topologies and types of networks.

• What was the first computer network?

• Related pages.
Examples of network devices

• Desktop computers, laptops, mainframes, and servers.

• Consoles and thin clients.

• Firewalls

• Bridges

• Repeaters

• Network Interface cards

• Switches, hubs, modems, and routers.

• Smartphones and tablets.

• Webcams
Network topologies and types of networks

The term network topology describes the relationship of connected devices in terms of a geometric
graph. Devices are represented as vertices, and their connections are represented as edges on the
graph. It describes how many connections each device has, in what order, and it what sort of
hierarchy.

Typical network configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star
topology, tree topology and hybrid topology.

Most home networks are configured in a tree topology that is connected to the Internet.
Corporate networks often use tree topologies, but they typically incorporate star topologies and
an Intranet. What was the first computer network?

One of the first computer networks to use packet switching, ARPANET was developed in the
mid1960s and is considered to be the direct predecessor of the modern Internet. The first
ARPANET message was sent on October 29, 1969.
Related pages

• How do I setup my own home network?

• Basic network troubleshooting.

• Help with ping, winipcfg, and other network commands.

• How do computers connect to each other over the Internet?

• Computer network and network card help and support.

• Internet related questions and answers.

Internet Network Example

Here's an example. Imagine that Company A is a large ISP. In each major city, Company A has a
POP. The POP in each city is a rack full of modems that the ISP's customers dial into. Company
A leases fiber opticlines from the phone company to connect the POPs together (see, for example,
this UUNET Data Center Connectivity Map).

Imagine that Company B is a corporate ISP. Company B builds large buildings in major cities and
corporations locate their Internet server machines in these buildings. Company B is such a large
company that it runs its own fiber optic lines between its buildings so that they are all
interconnected.

Network Characteristics
In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize different types
of networks:

topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include a

bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams in the Quick Reference section of
Webopedia.
 protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the
network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet.
Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network .

architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server

architecture.

Interconnection of networks

Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it

became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more local area networks via
some sort of wide area network. The original term for an internetwork was catenet.

The definition of an internetwork today includes the connection of other types of computer
networks such as personal area networks. The network elements used to connect individual
networks in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, were originally called gateways, but
the term has been deprecated in this context, because of possible confusion with functionally
different devices. Today the interconnecting gateways are called routers.

Another type of interconnection of networks often occurs within enterprises at the Link Layer of
the networking model, i.e. at the hardware-centric layer below the level of the TCP/IP logical
interfaces. Such interconnection is accomplished with network bridges and network switches. This
is sometimes incorrectly termed internetworking, but the resulting system is simply a larger, single
subnetwork, and no internetworking protocol, such as Internet Protocol, is required to traverse
these devices. However, a single computer network may be converted into an internetwork by
dividing the network into segments and logically dividing the segment traffic with routers. The
Internet Protocol is designed to provide an unreliable (not guaranteed) packet service across the
network. The architecture avoids intermediate network elements maintaining any state of the
network. Instead, this function is assigned to the endpoints of each communication session. To
transfer data reliably, applications must utilize an appropriate Transport Layer protocol, such as
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP), which provides a reliable stream. Some applications use a
simpler, connection-less transport protocol, User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for tasks which do
not require reliable delivery of data or that require real-time service, such as video streaming [3] or
voice chat.

Networking models

Two architectural models are commonly used to describe the protocols and methods used in
internetworking.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed under the auspices of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and provides a rigorous description for
layering protocol functions from the underlying hardware to the software interface concepts in
user applications. Internetworking is implemented in the Network Layer(Layer 3) of the model.

The Internet Protocol Suite, also called the TCP/IP model of the Internet was not designed to
conform to the OSI model and does not refer to it in any of the normative specifications in Requests
for Comment and Internet standards. Despite similar appearance as a layered model, it uses a much
less rigorous, loosely defined architecture that concerns itself only with the aspects of logical
networking. It does not discuss hardware-specific low-level interfaces, and assumes availability of
a Link Layer interface to the local network link to which the host is connected. Internetworking is
facilitated by the protocols of its Internet Layer.

Where to Begin? Internet Addresses

Because the Internet is a global network of computers each computer connected to the Internet
musthave a unique address. Internet addresses are in the form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn where nnn must
be a number from 0 - 255. This address is known as an IP address. (IP stands for Internet Protocol;
more on this later.)

The picture below illustrates two computers connected to the Internet; your computer with IP
address 1.2.3.4 and another computer with IP address 5.6.7.8. The Internet is represented as an
abstract object in-between. (As this paper progresses, the Internet portion of Diagram 1 will be
explained and redrawn several times as the details of the Internet are exposed.)

Diagram.1

If you connect to the Internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you are usually assigned
a temporary IP address for the duration of your dial-in session. If you connect to the Internet from
a local area network (LAN) your computer might have a permanent IP address or it might obtain
a temporary one from a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. In any case, if you
are connected to the Internet, your computer has a unique IP address.

Check It Out - The Ping Program

If you're using Microsoft Windows or a flavor of Unix and have a connection to the Internet,
there is a handy program to see if a computer on the Internet is alive. It's called ping,
probably after the sound made by older submarine sonar systems.1 If you are using Windows,
start a command prompt window. If you're using a flavor of Unix, get to a command prompt.

Type ping www.yahoo.com. The ping program will send a 'ping' (actually an ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol) echo request message) to the named computer. The pinged
computer will respond with a reply. The ping program will count the time expired until the
reply comes back (if it does). Also, if you enter a domain name (i.e. www.yahoo.com)
instead of an IP address, ping will resolve the domain name and display the computer's IP
address. More on domain names and address resolution later.
Protocol Stacks and Packets

So your computer is connected to the Internet and has a unique address. How does it 'talk' to
other computers connected to the Internet? An example should serve here: Let's say your IP
address is 1.2.3.4 and you want to send a message to the computer 5.6.7.8. The message you
want to send is "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!". Obviously, the message must be transmitted over
whatever kind of wire connects your computer to the Internet. Let's say you've dialed into your
 ISP from home and the message must be transmitted over the phone line. Therefore the
message must be translated from alphabetic text into electronic signals, transmitted over the
Internet, then translated back into alphabetic text. How is this accomplished? Through the
use of a protocol stack. Every computer needs one to communicate on the Internet and it is
usually built into the computer's operating system (i.e. Windows, Unix, etc.). The protocol
stack used on the Internet is refered to as the TCP/IP protocol stack because of the two major
communication protocols used. The TCP/IP stack looks like this:

Protocol Layer Comments

Application Protocols Layer Protocols specific to applications such as WWW, e-mail, FTP,
etc.

