REPORT

ON

Introduction to Networks
(ITN)
BY
Student's Name: KHYATI DHAWAN
Roll No.21CSU047

To

DR. SHRUTIMITA MEHTA

DY. DEAN STUDENTS
HOD CENTRE FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING

12 June 2023

REF NO: CSE/2023/0001

THE NORTHCAP UNIVERSITY

HUDA SECTOR 23A GURUGRAM-122017

pg. 1
©2022 NCU Sector 23-A HUDA Gurgaon

All rights reserved. No part of this report may be produced in any form or by any any means without
permission in writing publisher.

pg. 2
 FORWARDING LETTER
Dear Ma'am/Sir

I Khyati Dhawan would like to present my Report on the topic

"Library Management System”. extend our sincere and heartfelt
thanks to our esteemed guide, Mr. Sumit Kumar and Mr.Amar Kumar
Jha , for providing me with the right guidance and advice at the
crucial junctures and for showing me the right way. We would
like to thank our friends and family for the support and
encouragement they have given us during the course of our work .

I hope my Report will leave a positive impact.

Yours sincerely,

Khyati Dhawan

pg. 3
 PREFACE
I want you to take interest in my e-Library Management System
Project and my learnings. As it will help you to get an insight into the
technical world. The full process starting from idea conceptualization
and till implementation will be very helpful especially if you are a
fresher.

pg. 4
 CONTENTS

S.no. Topics covered Page

no.
1. Acknowledgment Done
2. Abstract Done
3. Introduction to the course Done
 Course Overview 3.1
 Student Resources 3.2

4. Networking as a whole (Practical: downloading packet Done

tracer)
 Network connect us
 Network components
 Network Representations and Topologies
 Common Types of Networks
 Internet Connections
 Reliable Networks
 Network Trends
 Network Security
 The It Professional
 Summary

5. Basic Switch and End Device Configuration

 Cisco IOS Navigation
 Command Structure
 Basic Device Configuration
 Save Configurations
 IP Addressing
 Configure IP Addressing
 Summary

6. Protocols and Models

 Protocols
 Reference Models
 Data Encapsulation

7. Basic Router Configuration and Router Interface

Configuration
8. Final Project

pg. 5
  Problem Statement
 Implementation
 Network
 Analysis
 Conclusion

9. Syntax Checker (Helped in practicing queries)

10. Bibliography
11. Appendix
12. Internship Certificate

pg. 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express my deepest thanks to the members of the

faculty of my institute for their encouragement ,constantly taking part
in useful decision & giving necessary advice and guidance Also
thanking them for arranging all facilities needed.

I perceive this opportunity as a big milestone in my career

development. will strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the
best possible way in order to attain desired career objectives.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and friends who

helped me a lot in finalising this project with in the limited time
frame. Also their constant encouragement kept my spirit high
throughout , which helped me in completing this project on time.

pg. 7
 Abstract
World changers aren't born. They are made.

Computer networks have a significant impact on the working of an

organization. Universities depend on the proper functioning and
analysis of their networks for education, administration,
communication, e-library, automation, etc. An efficient network is
essential to facilitate the systematic and cost-efficient transfer of
information in an organization in the form of messages, files, and
resources. This course introduces the architecture, structure, functions,
components, and models of the Internet and other computer networks.
The principles and structure of IP addressing and the fundamentals of
Ethernet concepts, media, and operations are introduced to provide a
foundation for the curriculum. By the end of the course, students will
be able to build simple local area networks (LAN), perform basic
configurations for routers and switches, and implement IP addressing
schemes.

pg. 8
 Introduction

Course Overview:
This course introduces the architecture, structure, functions,
components, and models of the Internet and other computer
networks. The principles and structure of IP addressing and
the fundamentals of Ethernet concepts, media, and operations
are introduced to provide a foundation for the curriculum. By
the end of the course, students will be able to build simple
local area networks (LAN), perform basic configurations for
routers and switches, and implement IP addressing schemes.

In the course
module 1-3: connectivity and communication
module 4-7: ethernet
module 8-10: communication between networks
module 11-13: ip addressing basic concepts
module 14-15: network application communications
module 16-17: Building and securing a small network

pg. 9
 Student Resources

The best way to learn about networking is to do it!

