S4 Sociology

1.Society

According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common territory, interaction, and
culture. Social groups consist of two or more people who interact and identify with one
another.Territory: Most countries have formal boundaries and territory that the world
recognizes as theirs. However, a society’s boundaries don’t have to be geopolitical borders, such
as the one between the United States and Canada. Instead, members of a society, as well as
nonmembers, must recognize particular land as belonging to that society.Example: The society
of the Yanomamo has fluid but definable land boundaries. Located in a South American rain
forest, Yanamamo territory extends along the border of Brazil and Venezuela. While outsiders
would have a hard time determining where Yanomamo land begins and ends, the Yanomamo
and their neighbors have no trouble discerning which land is theirs and which is not.Interaction:
Members of a society must come in contact with one another. If a group of people within a
country has no regular contact with another group, those groups cannot be considered part of the
same society. Geographic distance and language barriers can separate societies within a
country.Example: Although Islam was practiced in both parts of the country, the residents of
East Pakistan spoke Bengali, while the residents of West Pakistan spoke Urdu. Geographic
distance, language differences, and other factors proved insurmountable. In 1971, the nation split
into two countries, with West Pakistan assuming the name Pakistan and East Pakistan becoming
Bangladesh. Within each newly formed society, people had a common culture, history, and
language, and distance was no longer a factor.Culture: People of the same society share aspects
of their culture, such as language or beliefs. Culture refers to the language, values, beliefs,
behavior, and material objects that constitute a people’s way of life. It is a defining element of
society.Example: Some features of American culture are the English language, a democratic
system of government, cuisine (such as hamburgers and corn on the cob), and a belief in
individualism and freedom.

2.Community

From a sociological perspective, the notion of community refers to a group of people united by at
least one common characteristic. Such characteristics could include geography, shared interests,
values, experiences, or traditions. John McKnight, a sociologist, says that there is no uniform
view of community in sociology, “ To some people it’s a feeling, to some people it’s
relationships, to some people it’s a place, to some people it’s an institution" Communities may
be viewed as systems composed of individual members and sectors that have a variety of distinct
characteristics and interrelationships .These sectors are populated by groups of individuals who
represent specialized functions, activities, or interests within a community system. Each sector
operates within specific boundaries to meet the needs of its members and those the sector is
designed to benefit. For example, schools focus on student education, the transportation sector
focuses on moving people and products, economic entities focus on enterprise and employment,
faith organizations focus on the spiritual and physical well-being of people, and health care
agencies focus on prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries. In reality, these sectors are a
few of the many elements that comprise the overall community system.
A community can be viewed as a living organism or well-oiled machine. For the community to
be successful, each sector has its role and failure to perform that role in relationship to the whole
organism or machine will diminish success. In a systems view, healthy communities are those
that have well-integrated, interdependent sectors that share responsibility to resolve problems
and enhance the well-being of the community. It is increasingly recognized that to successfully
address a community’s complex problems and quality of life issues, it is necessary to promote
better integration, collaboration, and coordination of resources from thesemultiple community
sectors.One useful way to describe the community and its sectors is through a technique known
as mapping (Kretzmann et al. 1993). As shown in the following diagram, someone interested in
describing the bounds of a community can map it by identifying primary, secondary, and
potential building blocks, or human and material resources. Each of these resources has assets
that can be identified, mobilized, and used to address issues of concern and bring about change.
3.Institutions

Social institutions are established or standardized patterns of rule-governed behavior. They

