The Major Social Science Theories

• STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

• MARXISM

• SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

According to Vincent, 2001, Functionalism, also called structural- functional theory, sees society as a
structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals in
that society.

DYSFUNCTION

• this refers to the effects of any institution which detracts from the conservation of society.

Concepts of Structural – Functionalism

1. Collective Conscience and Value Consensus

Functionalists believe that without collective conscience/ shared values and beliefs, achieving social
order is impossible and social order is crucial for the well-being of society.

They believe that value consensus forms the basic integrating principle in society. And if members of
society have shared values, they therefore also have similar identities, this helps cooperation and
avoids conflict.

Value consensus also ensures that people have shared: Goals, Roles and Norms. Norms can be
described as specific guidelines of appropriate behavior; for example, queuing when buying
things.

2. Social Order

Functionalists believe that there are four main basic needs that an individual requires in order to
exist in society.

They also believe that these four basic needs are essential for maintaining social order. They are:
food, shelter, money and clothing.

3. Functionalism and Education

Durkheim believes that education transmits society’s norms and values. Education brings together a
mass and changes them into a united whole which leads to social solidarity.
Parsons (1961) believes that education leads to universalistic values and that education performs a
link between family and the wider society which in turn leads to secondary socialization.
Education also allows people to train for their future roles in society. Schools instill the value of
achievement and the value of equality of opportunity.
Education helps match people with jobs suited to them.

4. Functionalism and Family

George Peter Murdock believes that the family provides four vital functions for society: sexual,
reproductive, economic, and educational.
 The family is the primary point of socialization in that it provides children with values and
norms. Family also stabilizes adult personalities.
A family unit provides emotional security for each person in the relationship.

5. Functionalism and Media

The media operate in the public interest by reflecting the interests of the audience. It portrays
public opinion.
The media understands that society has a wide diversity of culture and this is shown by the
different amounts of stories it covers.

6. Functionalism and Crime and Deviance

Durkheim shows us that there is such a thing as society, and that it is this entity called society
that creates crime and deviance.
Crime and deviance are socially constructed – they are not natural, obvious, or theologically
inspired categories.
They are concepts that were brought into the world solely by humankind.
Moreover, Durkheim goes beyond this and shows us how socially constructed definitions of
crime and deviance are linked into a wider social structure.

The Functionalists Perspectives

For example:

Each of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: family provides a context for
reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children. Education offers a way to transmit a society’s skills,
knowledge, and culture to its youth. Politics provides a means of governing members of society.
Economics provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. And
religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for worship of a higher power.

Sociologists have identified two types of functions:

manifest; and

Latent (Merton 1968)

Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized.
Latent functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden.

For example:

The manifest function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public
elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place for young
adults to meet potential mates. The baby-sitting and mate-selection functions are not the intended or
commonly recognized functions of education; hence they are latent functions.

Marxism

 Developed by Karl Marx in the 19th century

 Marx and Engels wrote the famous “Communist Manifesto” in 1846

 Marx developed the political system known as Communism

When considering Marxist theory it is useful to remember the 3 Cs;

 Class
 Conflict
 Capitalism

These provide a “baseline” to Marxist theory

Class -the basis of Marxist theory

Marx was concerned by the inequalities between social classes

A very small proportion of wealthy people owned huge amounts of land and factories

Marx called these people the BOURGEOISIE and the land or factories they owned the MEANS OF
PRODUCTION

Most of the people worked for the Bourgeoisie as waged labourers.

These waged labourers were named the PROLETARIAT and were exploited, claimed Marx, by the
bourgeoisie as they earned only enough money to survive.

All the Proletariat owned was their labour and thus had no control over their working lives and
no share in the profits.

Factory production lines meant they became “alienated” from their craft.

The differences between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat demonstrate a wide class division.

According to Marx, the interests of the bourgeoisie or ruling class were protected and
promoted.

The ensuing social inequalities caused conflict in society.

Capitalism also causes conflict of interest between the classes.

The need for the bourgeoisie to make profits is in conflict with the need of the proletariat to
earn enough money to have decent living standards.

Profits certainly came first during the Industrial Revolution.

The bourgeoisie became extremely wealthy while the proletariat worked long hours for little pay
and lived in squalor.
How does Education fit in with Marxism?

Why did the proletariat put up with these harsh and unfair conditions?

Marx believed the proletariat existed in a state of FALSE CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS – they accepted their
life and situation as inevitable

Capitalist Ideology, gave legal protection to the bougeoisie and taught the proletariat that powerful
members of society deserved respect

This is described as Hegemony – the dominant culture based on a set of fixed beliefs

How was this ideology transmitted? Through institutions such as Religion, Government, Family and

EDUCATION

Is Marxism still relevant?

Marx was describing a society 150 years ago but modern Marxists believe his ideas to be broadly true

Social classes are not as sharply divided now but harsh inequalities remain

Modern Marxists believe that the education system is one of the main agents of control, depriving
working class children of opportunities to improve their situation.

Symbolic Interactionism is a social psychological theory developed from the work of Charles Horton
Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of the twentieth century (the actual name of the
theory comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead’s students). According to this theory, people inhabit a
world that is in large part socially constructed.
Examples of Symbolic Interactionism in Everyday Life

The way you perceive the world is unique. Based on your interactions with words, ideas, and events,
different objects, or words, can have different meanings to you. Explore different examples of symbolic
interactionism at play in society.