In this course we have used packet tracer along side , to
perform the essential practical tasks in order to get a clear
view of the concept taught to us.
Cisco Packet Tracer, an innovative simulation and
visualization tool, helps you to practice networking, IoT and
cybersecurity skills from your desktop.

Use Cisco Packet Tracer to:

 Put your knowledge into practice
 Prepare for a certification exam
 Sharpen your skills for a job interview
Packet Tracer is an essential learning tool used for activities
and assessment in most Cisco Networking Academy courses.

On the netacad website the download link along with the

packet tracer course link is mentioned
Download https://www.netacad.com/portal//resources/packet-
link: tracer
Packet https://www.netacad.com/courses/packet-tracer
Tracer
course
link:

pg. 10
 Networking As A Whole

Networking Connect us
Communication is almost as important to us as our reliance on
air, water ,food and shelter .In today’s world, through the use
of networks, we are connected like never before.

Network Components

Host Roles
Every computer on a network is called a host or end
device.

Client and Server

Servers are computers that provide information to end

devices. Every computer on a network is called a host or
end device. A computing model where server software
runs on dedicated computers are called Servers:
 Email servers
 Web servers
 File servers
Clients are computers that send requests to the servers to
retrieve information:

pg. 11
  Web page form a web server
 Email form an email server

Peer to Peer network:

It is possible to have a device be a client and a server in a
Peer-to-Peer Network. This type of network design is
only recommended for very small networks.

One computer can be both client and server

Peer to Peer network:

An end device is where a message originates from or
where it is received. Data originates with an end device,
flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.

pg. 12
Intermediary Network Devices:
An intermediary device interconnects end devices.
Examples include switches, wireless access points,
routers, and firewalls.

Management of data as it flows through a network is also

the role of an intermediary device, including:

 Regenerate and retransmit data signals.

 Maintain information about what pathways exist in
the network.
 Notify other devices of errors and communication
failures.

pg. 13
Network Media:
Communication across a network is carried through a
medium which allows a message to travel from source to
destination.

Network Representations and Topologies

Network Diagrams:
Network diagrams, often called topology diagrams, use
symbols to represent devices within the network.
Important terms to know include:
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Physical Port
 Interface
Note: Often, the terms port and interface are used
interchangeably.

pg. 14
Topology Diagrams:
Physical topology diagrams illustrate the physical
location of intermediary devices and cable installation.

pg. 15
 Logical topology diagrams illustrate devices, ports, and
the addressing scheme of the network.

Common Types of Networks

pg. 16
Networks of many Sizes:

Small Home Networks - connect a few computers to

each other and the Internet.

Small Office/Home Office (SOHO network) - enables

computer within a home or remote office to connect to a
corporate network.

Medium to Large Networks - many locations with

hundreds or thousands of interconnected computers

pg. 17
 World Wide Networks - connects hundreds of millions
of computers world- wide such as the internet.

LAN’s and WAN’s:

Network infrastructures vary greatly in terms of:
 Size of the area covered.
 Number of users connected.
 Number and types of services available.
 Area of responsibility.

Two most common types of networks:

 Local Area Network (LAN):
A LAN is a network infrastructure that spans a
small geographical area.

pg. 18
  Wide Area Network (WAN).
A WAN is a network infrastructure that spans a
wide geographical area.

The Internet:
The internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected
LANS and WANs.

pg. 19
  LANs are connected to each other using WANs.
 WANS may use copper wires, Fiber optic cables,
and wireless transmissions.
The internet is not owned by any individual or group.
The following groups were developed to help maintain
structure on the internet:
 IETF
 ICANN
 IAB

Intranets and Extranets:

An intranet is a private collection of LANS and WANs
internal to an organization that is meant to be accessible
only to the organization’s members or others with
authorization.

pg. 20
 An organization might use an extranet to provide secure
access to their network for individuals who work for a
different organization that need access to their data on
their network.

To install Packet Tracer Software:

Step1: Go to the netacad.com course module 1
And under resources category click on download packet
Tracer

pg. 21
Step 2: Scroll down and on the basis of the device select to
download.

Step 3: Now after the installation is completed. Click on it

and start the exe file. Select the I agree option and click next.

pg. 22
Step 4: Check the location and Proceed.