include the family, education, religion, and economic and political institutions. According to
Karl Marx social institutions are determined by their society’s mode of production and social
institutions serve to maintain the power of the dominant class. According to MaxWeber , social
institutions are interdependent but no single institution determines the rest. (a) The Family: A
socially defined set of relationships between at least two people related by birth, marriage,
adoption, or, in some definitions, long-standing ties of intimacy.Key Questions in this regard are
(i) How do families vary across different societies, historical periods, classes, and ethnic groups?
(ii) How are authority, resources, and work distributed within families? (iii) How do parents,
particularly mothers, balance the demands of work and family? (iv) What are the causes and
effects of divorce, domestic violence, and single parenting? Marx argued that tThe family
upholds the capitalist economic order by ensuring the reproduction of the working class and by
maintaining housewives as a reserve labor force.Functionalist theory argues that functions of the
family include socializing children, regulating sexual behavior and reproduction, distributing
resources, providing social support. (b) Education: A formal process in which knowledge,
skills, and values are systematically transmitted from one individual or group to another.Key
Questions here are (i)How do educational practices vary across different societies and historical
periods?(ii)How does education affect individuals’ subsequent activities and achievements?
(iii)What are the effects of class, race, and gender on educational institutions and experiences?
(iv)What are the causes and consequences of various trends in education, such as grade inflation,
violence in schools, and increasing public funding of religious instruction? Marx is of the view
that education serves the capitalist order by producing skilled workers with habits such as
punctuality and respect for authority.According to functionalist theory functions of education
include transmitting shared values and beliefs, transmitting specific knowledge and skills, sorting
individuals based on skill, and establishing social control over youths. The conflict theory states
that educational tracking systems and other differential treatment of students reinforce social
inequalities. (c) Religion: A unified system of beliefs and practices pertaining to the supernatural
and to norms about the right way to live that is shared by a group of believers. Sociologists treat
religion as a social rather than supernatural phenomenon.Key Questions here are (i)How do the
world religions differ? How are they similar? (ii)How have religions developed and changed, and
why do people engage with them? (iii)What is the relationship between religion and other
aspects of social life such as stratification, deviance, and conflict? (iv)What are the causes and
consequences of contemporary trends such as secularization, the splintering of religious groups,
and shifting church–state relationships? Marx says that Religion is the “opium of the people”—
it masks domination and diverts workers from rebelling against exploitation.Weber: classified
religions by their approach to salvation.Ascetic religions require active self-mastery; mystical
religions require passive contemplation.Other-worldly religions require focus on the next life
(e.g., heaven); this-worldly religions require focus on earthly life. (d)Economic Institutions:
Sociologists understand the economy as the set of arrangements by which a society produces,
distributes, and consumes goods, services, and other resources.Key Questions here are(i)What
institutions and relations characterize different economic systems (e.g., capitalism, socialism,
and feudalism)?(ii)How do consumption and leisure patterns differ among various cultures,
historical periods, and social groups?(iii)How do the structures of business organizations affect
productivity, job satisfaction, and inequalities? (iv)What are the causes and consequences of
contemporary trends such as economic liberalization, declining unionization, and increased
consumer debt? Marx argues that economic organization (the means and relations of production)
determines the major features of any society.Functionalist theory states that functions of
economic institutions include: production and distribution of goods, assignment of individuals to
different social roles such as occupations. (e) Political Institutions: Institutions that pertain to
the governance of a society, its formal distribution of authority, its use of force, and its
relationships to other societies and political units. The state, an important political institution in
modern societies, is the apparatus of governance over a particular territory. Key Questions
are(i)How do political institutions differ across historical periods and societies?(ii)How do
different social groups participate in political institutions, and with what consequences?(iii)How
and why do individuals participate in political processes such as voting or joining lobbying
groups?(iv)How are political institutions related to other aspects of society, such as the economy
and the mass media?According to Weber the state as an authority that maintains a monopoly on
the use of violence in its territory.Functionalist theory is of the view that functions of political
institutions include protection from external enemies, resolving group conflicts, defining societal
goals, and strengthening group identity and norms. Pluralism, a particularly functional type of
political institution, entails distribution of power among many groups so no one group can gain
control.

4. Cooperation

Cooperation involves individuals or groups working together for the achievement of their
individual or collective goals. In its simplest form, cooperation may involve only two people
who work together towards a common goal. Two college students working together to complete
a laboratory experiment. It can be divided into five principal types.

1. Direct Cooperation: Those activities in which people do like things together play together,
worship together, labor together in myriad ways. The essential character is that people do in
company, the things which they can also do separately or in isolation. They do them together
because it brings social satisfaction.

2. Indirect Cooperation: Those activities in which people do definitely unlike tasks toward a
single end. Here the famous principle of the 'division of labour' is introduced, a principle that is
imbedded in the nature of social revealed wherever people combine their difference for mutual
satisfaction or for a common end.

3. Primary Cooperation: It is found in primary groups such as family, neighborhood, friends

and so on. Here, there is an identity end. The rewards for which everyone works are shared or
meant to be shared, with every other member in the group. Means and goals become one, for
cooperation itself is a highly prized value.

4. Secondary Cooperation: It is the characteristic feature of the modern civilized society and is
found mainly in social groups. It is highly formalized and specialized. Each performs his/her
task, and thus helps others to perform their tasks, so that he/she can separately enjoy the fruits of
his/her cooperation.
5. Tertiary Cooperation: It may be found between 2 or more political parties, castes, tribes,
religions groups etc. It is often called accommodation. The two groups may cooperate and work
together for antagonistic goals.

5.Conflict

The conflict perspective, or conflict theory, derives from the ideas of Karl Marx, who believed
society is a dynamic entity constantly undergoing change driven by class conflict. Whereas
functionalism understands society as a complex system striving for equilibrium, the conflict
perspective views social life as competition. According to the conflict perspective, society is
made up of individuals competing for limited resources (e.g., money, leisure, sexual partners,
etc.). Competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition,
rather than consensus, is characteristic of human relationships. Broader social structures and
organizations (e.g., religions, government, etc.) reflect the competition for resources and the
inherent inequality competition entails; some people and organizations have more resources (i.e.,
power and influence), and use those resources to maintain their positions of power in society. C.
Wright Mills is known as the founder of modern conflict theory. In his work, he believes social
structures are created because of conflict between differing interests. People are then impacted
by the creation of social structures, and the usual result is a differential of power between the
"elite" and the "others". Examples of the "elite" would be government and large corporations. G.
William Domhoff believes in a similar philosophy as Mills and has written about the "power
elite of America".