Transmission Control Protocol TCP directs packets to a specific application on a computer using
Layer a port number.

Internet Protocol Layer IP directs packets to a specific computer using an IP address.

Hardware Layer Converts binary packet data to network signals and back. (E.g.
ethernet network card, modem for phone lines, etc.)

If we were to follow the path that the message "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!" took from our computer
to the computer with IP address 5.6.7.8, it would happen something like this:
 Diagram 2

1. The message would start at the top of the protocol stack on your computer and work it's
way downward.

2. If the message to be sent is long, each stack layer that the message passes through may
break the message up into smaller chunks of data. This is because data sent over the Internet
(and most computer networks) are sent in manageable chunks. On the Internet, these
chunks of data are known as packets.

3. The packets would go through the Application Layer and continue to the TCP layer. Each
packet is assigned a port number. Ports will be explained later, but suffice to say that
many programs may be using the TCP/IP stack and sending messages. We need to know
which program on the destination computer needs to receive the message because it will
be listening on a specific port.

4. After going through the TCP layer, the packets proceed to the IP layer. This is where each
packet receives it's destination address, 5.6.7.8.

5. Now that our message packets have a port number and an IP address, they are ready to be
sent over the Internet. The hardware layer takes care of turning our packets containing the
alphabetic text of our message into electronic signals and transmitting them over the phone
line.

6. On the other end of the phone line your ISP has a direct connection to the Internet. The
ISPs routerexamines the destination address in each packet and determines where to send
it. Often, the packet's next stop is another router. More on routers and Internet infrastructure
later.

7. Eventually, the packets reach computer 5.6.7.8. Here, the packets start at the bottom of the
destination computer's TCP/IP stack and work upwards.

8. As the packets go upwards through the stack, all routing data that the sending computer's
stack added (such as IP address and port number) is stripped from the packets.
Networking Infrastructure

So now you know how packets travel from one computer to another over the Internet. But what's
in-between? What actually makes up the Internet? Let's look at another diagram:

Diagram 3

Here we see Diagram 1 redrawn with more detail. The physical connection through the phone
network to the Internet Service Provider might have been easy to guess, but beyond that might
bear some explanation.

The ISP maintains a pool of modems for their dial-in customers. This is managed by some form
of computer (usually a dedicated one) which controls data flow from the modem pool to a
backbone or dedicated line router. This setup may be refered to as a port server, as it 'serves' access
to the network. Billing and usage information is usually collected here as well.

After your packets traverse the phone network and your ISP's local equipment, they are routed
onto the ISP's backbone or a backbone the ISP buys bandwidth from. From here the packets will
usually journey through several routers and over several backbones, dedicated lines, and other
networks until they find their destination, the computer with address 5.6.7.8. But wouldn't it would
be nice if we knew the exact route our packets were taking over the Internet? As it turns out, there
is a way...
 Check It Out - The Traceroute Program

If you're using Microsoft Windows or a flavor of Unix and have a connection to the Internet,
here is another handy Internet program. This one is called traceroute and it shows the path
your packets are taking to a given Internet destination. Like ping, you must use traceroute from
a command prompt. In Windows, use tracert www.yahoo.com. From a Unix prompt,
type traceroute www.yahoo.com. Like ping, you may also enter IP addresses instead of domain
names. Traceroute will print out a list of all the routers, computers, and any other Internet
entities that your packets must travel through to get to their destination.

Internet Infrastructure

The Internet backbone is made up of many large networks which interconnect with each other.
These large networks are known as Network Service Providers or NSPs. Some of the large NSPs
are UUNet, CerfNet, IBM, BBN Planet, SprintNet, PSINet, as well as others. These networks peer
with each other to exchange packet traffic. Each NSP is required to connect to three Network
Access Points or NAPs. At the NAPs, packet traffic may jump from one NSP's backbone to
another NSP's backbone. NSPs also interconnect at Metropolitan Area Exchanges or MAEs.
MAEs serve the same purpose as the NAPs but are privately owned. NAPs were the original
Internet interconnect points. Both NAPs and MAEs are referred to as Internet Exchange Points or
IXs. NSPs also sell bandwidth to smaller networks, such as ISPs and smaller bandwidth providers.
Below is a picture showing this hierarchical infrastructure.
 Diagram 4

This is not a true representation of an actual piece of the Internet. Diagram 4 is only meant to
demonstrate how the NSPs could interconnect with each other and smaller ISPs. None of the
physical network components are shown in Diagram 4 as they are in Diagram 3. This is because a
single NSP's backbone infrastructure is a complex drawing by itself. Most NSPs publish maps of
their network infrastructure on their web sites and can be found easily. To draw an actual map of
the Internet would be nearly impossible due to it's size, complexity, and ever changing structure.

The Internet Routing Hierarchy

So how do packets find their way across the Internet? Does every computer connected to the
Internet know where the other computers are? Do packets simply get 'broadcast' to every computer
on the Internet? The answer to both the preceeding questions is 'no'. No computer knows where
any of the other computers are, and packets do not get sent to every computer. The information
used to get packets to their destinations are contained in routing tables kept by each router
connected to the Internet.

Routers are packet switches. A router is usually connected between networks to route packets
between them. Each router knows about it's sub-networks and which IP addresses they use. The
router usually doesn't know what IP addresses are 'above' it. Examine Diagram 5 below. The black
boxes connecting the backbones are routers. The larger NSP backbones at the top are connected at
a NAP. Under them are several sub-networks, and under them, more sub-networks. At the bottom
are two local area networks with computers attached.
 Diagram 5

When a packet arrives at a router, the router examines the IP address put there by the IP protocol
layer on the originating computer. The router checks it's routing table. If the network containing
the IP address is found, the packet is sent to that network. If the network containing the IP address
is not found, then the router sends the packet on a default route, usually up the backbone hierarchy
to the next router. Hopefully the next router will know where to send the packet. If it does not,
again the packet is routed upwards until it reaches a NSP backbone. The routers connected to the

NSP backbones hold the largest routing tables and here the packet will be routed to the correct
Domain Names and Address Resolution

But what if you don't know the IP address of the computer you want to connect to? What if the
you need to access a web server referred to as www.anothercomputer.com? How does your web
browser know where on the Internet this computer lives? The answer to all these questions is the
Domain Name Service orDNS. The DNS is a distributed database which keeps track of
computer's names and their corresponding IP addresses on the Internet.