Step 5: Check the name and Proceed.

pg. 23
Step 6: Check on the icon creation Option and proceed.

Step 7: Now click on the install button and wait.

pg. 24
pg. 25
Packet Tracer -Network Representation:
Cisco Packet Tracer is a network simulation tool
developed by Cisco Systems. It is widely used for
educational and training purposes to learn and practice
networking concepts, design, and configuration. The
software provides a virtual environment where users can

pg. 26
 simulate and experiment with network configurations,
topology, and devices without the need for physical
hardware.
Key features of Cisco Packet Tracer include:
 Users can create virtual networks, connect devices
and configure them.
 Packet Tracer offers a user-friendly interface that
allows users to drag and drop devices and
connections.
 Simulation of Real Cisco Devices.
 Users can capture and analyse network traffic.
 Collaboration and Multi-User Support.

Reliable Networks
Network Architecture:
Network Architecture refers to the technologies that
support the infrastructure that moves data across the
network.
There are four basic characteristics that the underlying
architectures need to address to meet user expectations:
 Fault Tolerance
 Scalability
 Quality of Service (QoS)
 Security

pg. 27
Fault Tolerance:

pg. 28
 A fault tolerant network limits the impact of a failure by
limiting the number of affected devices. Multiple paths
are required for fault tolerance.

Reliable networks provide redundancy by implementing

a packet switched network:

 Packet switching splits traffic into packets that are

routed over a network.
 Each packet could theoretically take a different path
to the destination.

This is not possible with circuit-switched networks

which establish dedicated circuits.

Scalability:

pg. 29
 A scalable network can expand quickly and easily to
support new users and applications without impacting the
performance of services to existing users.

Network designers follow accepted standards and

protocols in order to make the networks scalable.

Quality of Service:
Voice and live video transmissions require higher
expectations for those services being delivered.

Have you ever watched a live video with constant breaks

and pauses? This is caused when there is a higher
demand for bandwidth than available - and QoS isn't
configured.

pg. 30
  Quality of Service (QoS) is the primary mechanism
used to ensure reliable delivery of content for all
users.
 With a QoS policy in place, the router can more
easily manage the flow of data and voice traffic.

Network Security:
There are two main types of network security that must
be addressed:
 Network infrastructure security
1. Physical security of network devices
2. Preventing unauthorized access to the
devices
 Information Security
1. Protection of the information or data
transmitted over the network.

pg. 31
 Three goals of network security:
 Confidentiality - only intended recipients can read
the data
 Integrity assurance that the data has not be altered
with during transmission
 Availability – assurance of timely and reliable
access to data for authorized users

Network Trends
Recent Trends:

pg. 32
 The role of the network must adjust and continually
transform in order to be able to keep up with new
technologies and end user devices as they constantly
come to the market.

Several new networking trends that effect organizations

and consumers:
 Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)
 Online collaboration
 Video communications
 Cloud computing

Network Security
Security Threats:

pg. 33
  Network security is an integral part of networking
regardless of the size of the network.
 The network security that is implemented must take
into account the environment while securing the
data, but still allowing for quality of service that is
expected of the network.
 Securing a network involves many protocols,
technologies, devices, tools, and techniques in order
to secure data and mitigate threats.

 Threat vectors might be external or internal.

pg. 34
Security Solutions:

Security must be implemented in multiple layers using

more than one security solution.

Network security components for home or small office

network:
 Antivirus and antispyware software should be
installed on end devices.

pg. 35
  Firewall filtering used to block unauthorized access
to the network.
Larger networks have additional security
requirements:
 Dedicated firewall system
 Access control lists (ACL)
 Intrusion prevention systems (IPS)
 Virtual private networks (VPN)
The study of network security starts with a clear
understanding of the underlying switching and routing
infrastructure.

pg. 36
 Basic Switch and End Device
Configuration in a nut shell

Cisco IOS Access

Operating Systems:
Shell - The user interface that allows users to request
specific tasks from the computer. These requests can be
made either through the CLI or GUI interfaces.

Kernel - Communicates between the hardware and

software of a computer and manages how hardware
resources are used to meet software requirements.