Sociologists who work from the conflict perspective study the distribution of resources, power,
and inequality. When studying a social institution or phenomenon, they ask, "Who benefits from
this element of society?"While functionalism emphasizes stability, conflict theory emphasizes
change. According to the conflict perspective, society is constantly in conflict over resources,
and that conflict drives social change. For example, conflict theorists might explain the civil
rights movements of the 1960s by studying how activists challenged the racially unequal
distribution of political power and economic resources. As in this example, conflict theorists
generally see social change as abrupt, even revolutionary, rather than incremental. In the conflict
perspective, change comes about through conflict between competing interests, not consensus or
adaptation. Conflict theory, therefore, gives sociologists a framework for explaining social
change, thereby addressing one of the problems with the functionalist perspective.

6.Competition

1. Scarcity as a condition of competition: Wherever there are commonly desired goods and
services, there is competition. Infact economics starts with its fundamental proposition that while
human wants are unlimited the resources that can satisfy these wants are strictly limited. Hence
people compete for the possession of these limited resources. As Hamilton has pointed out
competition is necessitated by a population of insatiable wants and a world of stubborn and
inadequate resources.
2. Competition is continuous: it is found virtually in every area of social activity and social
interaction- particularly, competition for status, wealth and fame is always present in almost all
societies.

3. Competition is a cause of social change: Competition is a cause of social change in that; it

causes persons to adopt new forms of behavior in order to attain desired ends. New forms of
behavior involve inventions and innovations which naturally bring about social change.

4. Competition may be personal or impersonal: Competition is normally directed towards a goal

and not against any individual. Some times, it takes place without the actual knowledge of other's
existence. It is impersonal as in the case of civil service examination in which the contestants are
not even aware of one another's identity. Competition may also be personal as when two
individuals contest for election to an office. As competition becomes more personal it leads to
rivalry and shades into conflict. Competition in the social world is largely impersonal.

5. Competition is always governed by norms: Competition is not limitless nor is it un- regulated.
There is no such thing as unrestricted competition. Such a phrase is contradiction in terms. Moral
norms or legal rules always govern and control competition. Competitors are expected to use fair
tactics and not cut throat devices.

Some sociologists have also spoken of cultural competition. It may take place between two or
more cultural groups. Human history provides examples of such a competition for example; there
has always been a keen competition between the culture of the native and that of the invaders.
Like cooperation, competition occurs at personal, group, and organizational levels. People
competing for affection, a promotion, or public office all are examples of personal competition.
The competitors are likely to know one another and to regard others defeat as essential to the
attainment of their own goals.

7.Accommodation

The term 'accommodation' refers to several sorts of working agreements between rival groups
that permit at least limited cooperation between them even though the issues dividing them
remain unsettled. It does not technically end the conflict, but holds it in abeyance. The
accommodation may last for only a short time and may be for the purpose of allowing the
conflicting parties to consolidate their positions and to prepare for further conflict. Or, as is more
often the case, the initial accommodation agreed upon by the parties may be part of the process
of seeking solutions to the issues that divide them. If those solutions are not found, the
accommodation itself may become permanent. 1.The famous psychologist J.M. Baldwin was the
first to use the concept of accommodation. According to him, the term denotes acquired changes
in the behaviour of individuals which help them to adjust to their environment.2.Mac Irer says
that the term accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man attains a sense of
harmony with his environment.3.Lundberg is of the opinion that the word accommodation has
been used to designate the adjustments which people in groups make to relieve the fatigue and
tensions of competition and conflict.4.According to Ogburn and Nimkoff accommodation is a
term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups. It is
clear from the above that accommodation assumes various forms. Without accommodation social
life could hardly go on. Accommodation checks conflicts and helps persons and groups to
maintain cooperation. It enables person and groups to adjust themselves to changes functions and
status which is brought about by changed conditions. The only way in which conflicts between
groups may be eliminated permanently is through assimilation. Formally, assimilation is the
process whereby group differences gradually disappear. Issues are based upon differences. When
the differences disappear so do the issue and the conflict.

8. Assimilation

Some practices that are common in other societies will inevitably offend or contradict the values
and beliefs of the new society. Groups seeking to become part of a pluralistic society often have
to give up many of their original traditions in order to fit in—a process known as
assimilation.Example: When people arrive in the United States from other countries, they most
likely speak a foreign language. As they live here, they generally learn at least some English, and
many become fluent. Their children are most likely bilingual, speaking English as well as the
language of their parents. By the third generation, the language originally spoken by their
grandparents is often lost.In pluralistic societies, groups do not have to give up all of their former
beliefs and practices. Many groups within a pluralistic society retain their ethnic
traditions.Example: Although Chinese immigrants started arriving in the United States 150 years
ago, Chinese-American communities still follow some traditions, such as celebrating the Lunar
New Year.