Many computers connected to the Internet host part of the DNS database and the software that
allows others to access it. These computers are known as DNS servers. No DNS server contains
the entire database; they only contain a subset of it. If a DNS server does not contain the domain
name requested by another computer, the DNS server re-directs the requesting computer to another
DNS server.

Diagram 6

The Domain Name Service is structured as a hierarchy similar to the IP routing hierarchy. The
computer requesting a name resolution will be re-directed 'up' the hierarchy until a DNS server is
found that can resolve the domain name in the request. Figure 6 illustrates a portion of the
hierarchy. At the top of the tree are the domain roots. Some of the older, more common domains
are seen near the top. What is not shown are the multitude of DNS servers around the world which
form the rest of the hierarchy.

When an Internet connection is setup (e.g. for a LAN or Dial-Up Networking in Windows), one
primary and one or more secondary DNS servers are usually specified as part of the installation.
This way, any Internet applications that need domain name resolution will be able to function
correctly. For example, when you enter a web address into your web browser, the browser first
connects to your primary DNS server. After obtaining the IP address for the domain name you
entered, the browser then connects to the target computer and requests the web page you wanted.

Check It Out - Disable DNS in Windows

If you're using Windows 95/NT and access the Internet, you may view your DNS server(s) and
even disable them.

If you use Dial-Up Networking:

Open your Dial-Up Networking window (which can be found in Windows Explorer under your
CD-ROM drive and above Network Neighborhood). Right click on your Internet connection
and click Properties. Near the bottom of the connection properties window press the TCP/IP
Settings... button.

If you have a permanent connection to the Internet:

Right click on Network Neighborhood and click Properties. Click TCP/IP Properties. Select the
DNS Configuration tab at the top.

You should now be looking at your DNS servers' IP addresses. Here you may disable DNS or
set your DNS servers to 0.0.0.0. (Write down your DNS servers' IP addresses first. You will
probably have to restart Windows as well.) Now enter an address into your web browser. The
browser won't be able to resolve the domain name and you will probably get a nasty dialog box
explaining that a DNS server couldn't be found. However, if you enter the corresponding IP
address instead of the domain name, the browser will be able to retrieve the desired web page.
(Use ping to get the IP address prior to disabling DNS.) Other Microsoft operating systems are
similar.
Internet Protocols Revisited

As hinted to earlier in the section about protocol stacks, one may surmise that there are many
protocols that are used on the Internet. This is true; there are many communication protocols
required for the Internet to function. These include the TCP and IP protocols, routing protocols,
medium access control protocols, application level protocols, etc. The following sections describe
some of the more important and commonly used protocols on the Internet. Higher level protocols
are discussed first, followed by lower level protocols.

Application Protocols: HTTP and the World Wide Web

One of the most commonly used services on the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). The
application protocol that makes the web work is Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP. Do not
confuse this with the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML is the language used to write
web pages. HTTP is the protocol that web browsers and web servers use to communicate with
each other over the Internet. It is an application level protocol because it sits on top of the TCP
layer in the protocol stack and is used by specific applications to talk to one another. In this case
the applications are web browsers and web servers.

HTTP is a connectionless text based protocol. Clients (web browsers) send requests to web servers
for web elements such as web pages and images. After the request is serviced by a server, the
connection between client and server across the Internet is disconnected. A new connection must
be made for each request. Most protocols are connection oriented. This means that the two
computers communicating with each other keep the connection open over the Internet. HTTP does
not however. Before an HTTP request can be made by a client, a new connection must be made to
the server.

When you type a URL into a web browser, this is what happens:

1. If the URL contains a domain name, the browser first connects to a domain name server
and retrieves the corresponding IP address for the web server.
 2. The web browser connects to the web server and sends an HTTP request (via the protocol
stack) for the desired web page.

3. The web server receives the request and checks for the desired page. If the page exists, the
web server sends it. If the server cannot find the requested page, it will send an HTTP 404
error message. (404 means 'Page Not Found' as anyone who has surfed the web probably
knows.)

4. The web browser receives the page back and the connection is closed.
5. The browser then parses through the page and looks for other page elements it needs to
complete the web page. These usually include images, applets, etc.

6. For each element needed, the browser makes additional connections and HTTP requests to
the server for each element.

7. When the browser has finished loading all images, applets, etc. the page will be completely
loaded in the browser window.

Check It Out - Use Your Telnet Client to Retrieve a Web Page Using HTTP

Telnet is a remote terminal service used on the Internet. It's use has declined lately, but it is a
very useful tool to study the Internet. In Windows find the default telnet program. It may be
located in the Windows directory named telnet.exe. When opened, pull down the Terminal
menu and select Preferences. In the preferences window, check Local Echo. (This is so you can
see your HTTP request when you type it.) Now pull down the Connection menu and select
Remote System. Enter www.google.com for the Host Name and 80 for the Port. (Web servers
usually listen on port 80 by default.) Press Connect. Now type GET / HTTP/1.0

and press Enter twice. This is a simple HTTP request to a web server for it's root page. You
should see a web page flash by and then a dialog box should pop up to tell you the connection
was lost. If you'd like to save the retrieved page, turn on logging in the Telnet program. You
may then browse through the web page and see the HTML that was used to write it.
Most Internet protocols are specified by Internet documents known as a Request For Comments
orRFCs. RFCs may be found at several locations on the Internet. See the Resources section below
for appropriate URL's. HTTP version 1.0 is specified by RFC 1945.

Application Protocols: SMTP and Electronic Mail

Another commonly used Internet service is electronic mail. E-mail uses an application level
protocol called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol or SMTP. SMTP is also a text based protocol,
but unlike HTTP, SMTP is connection oriented. SMTP is also more complicated than HTTP.
There are many more commands and considerations in SMTP than there are in HTTP.

When you open your mail client to read your e-mail, this is what typically happens:

1. The mail client (Netscape Mail, Lotus Notes, Microsoft Outlook, etc.) opens a connection
to it's default mail server. The mail server's IP address or domain name is typically setup
when the mail client is installed.

2. The mail server will always transmit the first message to identify itself.

3. The client will send an SMTP HELO command to which the server will respond with a
250 OK message.

4. Depending on whether the client is checking mail, sending mail, etc. the appropriate SMTP
commands will be sent to the server, which will respond accordingly.

5. This request/response transaction will continue until the client sends an SMTP QUIT
command. The server will then say goodbye and the connection will be closed.