Hardware - The physical part of a computer including

underlying electronics.

pg. 37
GUI:
 A GUI allows the user to interact with the system
using an environment of graphical icons, menus,
and windows.
 A GUI is more user-friendly and requires less
knowledge of the underlying command structure
that controls the system.
 Examples of these are: Windows, macOS, Linux
KDE, Apple iOS and Android.
 GUIs can fail, crash, or simply not operate as
specified. For these reasons, network devices are
typically accessed through a CLI.

Purpose of an OS:

pg. 38
Cisco IOS Navigation

Primary Command Modes:

User EXEC Mode:
Terminal Allows access to only a limited number of
basic monitoring commands

Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the >

symbol

Privileged EXEC Mode:

Allows access to all commands and features

pg. 39
 Identified by the CLI prompt that ends with the #
symbol

Global Configuration Mode:

Allows Used to access configuration options on the
device

Line Configuration Mode:

Allows Used to configure console, SSH,Telnet or
AUX access

Interface configuration Mode:

Allows Used to configure a switch port or router
interface.

pg. 40
 Privileged EXEC Mode:
To move from user EXEC mode to privilege EXEC
mode, use the enabled command.

Global Configuration Mode:

To move in and out of global configuration mode,
use the configure terminal command. To return to
privilege EXEC mode, use the exit command.

Line Configuration Mode:

To move in and out of line configuration mode, use
the line command followed by the management line
type. To return to global configuration mode, use
the exit command.

Sub-configuration Modes:
To move out of any sub-configuration mode to get
back to global configuration mode, use the exit
command. To return to privilege EXEC mode, use
the end command or key combination Ctrl +Z.

pg. 41
 To move directly from one sub-configuration mode
to another, type in the desired sub-configuration
mode command. In the example, the command
prompt changes from (config-line)# to (config-if)#.

The Command Structure:

The basic IOS Command Structure

Keyword - This is a specific parameter defined in the

operating system (in the figure, IP protocols).

Argument - This is not predefined; it is a value or

variable defined by the user (in the figure, 192.168.10.5).

IOS Command Syntax Check

A command might require one or more arguments. To
determine the keywords and arguments required for a
command, refer to the command syntax.
 Boldface text indicates commands and keywords
that are entered as shown.

pg. 42
  Italic text indicates an argument for which the user
provides the value.

 The command syntax provides the pattern, or

format, that must be used when entering a
command.
 The command is ping and the user-defined
argument is the IP-address of the destination device.
For example, ping 10.10.10.5.

 The command is traceroute and the user-defined

argument is the IP- address of the destination
device. For example, traceroute 192.168.254.254.

 If a command is complex with multiple arguments,

you may see it represented like this:

pg. 43
IOS Help Features
The IOS has two forms of help available: context-
sensitive help and command syntax check.

Context-sensitive help enables you to quickly find

answers to these questions:

 Which commands are available in each command

mode?
 Which commands start with specific characters or
group of characters?
 Which arguments and keywords are available to
particular commands?

Command syntax check verifies that a valid command

was entered by the user.
 If the interpreter cannot understand the command
being entered, it will provide feedback describing
what is wrong with the command.

pg. 44
Hot Keys and Shortcuts
 The IOS CLI provides hot keys and shortcuts that
make configuring, monitoring, and troubleshooting
easier.

 Commands and keywords can be shortened to the

minimum number of characters that identify a
unique selection. For example, the configure
command can be shortened to conf because
configure is the only command that begins with
conf.

The table below is a brief list of keystrokes to enhance

command line editing.

The table below describes the keystrokes that can be

used when this prompt is displayed.

pg. 45
 The table below lists commands that can be used to
exit out of an operation.

Basic Device Configuration:

Device Names
 The first configuration command on any device
should be to give it a unique hostname.
 By default, all devices are assigned a factory default
name. For example, a Cisco IOS switch is "Switch."
 Guideline for naming devices:
o Start with a letter

pg. 46
 o Contain no spaces
o End with a letter or digit
o Use only letters, digits, and dashes
o Be less than 64 characters in length

Password Guidelines:
 The use of weak or easily guessed passwords are a
security concern.
 All networking devices should limit administrative
access by securing privileged EXEC, user EXEC, and
remote Telnet access with passwords. In addition, all
passwords should be encrypted and legal notifications
provided.
 Password Guidelines:
1) Use passwords that are more than eight characters
in length.
2) Use a combination of upper and lowercase letters,
numbers, special characters, and/or numeric
sequences.
3) Avoid using the same password for all devices.
4) Do not use common words because they are
easily guessed.

pg. 47
Configure Passwords:
Securing user EXEC mode access:
 First enter line console configuration mode using
the line console 0 command in global configuration
mode.
 Next, specify the user EXEC mode password using
the password password command.
 Finally, enable user EXEC access using the Login
command.