9.Progress

The concept of progress found notable expression in the writings of the French Philosophers
such as Turgot, Condorcent and Fancis Bacon of the 18th century and has been a dynamic agent
in the social activity of modern man. Sociologists such as Saint Simon, Auguste Comte and
Herbert Spencer were the earlier exponents of the idea of progress. According Comte, it was the
intellectual elite who could bring about an era of progress.Etymologically, the word progress
means “moving forward.” But moving forward or backward, progress or regress are relative
terms. If it be remarked that such and such country has progressed, no meaningful information
can be extracted from such a statement unless the direction towards which progress has been
made be known.In this way, progress is not mere change. It is a change in particular direction.
The word progress cannot be appended to change in every direction. For example, if the
condition of agriculture in a particular country worsens and a famine results, it is undeniably a
change, but it will not be called progress. Progress means moving forward in the direction of
achievement of some aim.Different thinkers have defined progress in different ways. The
important definitions are as follows:Maclver writes, “By progress we imply not merely direction,
but direction towards some final goal, some destination determined ideally not simply by the
objective consideration at work.Lumely defines, “Progress is a change, but it is a change in a
desired or approved direction, not in any direction.”Ginsberg defines progress as “A
development or evolution in a direction which satisfies rational criterion of value”.According to
Ogburn, “Progress is a movement towards an objective thought to be desirable by the general
group for the visible future.Burgess writes, “Any change or adoption to an existent environment
that makes it easier for a person or group of persons or other organized from of life to live may
be said to represent progress”.Progress means an advance towards some ideally desirable end.
Since progress means change for the better it definitely implies a value judgement of highly
subjective character. For value, like taste, has no measuring rod.A particular social change may
seem to be progressive to one person to another it may seem retrogression, because they have
different values. The concept of social progress is, therefore, subjective but it has reference to an
objective condition.

Criteria of Progress:

It is difficult to explain the criteria of progress which are relative to their temporal context.
Social values determine progress. Whether any change will be considered as progress or not
depends upon the social values. Social values change with time and place. The criteria of
progress change with the change of social values. Hence, it is difficult to formulate a universally
acceptable criterion of progress. However, the following can be tentatively suggested (a) health
and longevity of life, (b) wealth,(c) population,(d) moral conduct.

10.Cultural Lag

For a better understanding of the relationship between culture and technology, let us analyse here
the concept of “cultural lag”.The concept of ‘cultural lag’, has become a favourite one with
sociologists, it is an expression that has a particular appeal in an age in which inventions
discoveries and innovations of many kinds are constantly disturbing and threatening older ways
of living. In this context, it will serve also to introduce the principle that cultural conditions are
themselves important agencies in the process of social change.The concept of ‘cultural lag’ was
first explicitly formulated by W.F. Ogburn in his treaties entitled ‘Social Change’. Lag means
crippled movement. Hence, ‘cultural lag’ means the phases of culture which fall behind other
phases that keep on moving ahead.Ogburn’s idea of ‘cultural lag’ is perhaps one of the most
important concept influencing the fact of discussion regarding technology and social change.
Ogburn distinguishes between “material” and ‘non-material’ culture.By ‘material culture’ he
means things which are ‘tangible’, visible, seen or touched like goods, tools, utensils, furniture,
machine. But the ‘non-material’ culture includes things which cannot be touched or tangible such
as family, religion, skill, talent. Government and education etc.According to Ogburn, when
changes occur in ‘material culture’, those in turn stimulate changes in ‘non-material’ culture,
particularly in what he terms the ‘adaptive’ culture. According to Ogburn, material culture
changes by a process which is different in pace from changes in non-material culture.The larger
the technological knowledge of a society, the greater the possibility of a new combinations and
innovations. Thus, material culture tends to grow exponentially. Because society cannot develop
methods of controlling and utilizing new technology before the technology is accepted and used.
There exists a “cultural lag” in creating controls and altering social relationship related to new
conditions brought about by new technology.Cultural lag is due to man’s psychological
dogmatism. He is wedded to certain ideologies regarding sex, education and religion. On account
of his dogmatic beliefs and ideologies, he is not prepared to change his social institutions. The
failure to adopt social institutions to the changes in the material culture leads to cultural lag.But
Maclver points out that “unfortunately it is often adopted without adequate analysis and
consequently it has not been developed in a clear and effective manner. According to him, the
distinction is not a workable one. Nor again should be assumed that, it is always the ‘material’ or
that the main problem is one of adapting the ‘non-material’ to the ‘material’ culture.Maclver also
observes that the term ‘lag’ is not properly applicable to relations between technological factors
and the cultural patterns or between the various components of the cultural pattern itself. He has
used different words like, ‘technological lag’, ‘technological restraint’, for the resulting
imbalance in the different parts of culture.Kingsley Davis, in his ‘Human Society’ holds that the
aspect of culture cannot be divided into material and non-material and that this distinction in no
way helps us to understand the nature of technology. Other sociologists, Sutherland, Wood Ward
and Maxwell, in their book ‘Introductory Sociology’ point out that Ogburn is guilty of over
simplifying the processes of social change.Social change is a complex phenomenon. The rate,
speed and direction of social change is not the same everywhere. So it cannot be explained by
simply saying that change first takes place in material culture and thereafter in non-material
culture. Ogburn has taken an over simple materialistic view of society.In spite of various
shortcomings, Ogburn’s theory of cultural lag has been proved to be beneficial for the
understanding of the cultural factor in bringing about social change. It has been acknowledged
by all that there is an intimate connections between the technological advance and our cultural
values.Hence, we may note here that our culture, our thoughts, values, habits are the
consequences of technological changes; the latter also is the consequences of changes of the
former. Both technology and cultural factors are the two important sources of social change. The
two are not only interdependent but also interactive. Man does not simply want a thing but he
wants a thing which may also be beautiful and appealing to his senses. Dowson and Gettys, in
introduction to Sociology’, rightly remark, “Culture tends to give direction and momentum to
social change to set limits beyond which social change cannot occur.It is the culture which has
kept the social relationship intact. It makes people think not of their own but also of the others.
Any change in cultural valuation will have wider repercussion on the personality of the
individual and the structure of the group. Every technological invention, innovation, new
industrial civilization or new factor disturbs an old adjustment.The disturbance created by
mechanism was so great that it seemed to be the enemy of culture, as indeed all revolutions
seem. The wealth-bringing machine brought also, ugliness, shoddiness, haste, standardization. It
brought new hazards, new diseases, and industrial fatigue.That was not the fault of the machines
and power plants. It was due to the ruthlessness and greed of those who controlled these great
inventions. But human values or cultural values reasserted themselves against economic
exploitation. Culture began, at first very slowly, to redirect the new civilization. It made the new
means of living at length more tractable to the uses of personality and new arts blossomed on the
ruins of the old.To conclude, social systems are directly or indirectly the creation of cultural
values. So eminent sociologist Robert Bierstedt has rightly remarked, “What people think, in
short, determines in every measure… what they do and what they want”. Thus, there a definite
relation is a definite relation between changing beliefs and attitudes and changing social
institutions. So Hobhouse says, there is “a broad correlation between the system of institutions
and mentally behind them”.