A simple 'conversation' between an SMTP client and SMTP server is shown below. R: denotes
messages sent by the server (receiver) and S: denotes messages sent by the client (sender).

This SMTP example shows mail sent by Smith at host USC-ISIF, to

Jones, Green, and Brown at host BBN-UNIX. Here we assume that
host USC-ISIF contacts host BBN-UNIX directly. The mail is
accepted for Jones and Brown. Green does not have a mailbox at host
BBN-UNIX.

-------------------------------------------------------------

R: 220 BBN-UNIX.ARPA Simple Mail Transfer Service Ready

S: HELO USC-ISIF.ARPA
R: 250 BBN-UNIX.ARPA

S: MAIL FROM:<Smith@USC-ISIF.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: RCPT TO:<Jones@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: RCPT TO:<Green@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 550 No such user here

S: RCPT TO:<Brown@BBN-UNIX.ARPA>
R: 250 OK

S: DATA
R: 354 Start mail input; end with <CRLF>.<CRLF>
S: Blah blah blah...

S: ...etc. etc. etc.

S: .
R: 250 OK

S: QUIT
R: 221 BBN-UNIX.ARPA Service closing transmission channel
This SMTP transaction is taken from RFC 821, which specifies SMTP.
Transmission Control Protocol

Under the application layer in the protocol stack is the TCP layer. When applications open a
connection to another computer on the Internet, the messages they send (using a specific
application layer protocol) get passed down the stack to the TCP layer. TCP is responsible for
routing application protocols to the correct application on the destination computer. To
accomplish this, port numbers are used. Ports can be thought of as seperate channels on each
computer. For example, you can surf the web while reading e-mail. This is because these two
applications (the web browser and the mail client) used different port numbers. When a packet
arrives at a computer and makes its way up the protocol stack, the TCP layer decides which
application receives the packet based on a port number.
TCP works like this:

• When the TCP layer receives the application layer protocol data from above, it segments it
into manageable 'chunks' and then adds a TCP header with specific TCP information to
each 'chunk'. The information contained in the TCP header includes the port number of the
application the data needs to be sent to.

• When the TCP layer receives a packet from the IP layer below it, the TCP layer strips the
TCP header data from the packet, does some data reconstruction if necessary, and then
sends the data to the correct application using the port number taken from the TCP header.

This is how TCP routes the data moving through the protocol stack to the correct application.

TCP is not a textual protocol. TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable, byte stream service.
Connection-oriented means that two applications using TCP must first establish a connection
before exchanging data. TCP is reliable because for each packet received, an acknowledgement is
sent to the sender to confirm the delivery. TCP also includes a checksum in it's header for
errorchecking the received data. The TCP header looks like this:
 Diagram 7

Notice that there is no place for an IP address in the TCP header. This is because TCP doesn't
know anything about IP addresses. TCP's job is to get application level data from application to
application reliably. The task of getting data from computer to computer is the job of IP.

Check It Out - Well Known Internet Port Numbers

Listed below are the port numbers for some of the more commonly used Internet services.
FTP 20/21

Telnet 23

SMTP 25

HTTP 80
Quake III Arena 27960

Internet Protocol

Unlike TCP, IP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol. IP doesn't care whether a packet gets
to it's destination or not. Nor does IP know about connections and port numbers. IP's job is too
send and route packets to other computers. IP packets are independent entities and may arrive
out of order or not at all. It is TCP's job to make sure packets arrive and are in the correct order.
About the only thing IP has in common with TCP is the way it receives data and adds it's own IP
header information to the TCP data. The IP header looks like this:
 Diagram 8

Above we see the IP addresses of the sending and receiving computers in the IP header. Below is
what a packet looks like after passing through the application layer, TCP layer, and IP layer. The
application layer data is segmented in the TCP layer, the TCP header is added, the packet continues
to the IP layer, the IP header is added, and then the packet is transmitted across the Internet.

Diagram 9

Wrap Up
Now you know how the Internet works. But how long will it stay this way? The version of IP
currently used on the Internet (version 4) only allows 232 addresses. Eventually there won't be any
free IP addresses left. Surprised? Don't worry. IP version 6 is being tested right now on a research
backbone by a consortium of research institutions and corporations. And after that? Who knows.
The Internet has come a long way since it's inception as a Defense Department research project.
No one really knows what the Internet will become. One thing is sure, however. The Internet will
unite the world like no other mechanism ever has. The Information Age is in full stride and I am
glad to be a part of it.
 CHAPTER – 2
Review of Literature
 HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

The history of the Internet begins with the development of electronic computers in the 1950s.
Initial concepts of wide area networking originated in several computer science laboratories in the
United States, United Kingdom, and France.[1] The U.S. Department of Defense awarded contracts
as early as the 1960s, including for the development of the ARPANET project, directed by Robert
Taylor and managed by Lawrence Roberts. The first message was sent over the ARPANET in
1969 from computer science Professor Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California,
Los Angeles (UCLA) to the second network node at Stanford Research Institute (SRI).

Packet switching networks such as the NPL network, ARPANET, Tymnet, Merit Network,
CYCLADES, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of
communications protocols.[2] Donald Davies first demonstrated packet switching in 1967 at the
National Physics Laboratory (NPL) in the UK, which became a testbed for UK research for almost
two decades.[3][4] The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking,
in which multiple separate networks could be joined into a network of networks.

The Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was developed by Robert E. Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s
and became the standard networking protocol on the ARPANET, incorporating concepts from the
French CYCLADES project directed by Louis Pouzin. In the early 1980s the NSF funded the
establishment for national supercomputing centers at several universities, and provided
interconnectivity in 1986 with the NSFNET project, which also created network access to the
supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations. Commercial
Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the very late 1980s. The ARPANET was
decommissioned in 1990. Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially
commercial entities emerged in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990,[5] and the NSFNET
was decommissioned in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry
commercial traffic.

In the 1980s, research at CERN in Switzerland by British computer scientist Tim BernersLee
resulted in the World Wide Web, linking hypertext documents into an information system,
accessible from any node on the network.[6] Since the mid-1990s, the Internet has had a
revolutionary impact on culture, commerce, and technology, including the rise of near-instant
communication by electronic mail, instant messaging, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
telephone calls, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion
forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education
community continues to develop and use advanced networks such as JANET in the United
Kingdom and Internet2 in the United States. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher
and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, or more. The Internet's
takeover of the global communication landscape was almost instant in historical terms: it only
communicated 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunications networks in
the year 1993, already 51% by 2000, and more than 97% of the telecommunicated information by
2007.[7] Today the Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online
information, commerce, entertainment, and social networking. However, the future of the global
internet may be shaped by regional differences in the world.[8]

Precursors

The concept of data communication – transmitting data between two different places through an
electromagnetic medium such as radio or an electric wire – pre-dates the introduction of the first
computers. Such communication systems were typically limited to point to point communication
between two end devices. Semaphore lines, telegraph systems and telex machines can be
considered early precursors of this kind of communication. The Telegraph in the late 19th century
was the first fully digital communication system.