Securing priviledged EXEC mode access:

 First enter global configuration mode.

pg. 48
  Next. Use the enable secret password command.

Encrypt Passwords:
 The startup-config and running-config files display most
passwords in plaintext.
 To encrypt all plaintext passwords, use the service
password-encryption global config command.

 Use the show running-config command to verify that the

passwords on the device. are now encrypted.

Banner Messages:

pg. 49
  A banner message is important to warn unauthorized
personnel from attempting to access the device.

 To create a banner message of the day on a network

device, use the banner motd # the message of the day #
global config command.

Note: The "#" in the command syntax is called the

delimiting character. It is entered before and after the
message.

Save Configurations:
Configuration Files:
There are two system files that store the device
configuration:
 startup-config - This is the saved configuration file
that is stored in NVRAM. It contains all the
commands that will be used by the device upon

pg. 50
 startup or reboot. Flash does not lose its contents
when the device is powered off.

 running-config - This is stored in Random Access

Memory (RAM). It reflects the current
configuration. Modifying a running configuration
affects the operation of a Cisco device immediately.
RAM is volatile memory. It loses all of its content
when the device is powered off or restarted.

 To save changes made to the running configuration

to the startup configuration file, use the copy
running-config startup-config privileged EXEC
mode command.

pg. 51
Switch Interface Configuration for end devices:
To access the switch remotely, an IP address and a subnet
mask must be configured on the SVI.
To configure an SVI on a switch:
 Enter the interface vlan 1 command in global
configuration mode.
 Next assign an IPv4 address using the ip address ip-
address subnet-mask command.
 Finally, enable the virtual interface using the no
shutdown command.

LAB Activity: 2.7.3

Packet Tracer - Implement Basic Connectivity

Addressing Table
Device Interface IP Address Subnet Mask

S1 VLAN 1 192.168.1.253 255.255.255.0

pg. 52
 S2 VLAN 1 192.168.1.254 255.255.255.0
PC1 NIC 192.168.1.1 255.255.255.0
PC2 NIC 192.168.1.2 255.255.255.0
Objectives
Part 1: Perform a Basic Configuration on S1 and S2
Part 2: Configure the PCs
Part 3: Configure the Switch Management Interface

Background
In this activity, you will first create a basic switch configuration. Then, you will implement basic
connectivity by configuring IP addressing on switches and PCs. When the IP addressing
configuration is complete, you will use various show commands to verify the configuration and
use the ping command to verify basic connectivity between devices.

Instructions Part 1: Perform a Basic Configuration on S1 and S2

Complete the following steps on S1 and S2.

Step 1: Configure S1 with a hostname.

a. Click S1 and then click the CLI tab.
b. Enter the correct command to configure the hostname as S1.

pg. 53
Step 2: Configure the console and encrypted privileged EXEC mode passwords.
a. Use cisco for the console password.
(Go to line console 0 to change password of the console)

b. Use class for the privileged EXEC mode password.

pg. 54
Step 3: Verify the password configurations for S1.
Question:

How can you verify that both passwords were configured correctly?

Priviledge access mode by typing enable:

pg. 55
 Checking by using a short command:

pg. 56
 Type your answers here.
Packet Tracer - Implement Basic Connectivity

Step 4: Configure an MOTD banner.

Use an appropriate banner text to warn unauthorized access. The following text is an example:

Authorized access only. Violators will be prosecuted to the full extent of the law.

pg. 57
Step 5: Save the configuration file to NVRAM.
Question:

Which command do you issue to accomplish this step?

Type your answers here.

Step 6: Repeat Steps 1 to 5 for S2.

pg. 58
pg. 59
pg. 60
pg. 61
pg. 62
Part 2: Configure the PCs
Configure PC1 and PC2 with IP addresses.