11.Deviant Sub-Culture

A Sub-Culture is a smaller culture held by a group of people within the main culture of a society,
in some ways different from the dominant culture of a society, but with many aspects in
common.Subcultures come in a diversity of forms, associated with street gangs, prison inmates,
drug addicts, football hooligans, religious cults, hippie communes, and punk rockers. On a larger
societal scale, subcultures include working-class and underclass subcultures, racial/ethnic
subcultures, immigrant subcultures, regional subcultures, and youth subcultures.
The existence of many subcultures is characteristic of complex societies such as the United
States. Conflict theorists argue that subcultures often emerge because the dominant society has
unsuccessfully attempted to suppress a practice regarded as improper, such as the use of illegal
drugs.The impact of subculture within the United States is evident in the celebration of seasonal
traditions. December is dominated by the religious and commercial celebration of Christmas
holiday – an event well-entrenched in the dominant culture of American society. However, the
Jewish subculture observes Hanukkah, African Americans observe the relatively new holiday of
Kwanzaa and some atheists join in rituals celebrating the winter Solstice (K.Peterson, 1992).
A subculture develops an ‘argot’ or specialized language, which distinguishes it from the wider
society. Argot allows ‘insiders’, the members of the subculture, to understand words with special
meanings. It also establishes patterns of communication which cannot be understood by
‘outsiders’. Sociologists associated with the interactionist perspective emphasize that language
and symbols offer a powerful way for a subculture to maintain its identity. The particular argot
of a given subculture provides a feeling of cohesion to the members and contributes to the
development of group identity (Halliday, 1978).
Subcultures develop in a number of ways – they often emerge because a segment of society faces
problems or even privileges unique to its position. Subcultures may be based on common age
(teenagers or old people), region, ethnic heritage or beliefs (a militant political group).
Although not all subcultures are deviant, the term subculture is often used to refer to the values
and attitudes of deviant groups, and especially deviant groups of juveniles. Deviant subcultures--
groups that develop values and norms considered outside the culture of the dominant population;
examples of deviant subcultures include some musical groups, youth gangs, alternative lifestyles,
and non-traditional religious communities.A deviant subculture may be considered "deviant"
because it is involved in behaviour that threatens the mainstream population or because it is
labeled as deviant by the mainstream population.

12. Sanskritization
Sanskritization or Sanskritisation is a particular form of social change found in India. It denotes
the process by which castes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by
emulating the rituals and practices of the upper or dominant castes. It is a process similar to
passing in sociological terms. This term was made popular by Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas
in the 1950s,although earlier references to this process can be found in Castes in India: Their
Mechanism, Genesis and Development by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar.
M.N. Srinivas defined sanskritization as a process by which "a low or middle Hindu caste, or tribal or
other group, changes its customs, ritual ideology, and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently
twice-born caste. Generally such changes are followed by a claim to a higher position in the caste
hierarchy than that traditionally conceded to the claimant class by the local community ... ."One clear
example of sanskritization is the adoption, in emulation of the practice of twice-born castes, of
vegetarianism by people belonging to the so-called "low castes" who are traditionally not averse to non-
vegetarian food.According to M.N. Srinivas, Sanskritization is not just the adoption of new customs and
habits, but also includes exposure to new ideas and values appearing in Sanskrit literature. He says the
words Karma, dharma, paap, maya, samsara and moksha are the most common Sanskritic theological
ideas which become common in the talk of people who are sanskritized. This phenomenon has also been
observed in Nepal among Khas, Magar, Newar and Tharu people.