Fundamental theoretical work in data transmission and information theory was developed by
Claude Shannon, Harry Nyquist, and Ralph Hartley in the early 20th century.

Early computers had a central processing unit and remote terminals. As the technology evolved,
new systems were devised to allow communication over longer distances (for terminals) or with
higher speed (for interconnection of local devices) that were necessary for the mainframe computer
model. These technologies made it possible to exchange data (such as files) between remote
computers. However, the point-to-point communication model was limited, as it did not allow for
direct communication between any two arbitrary systems; a physical link was necessary.
The technology was also considered unsafe for strategic and military use because there were no
alternative paths for the communication in case of an enemy attack.
What is the WWW?

Telkom Internet technical support is available 24 hours on 10215 or email us

on support@telkomsa.net, 7 days a week.

• The World Wide Web is a huge mass of Information.

• The basis of it’s success in the ability one has to move freely from one piece of information
to the next without needing to be aware of where the information is physically located.

• This process is often referred to as "surfing the web".

Internet Architecture

The architecture of the Internet is made up of three main components:

1. Hosts, PC's, Servers or Computers.

2. The Networks - Either LANs (Local Area Networks) or WANs (Wide
Area Networks).

3. Routers - "glue" the networks together and provide a service to deliver

packets of information between the Computers on the LANs.

When taking a closer look at the architecture of the Internet, there are two main
building blocks:

1. Internet Application - SMTP, DNS, HTTP

2. Communications Infrastructure - LANs, WANs, Routers

Network Protocols
• A network protocol is similar to a language.

• If you know the vocabulary and protocols or rules that govern the language, you are able
to construct sentences and phrases and thus communicate.
Protocol Functions
Some of the functions of the protocol that computers user for networking are:

• Making requests and sending data

• Rejecting requests or data
• Acknowledge receipt
• Handle error detection, correction and retransmission
• Maintain connection-orientated sessions
• Packet numbering and sequencing
• Handle addressing and routing

Protocols
A wide variety of communication protocols exist, but all tend to fall into one
of the following groups:

• LAN protocols – (Ethernet, Token Ring)

• WAN protocols – (ISDN, Frame Relay, PPP)
• Network protocols – (IP, TCP)
• Routing protocols – (RIP, OSPF)
• Application protocols – (SMTP, DNS, HTTP)

Multiple Protocol Simultaneously

• It is important to realize that in the transfer of any data from one computer to another, there
is usually more than one protocol in use.
• This is called protocol stack.

Example: Communication on the Internet.

o SMTP over TCP/IP on an Ethernet LAN then over a Dialup

WAN to a service provider’s LAN
 o In the above SMTP, TCP/IP and Ethernet are all separate
protocols.

• They each play an essential role in the transfer of data from one computer to another.

Key Issues When Using The Internet

• Performance: There are several factors that can impact the performance of a connection
over then Internet. Examples of here include LAN and WAN bandwidth or the use of
gateways.

• Security: When connecting a private network to the Internet, security is a key issue. There
are several technologies that can be used to address this.

OSI Layer Function Provided

7 Application Network application such as file transfer, terminal

emulation and electronic mail.

6 Presentation Data formatting and encryption.

5 Session Establishment and maintenance of sessions.

4 Transport Provision for end-to-end reliable or unreliable delivery.

3 Network Delivery of packets of information, which includes

routing.

2 Data Link Transfer of units of information, framing and error

checking.

1 Physical Transmission of binary data of a medium.

Application Layer allows application to reside as network applications.
These applications must be written specifically as network applications
such as a file transfer program or a remote terminal emulation program.
Presentation Layer provides for data formatting into the standard codes
ASCII or EBCIDIC. This layer also allows for data encryption techniques
to be employed.

Session Layer allows sessions to be established between two

communicating stations. Also controls the dialogue and can end sessions.
Network name to network address translation techniques are performed at
this layer.

Transport Layer provides for end-to-end reliable or unreliable transmission

of data between two communicating stations. It allows data to be reliably
transfered between the source and destination station be a sequence
mechanism that guarantees data to be delivered by tagging the data with a
number that must be acknowledged by the receiver of the data. This layer
can also act as transport for those applications that do not need a reliable
transport, such as messaging and network management. Network Layer
allows data to traverse the same or different networks through a mechanism
known as routing.

Data Link Layer allows for the transfer of units of information known as
frames or packets. This layer also provides for data framing and error
detection in the packets.

Physical Layer allows the transfer of raw data known as binary transmission
of data across e medium. Included in this layer are the wiring schemes and
connectors used.

Characteristics of the OSI Layers

Upper Layers Lower Layers

 Deal with application issues and areHandle data transport issues generally
implemented in software
Highest layer – application is First 2 layers are
closest to the end user implemented in hardware
and software

Other lower layers are

generally implemented in
software

Lowest layer, physical is

closest to the network medium, it
actually places information on
the medium

Protocol Stacks
Not every protocol covers each layer of the OSI model. Often a single protocol
in the stack will address a number of layers at once.

• Set of related communications protocols that operate together and, as a group address
communication at some or all of the seven layers of the OSI model.

• Do not always cover every layer.

• A single protocol can address a number of layers at once.

Example:

• TCP/IP protocol suite

• OSI protocol stack (different to OSI Model)
• Netware IPX/SPX protocols
• Apple Talk protocols
The above mentioned protocol stacks or suites are all typical industry examples of
implementations of the concepts outlined in the OSI model.

OSI Model LAN Manager UNIX Netware

Application Redirector SNMP Netware Core

Telnet FTP SMTP Protocol
Presentation Server Message
Blocks

Session Named NetBIOS Named NetBIOS

Pipes Pipes

Transport NetBEUI TCP UDP SPX

Network Transport ARP IPX

Data Link NDIS LAN Drivers LAN Drivers

Media Access Control ODI NDIS

Physical Physical Physical Physical

Common Protocols
ARP - Address Resolution Protocol

FTP - File Transfer Protocol

IP - Internet Protocol

IPX - Internet Packet eXchange

NDIS - Network Driver Interface Specification

NetBEUI - NetBIOS Extended User Interface

ODI - Open Data Link Interface

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol

TCP - Transmission Control Protocol

Telnet - Remote Terminal Protocol

UDP - User Datagram Protocol

Basic Home Network And Internet Components, Devices and Services

An Internet connected home/home office network, consists of a variety of hardware and software
components.