Step 1: Configure both PCs with IP addresses.

a. Click PC1 and then click the Desktop tab.
b. Click IP Configuration. In the Addressing Table above, you can see that the IP address for PC1
is 192.168.1.1 and the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0. Enter this information for PC1 in the IP
Configuration window.

c. Repeat steps 1a and 1b for PC2.

pg. 63
Step 2: Test connectivity to switches.
a. Click PC1. Close the IP Configuration window if it is still open. In the Desktop tab, click
Command Prompt.
b. Type the ping command and the IP address for S1 and press Enter.
Packet Tracer PC Command
Line 1.0 PC> ping
192.168.1.253
Question:

Were you successful? Explain.

Ans: No it was not . No Ip address was provided to any of the switches

Type your answers here.

Part 3: Configure the Switch Management Interface

Configure S1 and S2 with an IP address.

Step 1: Configure S1 with an IP address.

Switches can be used as plug-and-play devices. This means that they do not need to be
configured for them to work. Switches forward information from one port to another based on
MAC addresses.
Question:

If this is the case, why would we configure it with an IP address?

Type your answers here.

Use the following commands to configure S1 with an IP address.

pg. 64
 S1# configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Packet Tracer - Implement Basic Connectivity

S1(config)# interface vlan 1

S1(config-if)# ip address 192.168.1.253 255.255.255.0
S1(config-if)# no shutdown
%LINEPROTO-5-UPDOWN: Line protocol on Interface Vlan1, changed
state to up
S1(config-if)#
S1(config-
if)# exit S1#
Question:

Why do you enter the no shutdown command?

Type your answers here.

Step 2: Configure S2 with an IP address.

Use the information in the Addressing Table to configure S2 with an IP address.

pg. 65
Step 3: Verify the IP address configuration on S1 and S2.
Use the show ip interface brief command to display the IP address and status of all the switch
ports and interfaces. You can also use the show running-config command.

First Switch Verification done:

pg. 66
 Similarly, Second Switch:

pg. 67
Step 4: Save configurations for S1 and S2 to NVRAM.
Question:

Which command is used to save the configuration file in RAM to NVRAM?

pg. 68
 Type your answers here.

Step 5: Verify network connectivity.

Network connectivity can be verified using the ping command. It is very important that
connectivity exists throughout the network. Corrective action must be taken if there is a failure.
Ping S1 and S2 from PC1 and PC2.

a. Click PC1 and then click the Desktop tab.

b. Click Command Prompt.
c. Ping the IP address for PC2.

pg. 69
 d. Ping the IP address for S1.

e. Ping the IP address for S2.

Note: You can also use the ping command on the switch CLI and on PC2.

All pings should be successful. If your first ping result is 80%, try again. It should now be 100%.
You will learn why a ping may sometimes fail the first time later in your studies. If you are unable
to ping any of the devices, recheck your configuration for errors.

pg. 70
 Protocols and Models
The Rules:
Communication Fundamentals:
Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to
have a connection, devices must agree on "how" to
communicate.
There are three elements to any communication:
 There will be a source (sender).
 There will be a destination (receiver).
 There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path
of communications to Occur.
Communication Protocols:
 All communications are governed by protocols.
 These rules will vary depending on the protocol.
 Protocols are the rules that communications will follow
Rule Establishment:
 Individuals must use established rules or agreements to
govern the conversation.
 The first message is difficult to read because it is not
formatted properly. The second shows the message
properly formatted.

pg. 71
 Protocols must account for the following requirements:
 An identified sender and receiver
 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

Protocols:
Definition:
Set of rules to ensure successful host-to-host
communication.
Network Protocols Overview:
Network protocols define a common set of rules.
Can be implemented on devices in:
 Software
 Hardware
 Both
Protocols have their own:
 Function
 Format
 Rules

Network Protocols Functions:

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  Devices use agreed-upon protocols to communicate.
 Protocols may have one or functions.