M.N. Srinivas first propounded this theory in his D.Phil. thesis at Oxford University. The thesis
was later brought out as a book titled Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India.
Published in 1952, the book was an ethnographical study of the Kodava community of
Karnataka. M.N. Srinivas writes in the book: "The caste system is far from a rigid system in
which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been
possible, and especially in the middle regions of the hierarchy. A caste was able, in a generation
or two, to rise to a higher position in the hierarchy by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism,
and by Sanskritizing its ritual and pantheon. In short, it took over, as far as possible, the customs,
rites, and beliefs of the Brahmins, and adoption of the Brahminic way of life by a low caste
seems to have been frequent, though theoretically forbidden. This process has been called
'Sanskritization' in this book, in preference to 'Brahminization', as certain Vedic rites are
confined to the Brahmins and the two other 'twice-born' castes."

The book challenged the then prevalent idea that caste was a rigid and unchanging institution.
The concept of sanskritization addressed the actual complexity and fluidity of caste relations. It
brought into academic focus the dynamics of the renegotiation of status by various castes and
communities in India.

13. Socialization

Human infants are born without any culture. They must be transformed by their parents,
teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept animals. The general process of acquiring
culture is referred to as socialization. During socialization, we learn the language of the culture
we are born into as well as the roles we are to play in life.

Importance of Socialization

The importance of socialization in our life can hardly be exaggerated. The following description
makes it very clear.

1. Socialization converts man, the biological being into man, the social being.

Man is not born social; He becomes social by virtue of the process of socialization. Various
instances like-that of Kaspar Hauser, Anna, the wolf children of India and others have made it
very clear that only through constant training the newborn child becomes social in nature.

2. Socialization contributes to the development of personality.

3. Socialization helps to become disciplined.

4. Socialization helps to enact different roles.

5. Socialization provides the knowledge of skills.

6. Socialization helps to develop right aspiration in life.

7. Socialization contributes to the stability of the social order.

8. Socialization helps to reduce social distance.

9. Socialization provides scope for building the bright future

14. Social Change

According to Jones “Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of
any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social interaction or social organization”.

Factors of Social Change:

(a)Technological Factor: Technological factor constitute one important source of social change.
Technology, an invention, is a great agent of social change. It either initiates or encourages social
change. We have already crossed the first wave (agricultural revolution). We are now the
children of the next transformation i.e. the third wave. We go forward to describe the full power
and reach of this extraordinary change. Some speak of a “Looming Space Age”, “Information
Age”, “Electronic Era”, or “Global ‘ Village”.Technologies are changing and their social
consequences are profound. Fundamental changes brought by technology in social
structure are discussed as under:

1. Birth of Factory System

2. Urbanisation

3. Development of New Agricultural Techniques

4. Development of Means of Transportation and Communication

5. Evolution of New Classes

6. New Conceptions and Movements (‘Trade Union’ movements, ‘Lockouts’, ‘Strikes” etc)

(b) Cultural Factors:

]Among all the factors, cultural factor is the most important which works as a major cause of
social change.

(c) Demographic Factors:

The demographic factor plays the most decisive role in causing social change.The population of
every community is always changing both in numbers and in composition.The changes in
population have a far-reaching effect on society.
(15) Social Change in Kerala
1.Structural factors
Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population; at 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three
times as densely settled as the rest of India, which is at a population density of 370 persons per
km.Trivandrum is the largest and most populous city in Kerala. In the state, the rate of population
growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-
India average of 17.64%. Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by
adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at
33.3 million by 2011. Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population
density of coastal districts being 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density
of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely
populated
As of 2011 Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.790 which comes under the
"very high" category and it is the highest in the country. Comparatively higher spending of the
government in primary level education, health care and elimination of poverty from the 19th
century onward had helped the state to keep a very high HDI; report was prepared by the central
government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research. However, the Human Development
Report, 2005 prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of
inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already
started aiding the economic development of the state.
According to a 2005–2006 national survey, Kerala has the highest literacy rate among Indian
states; 93.91%. Life expectancy of 74 years was among the highest in India as of 2011. Kerala's
rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999-2010); the overall (urban and rural)
rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.
By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively. These
changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and
Travancore to boost social welfare.
Kerala has undergone the "demographic transition" characteristic of such developed nations as
Canada, Japan, and Norway as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60, and due to the low
birthrate of 18 per 1,000. In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (TFR) was the lowest in India.
Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians; 1.78, and Muslims; 2.97. The sub-replacement fertility
level and infant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states; estimated from 12 :49
to 14 deaths per 1,000 live births. According to Human Development Report 1996, Kerala's
Gender Development Index was reported to be 597; higher than any other state of India. Many
factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy,
along with favourable female-to-male ratio, had contributed to it. Kerala's female-to-male ratio
of 1.058 is higher than that of the rest of India. The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt
Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International (2005) and India
Today (1997) .
Kerala is the cleanest and healthiest state in India. However, Kerala's morbidity rate is higher
than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The
corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000 respectively as of 2004. Kerala's
13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of First World nations. Outbreaks of
water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than
50% of people who rely on 3 million water wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers. In
respect of women empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share
of earned income, complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.
Religion-wise distribution in the state is given below:-
Percent
Hindu   56.2%
Islam   24.7%
Christianity   19.0%
Others   0.1%