In this tutorial we look at the various components that you need to create a computer network and
connect it to the Internet.

The technologies, components and services used in small home networks are the same (function
wise) as those used in large corporate networks.

Internet Connection Components and Functions

The diagram below shows a typical home or small office network layout.
DSL Modem–

This converts digital signals into analogue signals that are suitable for sending over a telephone
line. It is usually built into the Internet/broadband router and not normally purchased as a
separate component.

DSL/Broadband Filter

Used to filter out DSL signals from telephone signals so that you can access the internet and use
the telephone simultaneously.

Firewall and NAT Router

A firewall functions like a router except that it blocks traffic from the external network according
to user configured rules.

A firewall protects your home/small business network computers and devices from intruders on
the Internet.
It effectively acts like a one way digital gate blocking access to your network from devices on the
Internet, but at the same time allowing devices on your network to connect to devices on the
Internet. (schematic below)

Small networks use a firewall/NAT router combination in which a single device acts as a NAT router and
firewall.

NAT effectively isolates your home network from the Internet.

See Port forwarding and Internal and external IP Addresses.

Computer Firewalls –

If you are using Windows XP (or above) then you also will have firewall on your computer.

This firewall is less secure than the one built into your router/hub but it is normal to leave it enabled on
your computers.

When you install applications e.g. Skype you will find that they change the firewall settings.
Here is a short video explaining how the computer firewall works.

ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)-

Internet connection sharing allows you to share an Internet connection with other computers on a
Local/home Network.

It requires that one computer be designated as the sharing computer (the computer with the Internet
connection).

This computer functions effectively as a NAT Router, and must be left switched on for the other computers
to access the Internet.

This configuration is not normally used anymore.

General Networking Physical Components and Functions

Hubs,bridges and switches are all devices used to connect computers and other devices together on an
Ethernet network.
Network Hub

A hub connects two or more computers together (like switch in diagram above).

Hubs are effectively multi port repeaters and operate at the physical layer (level one). They do not examine
the network traffic. They are being replaced today by the switches. Smallest is usually 4 port.

Network Bridge

A bridge connects two network segments together and is a selective repeater. It examines the MAC address
of the traffic it sees and learns which network segments contain the various MAC address.

It uses this information to decide whether or not to repeat the traffic on a network segment.

A Bridge works at level 2 (data link Level) and will transmit broadcasts.

Bridges are also being replaced by switches

Network Switch

A switch Connects two or more computers together and used today in preference to a hub or bridge.
 Like a bridge a switch learns about MAC address connected to each port and will only send data on that
port that is addressed to those MAC addresses.

A switch is effectively a bridge with more ports.

Using switches usually speeds up a network but it depends on the network configuration. See the basic
networking tutorial

Wireless Access Point

A wireless access point connects wireless devices to an Ethernet network, and to each other.It effectively
does the same job as a hub/switch but for wireless devices.

Routers

A router connects networks together. Routers operate at the networking level of the TC protocol stack. On
Home networks the router is responsible for connecting the home network to the Internet and provides
several important networking services like:

• DHCP
• DNS

Most home routers provide both Wi-Fi and Ethernet connections.

Home routers also provide NAT (Network Address translation) services.

They are also commonly known as hubs but this doesn’t actually describe their networking role.
Wi-Fi Range Extender/Repeater
 Place in range of the existing Wireless network, and it will take the signal
from the network and rebroadcast it, thus increasing the range of the network.

Modern ones plug directly into a mains socket and require no other connections.

Mi-Fi -BroadBand Wi-FI Hub

A Mi-Fi Hub is a relatively new device, and it can be used for connecting multiple devices to the Internet
over the mobile network (3g and 4G).

Your devices connect to the hub using Wi-Fi and the Hub connects to the mobile network using 3G/4G .

Mi-Fi hubs are low cost ( around £20 to £40) and many will work hours without being connected to the
mains.
You will need a Sim and a mobile data plan. See 3G and $G Internet,

Homeplug Adaptor

These are Ethernet cards that plug directly into a mains socket, and use the mains wiring to carry the
Ethernet signal instead of using UTP cable.

You can also get ones that function as Wireless Access points which are used for extending a networks to
overcome range limitations of Wi-Fi.

See Homeplug adaptors and Powerline networking and extending a home network.

UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cables

Common cable for connecting Ethernet devices together.Ranges from cat5 to cat6.

Older Installations will use cat5 and newer ones cat6, which is designed for higher speeds.

Here is a good video covering the differences.

Addressing Internet address Consists of 4 bytes separated by periods Example: 136.102.233.49 -The R first
bytes (R= 1,2,3) correspond to the network address; -The remaining H bytes (H = 3,2,1) are used for the
host machine. -InterNIC Register: organization in charge of the allocation of the address ranges
corresponding to networks. -Criteria considered: → Geographical area (country) → Organization, enter 4
Ports -An IP address identifies a host machine on the Internet. -An IP port will identify a specific application
running on an Internet host machine. -A port is identified by a number, the port number. -The number of
ports is not functionally limited, in contrast to serial communications where only 4 ports are allowed. There
are some port numbers which are dedicated for specific applications. Finger 79 Telnet 23 POP3 (email) 110
SMTP (e-mail) 25 Gopher 70 FTP 20 and 21 HTTP 80 Applications Port numbers 5 Data Transmission -
In modern networks, data are transferred using packet switching. -Messages are broken into units called
packets, and sent from one computer to the other. -At the destination, data are extracted from one or more
packets and used to reconstruct the original message. -Each packet has a maximum size, and consists of a
header and a data area. -The header contains the addresses of the source and destination computers and
sequencing information necessary to reassemble the message at the destination. 1001….101
00010000111…000000110001100
 CHAPTER – 3
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
 Research Methodology

The term “research” is often loosely defined and this used in similar way. This unfortunate
development results from a misconception about what is research. To properly understand what
research is, it is good to start with common misconception about research. First, fact transferable
is not research. Consider a typical high school research project. The teacher assigns a “research
project” on some topic. The student went to the library, checked out several books, and might have
copied several pertinent pages form the book. The typical student organized collected information
and wrote up the “research report”. What these students did is information gathering and
organization; it is nothing more or nothing less. No doubt the student went through some motions
associated with research. But findings facts and fact transferable alone is not research. Transfer of
information from one source, namely books and pertinent pages, to another source, namely the so
called research report, is nothing more than fact transferable but not research. To my distress I find
many college student repeat this same mistake by submitting a “research report” which is nothing
but fact transferable from one source to their report.