Model:
The benefits of using Layered Model:
Complex concepts such as how a network operates can be
difficult to explain and understand. For this reason, a layered
model is used.
Two layered models describe network operations:
 Open System Interconnection (OSI Reference Model)
 TCP/IP Reference Model
These are the benefits of using a layered model:
 Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate
at a specific layer have defined information that they act
upon and a defined interface to the layers above and
below
 Foster competition because products from different
vendors can work together
 Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer
from affecting other layers above and below

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  Provide a common language to describe networking
functions and capabilities
The OSI Referenced Model:
 It is a seven-layer conceptual model
 Developed by ISO in 1984
 Describes standards for inter- computer communication
 Helps you to break down Network Functions –
Troubleshooting
 Creates standards for equipment manufacturing
 Allows vendors to focus in specialized areas of the
network

The TCP/IP Referenced Model:

The TCP/IP Model vs The OSI Model:

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The OSI model divides the network access layer and the
application layer of the TCP/IP model into multiple layers.
 The TCP/IP protocol suite does not specify which
protocols to use when transmitting over a physical
medium.
 OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary procedures to
access the media and the physical means to send data
over a network.

Data Encapsulation:
Segmenting Messages:
Segmenting is the process of breaking up messages into
smaller units. Multiplexing is the processes of taking multiple
streams of segmented data and interleaving them together.
Segmenting messages has two primary benefits:

pg. 75
  Increases speed - Large amounts of data can be sent over
the network without tying up a communications link.
 Increases efficiency - Only segments which fail to reach
the destination need to be retransmitted, not the entire
data stream.

Sequencing:
Sequencing messages is the process of numbering the
segments so that the message may be reassembled at the
destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing the individual segments.

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Protocol Data Units:
Encapsulation is the process where protocols add their
information to the data.
 At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name
to reflect its new functions.
 There is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in
this course, the PDUs are named according to the
protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
 PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:

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 Basic Router Configuration Steps

Router Interface Configuration Steps

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pg. 79
 Final Project
Problem Statement:
As a part of skill development through CCNA, I did a project
on building a Campus network. The goal of this project was to
understand how different networks work, how messages or
packets flow from one network to another.

Implementation:
To implement the Campus network design, different
networking device were used, those devices are Cisco
PT-Router, 2960 switch, Server-PT (Email, Web, and
DNS), PC-PT, Laptop-PT, Printer-PT. Copper Straight-
Through cable and Serial DTE cable were also included
in this design.
Furthermore, table 1 elaborates more about the devices.

NO. DEVICE FUNCTION

1 PT-Router Core connection

2 2960 switch Department connection

3 Server-PT Providing Email, Web and DNS services

4 PC-PT User Access

5 Laptop-PT User Access

6 Printer-PT User Access

7 Copper Straight- LAN connectivity

Through cable

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 8 Serial DTE cable Connecting routes

Network:

Figure 1: Campus Network

Figure 2: Campus Network (Partial View)

pg. 81
 Figure 3: Campus Network (Partial View)

Analysis:

This training was really helpful to me in understanding

the fundamentals of networking, how end devices
actually connect, and how to set up network hardware
such switches, routers, servers, etc. I am able to
comprehend IP addressing, Subnetting, network
protocols, security, routing, network media, and the
fundamentals of Ethernet technology. The Cisco Packet
Tracer is very useful for visualizing network
communication.
In order to build a solid profession out of this training, I
would like to investigate computer networks more in the
future. It was a wonderful chance to put my adaptability
and time management abilities to the test. Through this
program, I learned how important it is to have a positive
attitude and be willing to pick up new skills, complete
duties, and be curious to learn and ask questions.

By finishing the assigned activities ahead of time and

using the spare time to read about and research topics
that interested me, I substantially improved my time
management skills. I was able to collaborate with others

pg. 82
 on the project, which increased our effectiveness and
productivity. I want to ask a lot of questions and
concentrate on improving my communication abilities. I
came to understand that being curious and asking
questions enable one to learn a variety of facts about
many subjects. All of these abilities and knowledge will
serve me well in my future job.