2.Socio-Religious Reform Movement

From 1812 until almost the close of the century, though political life was characterized by
inactivity and society presented an outward calmness, subversive forces were forming and
developing. This current of social transformation gradually led Kerala into the mainstream of
political struggle for freedom and responsible government in the 20th century.
1.Social Reform Movements
The important outcome of this ferment was the awakening of the masses especially the lower
orders in the Hindu society, against social injustice and evils. This awakening found articulation
in Kerala towards the last quarter of the 19th century. A number of socio-religious reform
movements, which were also the earliest democratic mass movements in Kerala, took shape. On
the whole, these movements were peaceful and non-violent, though there was an undercurrent of
militancy in them. These movements were of the utmost significance, because Kerala had, for
centuries, tolerated the caste system in its most oppressive form. The rigid caste system and
irrational caste taboos existed in such a heinous way that the lower orders were not only
'untouchable' but ''unapproachable'' as well. One of the most important social reform movements
was spearheaded by Shri Narayana Guru, the great Hindu saint and social reformer.
3.Emergence of Nationalism
The last decades of the 19th century saw the emergence of nationalism in India. The Indian
National Congress was established in 1885 and it soon became the spear-head of the Indian
Nationalist Movement. These developments did not go unnoticed in Kerala. A conference was
held at Kozhikode in 1904 under the auspices of the Congress and in 1908, a district congress
committee was formed in Malabar. Beyond this, there was no political activity worth the name in
Malabar.
3.Malayalee Memorial
In Travancore, political agitation began with the Nairs who found their dominance on the
decline and resented the monopolization of higher officers by the Tamil Brahmins inducted from
outside. The Malayali Memorial, a memorandum bearing the signatures of over 10,000 people,
including a sprinkling of Ezhavas, Christians and Muslims, was submitted to the Maharaja in
1891. It was really a Nair plea for privileges and positions. Ezhava Memorial (1896), submitted
with over 13,000 signatures pleading for extension of civic rights, Government jobs, etc. to the
lower castes.
4.Home Rule Movement.
Political activity in Kerala received a new impetus with the outbreak of the First World War and
the spread of the Home Rule Movement. The first All-Kerala Political Conference held at
Ottappalam in April 1921 was attended by delegates from Malabar, Cochin and Travancore. In a
sense, this was the herald of the movement for a united Kerala which - became a reality, 35 years
later.
5.Malabar Rebellion.
The non - co - operation movement was in full swing during this period of time. It was
particularly strong in Malabar, where the Moppilas were agitated over the Khilafat issue.
6.The Gandhian Movement.
It had a tremendous impact in Kerala, with large numbers joining the satyagrapha campaign.
The cry for social equality was particularly strong. This was the background of the famous
stayagraha at Vaikom Temple (1924) to be followed up later at the Guruvayoor Temple in 1931.
Both of them exemplified the immense potentialities of satyagraha as an instrument of social
change and both were started with the blessings of Gandhiji.
7.Civil Disobedience
The second phase of the civil disobedience movement, started by Gandhiji with his famous Salt
March in March 1930, found enthusiastic response from all parts of Kerala. In several places,
particularly at Payyannur and Kozhikode, salt laws were broken and hundreds of agitators
courted arrest. In the wake of the Civil Disobedience Movement, a parallel movement for
responsible Government had begun in Travancore and Kochi. In Travancore, the Nivartana
(Obstention) movement began as a protest against the inadequacy of the constitutional reforms of
1932.
8.The Left movements
An important feature of the freedom movement in Kerala in the 1920's and 1930's was the
increasing involvement of peasants and workers. This was to release a tremendous mass force
into the mainstream of the national movement, giving it a new momentum and a social content.
The peasant and labour movements of the 1930's were to a great extent the cause as well as the
consequence of the emergence of a powerful left wing in politics. In 1934, the left nationalists
joined together and organized the Congress Socialist Party. In December 1939, the Communist
Party was born.
9.Responsible Government
The struggle for responsible Government had been launched in Travancore and Cochin by 1938-
39.
10.Education
Above all growth of education including primary education contributed by7 the Christian
missionaries and the Maharaja’s led to wide social change in Kerala.