“I have Primary and secondary data used exploratory research during my project.”

TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows-

 Descriptive Research
 Exploratory Research
 Experimental Research
 Fundamental Research
 Conceptual Research

“I have used exploratory research during my project.”

Research Area:-

To find out & recommend Competency based Search & Selection criteria for roles in recruiting
firm..

Sample Roles for Research:-

a) Head – It provides emplyoment to people by conducting the interviews in India.
b) Area HR Manager Role for a Recuiting Firm in India.

Research Design:-

The research design opted for the above study is Exploratory and Descriptive in nature. Study is
descriptive as it entails the process of finding out the competencies

Universe & Sample Size:-

a) 15 Working Executives employed in the domain of different industry.

b) 15 Working Executives employed in the domain of different management areas of

Industry. Research Problem:-

To identify key areas of skills / competencies that candidates must possess to secure the following
positions with any corporate of repute in Industry:

Sampling Technique:- Convenient sampling

Data Collection and Sources: Data is collected through primary and secondary sources where
primary data collection was done by structured questionnaire and secondary data was collected
from magazines, newspaper, books, etc.

Overview of the Process:-

- Position Profiling :- To assess the positions at hand w.r.t to the following factors :_

a) Understand the Job Description for the individual roles at hand.

 b) Understand Key deliverables specified by the company for the respective
positions.

c) Identify key competencies required in the prospective candidate

d) Fix up on the screening & assessment criteria.
e) Fix up on the tools of Assessment to be used.

- Data mining for the respective positions from the available databases.
- Screening: - Screening and finally short listing a set of approx 20 candidates for each role.
- Telephonic Evaluations: - First round of telephonic evaluations to check the exact fitment
of the candidate w.r.t the roles at hand and the culture of the client organization.

- One on One Interactions:-Personal Meetings with the candidates who could make
through the Telephonic evaluation rounds.

- Video Interactions: - Skype or Video Interactions with the candidates who were based out
of station.

- Recommendations:-Recommendation of the finally shortlisted candidates to the client

organization.

-
- DATA COLLECTION

The availability and quality of data is mainly dependent on the source of data. The data for the
survey will be conducted from both primary and secondary sources. These are describing as
follows –

PRIMARY DATA – The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time
and thus happen to be original in character.

The sources of collecting the primary data are –

 Personal Interview
 Questionnaire
 Information received through local agencies
 SECONDARY DATA – Secondary data are those which have already been collected by some
other agency. The sources of collecting secondary data are –

 Journal, Newspaper
 Observation

OBJECTIVES:

Right from the day of computer automation, a computer has developed computer in each department.
For example, the task can be to keep of track off inventories, monitor productivity and maintain
accounts. Initially, this computer in different department works as an isolation from other computer.
These provided the necessary computer assistance in the activities pertaining to the respective
department. It was not possible to share information among the departments. As a result, the
information was replicated wherever needed. This increased redundancy caused increased in storage
space, less data consistency etc.

Hence, at a point it was decided to connect the computers in various departments to extract the
information and correlate information about the entire company. The following are the objectives of
the computer networks.

1. Resource sharing is the main objective of the computer network. The goal is to provide all the
program, date and hardware is available to everyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the users.

2. The second objective is to provide the high Reliability. It is achieved by replicating the files on two
or more machines, so in case of unavailability (due to fail of hardware) the other copies can be used.

3. Computer organization has helped organization in saving money. This is due to the fact that the
small computer has much better price to the performance ratio comparison than the large computer
like mainframe. Mainframe computer are approximately ten times faster that the microcomputers, but
they cost thousands times more. As a result of this imbalance, organization has preferred to install
interconnected microcomputer connected to the mainframe computer.
4. Computer network have provided means to increase system performance as the work load increases
(load balancing). In the days of mainframe when the system was full it was to replace with the other
large mainframe computer, usually at and expensive rate not convenience for user.

5. Computer network help people who live or work apart to report together. So, when one user
prepared some documentation, he can make the document online enabling other to read and convey
their opinions. Thus computer network is a powerful communication medium.

6. Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Users are authenticated by their
user name and password. Hence it is not possible to access the data without proper account. This
increases security.

SCOPES:

The scope of networks refers to its geographical size. A network can range in size from just a few
computers in one office to thousands of computers linked together over great distances.

Network scope is determined by the size of the organization or the distance between users on the
network. The scope determines how the network is designed and what physical components are used
in its construction.

There are two general types of network scope;

  Local area networks.
 Wide area networks.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

A local area network (LAN) connects computers that are located near eachother.

For example, two computers connected together in an office or two buildings connected together by a
high-speed wire can be considered a LAN. A corporate network that includes several adjacent
buildings can also be considered a LAN.

WIDE AREA NETWORK

A wide area network (WAN) connects a number of computers located at a greater distance from one
another.

For example, two or more computers connecting opposite sides of the world is considered a WAN. A
WAN can be made up of a number of interconnected LANs. For example , the internet is really a
WAN.
LIMITATIONS:

Following are some of the major limitations of computer networks.

 Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security
issues involved. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for
any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can
get unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various
network security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and
classified data.
 Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets
affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected
too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the interconnectivity of
workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the computers have important database
which can get corrupted by the virus.
 Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending
on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches,
hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network. He
will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in
case they are not inbuilt.
 Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a computer
network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File
Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it expensive.
 CHAPTER – 4
DATA ANALYSIS
AND
INTERPRETATION
 The system, currently tailored to scanning probe microscopy image data, has been
developed to permit the use of software algorithms developed within our laboratory by
researchers throughout the world. The implementation and functionality of the scanning
probe microscopy server is described. Feedback from users of the facility has demonstrated
its value within the research community, and highlighted key operational issues which are
to be addressed. A future role of Internet-based data processing software is also discussed.

A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices.
Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each
other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into sent and received
messages. Some protocols also support message acknowledgment and data compression designed
for reliable and/or high-performance network communication.

Modern protocols for computer networking all generally use packet switchingtechniques to send
and receive messages in the form of packets — messages subdivided into pieces that are collected
and reassembled at their destination. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been
developed, each designed for specific purposes and environments.