Conclusion:
Curious and asking My training internship program was,
all in all, a worthwhile educational opportunity. I was
able to expand my knowledge of networking and acquire
new abilities in the process. It expanded my knowledge
of networking, a few of the technologies employed, as
well as how to carry out specific tasks, work on projects,
etc. It was enjoyable to go through this program, and I
intend to use my experience to the fullest in my future
endeavours.

pg. 83
 Syntax Checker
Switching Between Ios Modes

pg. 84
 Basic Device Configuration

pg. 85
pg. 86
 Verify Windows PC IP Configuration

Configure a Switch Virtual Interface

Configure Initial Router Settings

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pg. 88
 Configure Interfaces

pg. 89
 Configure the Default Gateway

pg. 90
pg. 91
 Appendix

Project Daily Task

Date Day Work
19th June 2023 Monday The first day of the training was a very exciting
experience. We were introduced to the cisco netacad
website and were given a detailed introduction to the
course and what we will be learning. We were taught the
basics of a network, its components, topologies etc. We
then downloaded and installed cisco packet tracer.

21th June 2023 Wednesday We learnt about fundamentals of communication,

network protocol requirements and the process of
sending a message from encoding it, to the format, size,
timing, delivery etc.

26th June 2023 Monday We learnt about Cisco IOS and different end devices
along with their configuration. In this class, we started
working with cisco packet tracer and were made familiar
with how it works.

We were given the task to implement basic network

connectivity on the packet tracer. We first created a basic
switch configuration and then configured IP addressing
on switches and PCs. We used various show commands
to verify the configuration and used the ping command
to verify basic connectivity between devices.

We also practiced number systems.

27th June 2023 Tuesday We went over the configuration commands and modes
again in detail. We started with physical layer of the OSI

pg. 92
 model, its characteristics, cabling and wireless media.

28th June 2023 Wednesday We learnt about data link layer of the OSI model and its
importance. We also learnt about topologies used in
LAN and WAN networks. Finally, we learnt about data
link frame.

30th June 2023 Friday We learnt about Ethernet and Ethernet switching. We
learnt in detail about MAC address and MAC address
table.

We were given the task to view the switch MAC address

table in cisco packet tracer. We built a multi-switch
topology with a trunk linking the two switches. Then we
used the ping command to ping various devices and
observe how the two switches build their MAC address
tables.

We also started learning about the network layer, its

characteristics, how IPv4 and IPv6 work, and were
introduced to routing.

3th July 2023 Monday We were introduced to address resolution and how IP
addresses of the IP packets in a data flow associated with
the MAC addresses on each link along the path to the
destination. We also learnt about ARP and Neighbour
Discovery.

We worked on the task of examining the ARP table by

gathering PDU information in simulation mode. We also
examined the ARP process in remote communications.

pg. 93
5th July 2023 Wednesday We learnt about the basic router configuration which
included configuring initial router settings, interfaces and
the default gateway.

We then worked on the task of performing basic router

configuration tasks. We secured access to the CLI and
console port using encrypted and plain-text passwords.
Then, we configure messages or banners for users who
are logging into the router. Finally, we verified and
saved the running configuration.

7th July 2023 Friday We started with IPv4 addressing. We learnt about the
addressing structure along with IPv4 unicast, broadcast
and multicast. We also learnt about network
segmentation, subnetting, VLSM and structured design.

10th July 2023 Monday We started with IPv6 addressing. We first learn about the
issues with IPv4 and why IPv6 was introduced. We then
learnt the IPv6 Address Representation, IPv6 Address
Types, GUA and LLA Static Configuration, Dynamic
Addressing for IPv6 GUAs, Dynamic Addressing for
IPv6 LLAs, IPv6 Multicast Addresses along with
subnetting in an IPv6 network.

12th July 2023 Wednesday We started with the transport layer of the OSI model. We
learnt about its role and how data is transported. We
were also given an overview of TCP and UDP, how they
use port numbers to manage multiple simultaneous
conversations along with TCP communication process
and UDP communication.

pg. 94
13th July 2023 Thursday We started with the application layer of the OSI model
along with the presentation and session layers. We learnt
about their roles, protocols of application layer, peer to
peer networks, web and email protocols, IP addressing
services and file sharing services.

14th July 2023 Friday We studied about the network security fundamentals.
This included security threats and vulnerabilities,
network attacks, attack mitigations and device security.
We were given the task of experimenting and learning
how to build a small network on our own with the help
of the information given by the last module of the course
and everything that was taught to us so far.

pg. 95
 Certificate of Internship

pg. 96
pg. 97
pg. 98
pg. 99