16.Social Stratification
Social stratification means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of
social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style.
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members in terms
of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation
whereby some people come to rank higher than others.
Types of Social Stratification:
Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of stratification.
The major types of stratification are:-
(i) Caste
(ii) Class
Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and
obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. For example-Brahmins,
Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste.
Class stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this, a person’s position
depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage the inborn
characteristics and wealth that he may possess.
In the urban areas social classes comprise principally (i) Capitalists (commercial and industrial), (ii)
Professional classes ,(iii) Petty traders and shopkeepers and (iv) Working clas.
In the rural areas classes consist of the landlords, capitalist farmers, and agricultural labourers.

17.Social Mobility
Social mobility is a person’s movement over time from one class to another. Social mobility can
be up or down and can be either intergenerational (occurring between generations, such as when
a child rises above the class of his or her parents) or intragenerational (occurring within a
generation, such as when an individual changes class because of business success). Societies
differ in the extent to which social mobility is permitted. Some societies are based on closed
class systems in which movement from one class to another is nearly impossible. In a caste
system, for example, mobility is strictly limited by the circumstances of one’s birth. At the other
extreme are open class systems in which class system placement is based on individual
achievement rather than ascription.
On mobility Sorokin was the first sociologist who wrote a book “Social and Cultural Mobility”.
He was of the opinion that there is no society which is closed (Caste System in India) and no
society which is completely open (Class System). He further contended that no two societies are
exactly same in the amount of movement allowed or discouraged. Further the speed of
movement or change may differ from one period of time to another. The rate of change depends
upon the level of modernization of a given society.
18.Social Disorganization and Social Problems

Social disorganization theory tries to explain such questions like:why do crime rates differ across
neighborhoods within a city? Is neighborhood crime due solely to the kinds of people who live
there, or is there something about the neighborhood environment that fosters crime?etc.
Park and Burgess (1925) developed a theory of urban ecology which proposed that cities are
environments like those found in nature, governed by many of the same forces of Darwinian
evolution, i.e. competition, which affects natural ecosystems. When a city is formed and grows,
people and their activities cluster in a particular area, i.e. the process of "concentration".
Gradually, this central area becomes highly populated, so there is a scattering of people and their
activities away from the central city to establish the suburbs, i.e. "dispersion". They suggested
that, over time, the competition for land and other scarce urban resources leads to the division of
the urban space into distinctive ecological niches, "natural areas" or zones in which people share
similar social characteristics because they are subject to the same ecological pressures. As a zone
becomes more prosperous and "desirable", property values and rents rise, and people and
businesses migrate into that zone, usually moving outward from the city center in a process Park
and Burgess called "succession" (a term borrowed from plant ecology) and new residents take
their place. At both a micro and macro level, society was of thought to operate as a super
organism, where change is a natural aspect of the process of growth and neither chaotic nor
disorderly. Thus, an organized area is invaded by new elements. This gives rise to local
competition and there will either be succession or an accommodation which results in a
reorganization. But, during the early stages of competition, there will always be some level of
disorganization because there will be disruption to, or a breakdowns in, the normative structure
of the community which may or may not lead to deviant behavior. Thus, although a city was a
physical organization, it also had social and moral structures that could be disorganised.
Their model, known as Concentric Zone Theory and first published in The City (1925) predicted
that, once fully grown, cities would take the form of five concentric rings with areas of social
and physical deterioration concentrated near the city centre and more prosperous areas located
near the city's edge. This theory seeks to explain the existence of social problems such as
unemployment and crime in specific Chicago districts, making extensive use of synchronic
mapping to reveal the spatial distribution of social problems and to permit comparison between
areas. They argued that "neighborhood conditions, be the of wealth or poverty, had a much
greater determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race, or religion" (Gaines and
Miller). In the post-war period, the cartographic approach was criticised as simplistic in that it
neglected the social and cultural dimensions of urban life, the political and economic impact of
industrialisation on urban geography, and the issues of class, race, gender, and ethnicity.

Chicago School Model

Concentric zone model
V
I. CBD
IV
III II. Zone of Transition
II
III. Working Class Zone
IV. Residential Zone
II
V. Commuter Zone

Cities expand radially outward

as people compete for good space

The Study of Crime in Chicago-Shaw and McKay mapped addresses of delinquents 1920-50 and
their major findings were the following:-
Crime was highest in zone of transition (Zone 2), lowest in commuter zone
High crime persisted in Zone 2 regardless of which ethnic group lived there
Groups that left Zone 2 committed less crime, groups that entered committed more crime
Same pattern for other social problems. From their analysis, Shaw and McKay concluded that:-
Place matters in determining crime and crime was not to due to inferior biology or ethnic
pathology.The causes of crime were in the place always.
The Zone of Transition is determinbed by the following factors:-
(a) Poverty
(b) Ethnic heterogeneity (foreign born)
(c) Residential mobility (to other zones)
(d) Disorder, incivilities
(e) Competing ways of life – subcultures
(f) Led to social disorganization, which led to crime

The Social Disorganization

Model

Poverty
Residential Social
Crime
Mobility Disorganization

Ethnic
Heterogeneity Criminal
Subculture