Internet Protocols

The Internet Protocol (IP) family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used)
network protocols. Beside Internet Protocol itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP,
and FTP all integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet
Protocols like ARP and ICMP also coexist with IP. In general, higher-level protocols in the IP
family interact more closely with applications like web browsers, while lower-level protocols
interact with network adapters and other computer hardware.

Wireless Network Protocols

Thanks to Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and LTE, wireless networks have become commonplace. Network
protocols designed for use on wireless networks must support roaming mobile devices and deal
with issues such as variable data rates and network security.
Network Routing Protocols

Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers
on the internet. A routing protocol can identify other routers, manage the pathways (called routes)
between sources and destinations of network messages, and make dynamic routing decisions.
Common routing protocols include EIGRP, OSPF, and BGP.

How Network Protocols Are Implemented

Modern operating systems contain built-in software services that implement support for some
network protocols. Applications like web browsers contain software libraries that support the high-
level protocols necessary for that application to function. For some lowerlevel TCP/IP and routing
protocols, support is implemented in direct hardware (silicon chipsets) for improved performance.

Each packet transmitted and received over a network contains binary data (ones and zeros that
encode the contents of each message). Most protocols add a small header at the beginning of each
packet to store information about the message's sender and its intended destination. Some protocols
also add a footer at the end. Each network protocol has the ability to identify messages of its own
kind and process the headers and footers as part of moving data among devices.

Switches, routers, and wireless access points

Switches, routers, and wireless access points perform very different functions in a network.
Switches
Switches are the foundation of most business networks. A switch acts as a controller, connecting
computers, printers, and servers to a network in a building or a campus.

Switches allow devices on your network to communicate with each other, as well as with other
networks, creating a network of shared resources. Through information sharing and resource
allocation, switches save money and increase productivity.
There are two basic types of switches to choose from as part of your networking basics: managed
and unmanaged.
• An unmanaged switch works out of the box but can't be configured. Home-networking
equipment typically offers unmanaged switches.

• A managed switch can be configured. You can monitor and adjust a managed switch locally
or remotely, giving you greater control over network traffic and access.

Routers
Routers connect multiple networks together. They also connect computers on those networks to
the Internet. Routers enable all networked computers to share a single Internet connection, which
saves money.

A router acts a dispatcher. It analyzes data being sent across a network, chooses the best route for
data to travel, and sends it on its way.

Routers connect your business to the world, protect information from security threats, and can even
decide which computers receive priority over others.

Beyond those basic networking functions, routers come with additional features to make
networking easier or more secure. Depending on your needs, for example, you can choose a router
with a firewall, a virtual private network (VPN), or an Internet Protocol (IP) communications
system.

Access points
An access point* allows devices to connect to the wireless network without cables. A wireless
network makes it easy to bring new devices online and provides flexible support to mobile
workers.

An access point acts like an amplifier for your network. While a router provides the bandwidth, an
access point extends that bandwidth so that the network can support many devices, and those
devices can access the network from farther away.

But an access point does more than simply extend Wi-Fi. It can also give useful data about the
devices on the network, provide proactive security, and serve many other practical purposes.
*Access points support different IEEE standards. Each standard is an amendment that was ratified
over time. The standards operate on varying frequencies, deliver different bandwidth, and support
different numbers of channels. Wireless networking

To create your wireless network, you can choose between four types of deployment. Each
deployment has attributes that will work better for different solutions.

Cisco Mobility Express

Mobility Express is a simple, high-performance wireless solution for small or medium-sized

organizations. It has the full complement of advanced Cisco features, which are preconfigured
with Cisco best practices. The defaults allow for a quick and effortless Wi-Fi deployment that can
be operational in minutes. It's perfect for small businesses' basic networking. Centralized
deployment

The most common type of wireless network system, centralized deployments are traditionally used
in campuses where buildings and networks are in close proximity. This deployment consolidates
the wireless network, which makes upgrades easier and facilitates advanced wireless functionality.

Controllers are based on-premises and are installed in a centralized location.

Converged deployment

For small campuses or branch offices, converged deployments offer consistency in wireless and
wired connections. This deployment converges wired and wireless on one network device--an
access switch--and performs the dual role of both switch and wireless controller.

Cloud-based deployment

This system uses the cloud to manage network devices deployed on-premises at different locations.
The solution requires Cisco Meraki cloud-managed devices, which provide full visibility of the
network through their dashboards.
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION
A network is two or more computers connected together using a telecommunication system for the
purpose of communicating and sharing resources. Without having a network, Companies would
not be able to share resources and increase productivity more effectively. The WAN network
allowed companies to use the Internet over large areas. This provided the company tohave
meetings overseas by video conferencing and sharing data over the network. As you can see,
Networks have many benefits to the end user. Weather your Network is Wired or Wireless,
Networks arean important part of technology.

The evolution of information technology reached a turning point with the development of the
Internet. Once a government project, the Internet was created for military purposes. Through the
course of its development, researchers began finding other uses for the network, and use of the
technology spread worldwide. Access to the Internet today by individuals, businesses, and
institutions alike has created a global market for Internet service and has spurned an increase in
productivity in the technological communication field.

Our research compares Internet development, access, and use in the United States and Russia. Our
surveys proves our prediction that access to the

Internet in Russia is limited compared to the access exercised by American users. A condition
resulting from world relations during the early development of the Internet, access in Russia is
increasing with 5.4 million people currently able to access the service. However, in the midst of
the global rush to embrace the Internet, some concerns have been raised regarding personal,
business, and government access, and the nature of information being transmitted across the
information superhighway.

Unfortunately, in addition to the educational, commercial, personal, and governmental uses of the
Internet, global use of the Internet also includes Internet fraud, transmitting of illegal items, and
certain forms of harassment.
As we venture farther into the Information Age, the nature of life is evidence that future global
development will undoubtedly depend on technological advances, particularly in communications.
Understanding the underlying reasons certain types of technologies are in use today plays an
important part in the overall use of technology. In addition, although the importance of these
advances might be obvious, true comprehension of a particular kind of technology lies in the full
experience of the machine in question. Advances made in the technology of the Internet have
continued to dazzle its spectators, obstructing comprehension of its origin and initial uses. These
phenomena might be due to the rapid change of technology, and the pace at which individuals and
businesses are becoming dependent on them. At any rate, the technological movement will
continue to evolve, and since it is evident that a complete understanding of technology is
unnecessary for its utilization, only those who lack access will be left behind.
 CHAPTER- 6
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