When looking at a complex theory, it’s always best to start simply. Some symbols are easy to recognize
and hold concrete meanings within societies. While some can be subjective, a few symbols you
recognize through your interactions with them are:

1. An image of a stick figure with a dress means woman.

2. An image of a stick figure without a dress means man.

3. A drawing of a heart means love.

4. A bald eagle means freedom and America.

5. A stick figure sitting in a chair with a large wheel means handicapped.

6. Putting your thumb up means yes.

7. Putting your thumb down means no.

8. Skull and crossbones mean danger.

9. A balance symbolizes justice.

10. The lone t shape symbolizes a cross, spirituality, or religion.

11. Water holds the meaning of rebirth, vitality, or cleansing.

Examples in Society

Societies are full of symbolic interactionism. And your interactions are different based on the society in
which you live. Additionally, many symbolic interactionism examples seen throughout society can be
subjective, based on your experiences with that particular symbol. Check out a few different society
examples of symbolic interactionism.

Philippine Flag

A horizontal flag bicolor with equal bands of royal blue and crimson red, with a white, equilateral
triangle at the hoist. In the center of the triangle is a golden-yellow sun with eight primary rays, each
representing a province of the Philippines. At each vertex of the triangle is a five-pointed, golden-yellow
star, each of which representing one of the country's three main island groups— Luzon, Visayas (though
originally referring to Panay) and Mindanao. The white triangle at the flag represents liberty, equality,
and fraternity. A unique feature of this flag is its usage to indicate a state of war if it is displayed with the
red side on top, which is effectively achieved by flipping the flag upside-down.

Gender

Gender can be understood through symbolic interactionism because gender is a sociological construct.
For example, for the symbols attached to “males” and “females”, actions and looks are based on what is
believed is true from your interactions rather than what is objectively true. For example, women might
be seen as weaker than men. A man wearing a dress might be seen as feminine. These problematic
attributes lead to inequality and biases such as women getting paid less than men in the workforce.

Colorism

Race and ethnicity is another area where symbolic interactionism comes into play. This can definitely be
seen through the issue of colorism. In colorism, people of the same racial identification are treated
differently based on the lightness or darkness of their skin. For example, a study by Lance Hannon on
colorism demonstrated lighter-skinned Latinos "looked" smarter according to Caucasians.

Relationship Roles

Symbolic interactionism plays a big role in family and relationships. Your understanding of a word or
event changes based on interactions with it. For example, if you have a great relationship with your wife,
the word wife will be positive. However, if your relationship with your wife is rocky, the meaning behind
the word and what a wife symbolizes changes.

Rainbow

Societies’ meanings behind symbols can change and morph with time. One example of this is the
meaning of a rainbow. The rainbow has been seen as a Christian symbol of hope but another meaning of
rainbow is now associated with the LGBTQ community.

Meaning behind Symbolic Interaction

The way you see the world colors your understanding of it. Look no further than symbolic interactionism
to see how this is true. Interested to explore more about behaviors, check out operant conditioning
examples.

Operant Conditioning Examples

Operant conditioning is a learning process whereby deliberate behaviors are reinforced through
consequences. It differs from classical conditioning, also called respondent or Pavlovian conditioning, in
which involuntary behaviors are triggered by external stimuli.

With classical conditioning, a dog that has learned the sound of a bell precedes the arrival of food may
begin to salivate at the sound of a bell, even if no food arrives. By contrast, a dog might learn that, by
sitting and staying, it will earn a treat. If the dog then gets better at sitting and staying in order to receive
the treat, then this is an example of operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning and Timing

The core concept of operant conditioning is simple: when a certain deliberate behavior is reinforced,
that behavior will become more common. Psychology divides reinforcement into four main categories:

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Punishment
• Extinction

Timing and frequency are very important in reinforcement.

A continuous reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated CRF) provides reinforcement for all noted
behaviors. That is, every time the behavior occurs, reinforcement is provided.

An intermittent reinforcement schedule (commonly abbreviated INT) reinforces some target behaviors
but never all of them. Think of it like a slot machine. You won't win on every pull of the lever, but you do
win sometimes, and that reinforces the behavior of pulling the lever.

Examples of Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement describes the best-known examples of operant conditioning: receiving a reward
for acting in a certain way.

1. Many people train their pets with positive reinforcement. Praising a pet or providing a treat
when they obey instructions -- like being told to sit or heel -both helps the pet understand what is
desired and encourages it to obey future commands.

2. When a child receives praise for performing a chore without complaint, like cleaning their room,
they are more likely to continue to perform that chore in the future.

3. When a worker is rewarded with a performance bonus for exceptional sales figures, she is
inclined to continue performing at a high level in hopes of receiving another bonus in the future.

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is a different but equally straightforward form of operant conditioning. Negative
reinforcement rewards a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus, rather than adding a pleasant
one.

1. An employer offering an employee a day off is an example of negative reinforcement. Rather

than giving a tangible reward, they reduce the presence of something undesirable; that is, the amount
of time spent at work.

2. In a sense, young children condition their parents through negative reinforcement. Screaming,
tantrums and other "acting out" behaviors are generally intended to draw a parent's attention. When
the parent behaves as the child wants, the unpleasant condition - the screaming and crying - stops.
That's negative reinforcement.

3. Negative reinforcement is common in the justice system. Prisons will sometimes ease
regulations on a well-behaved prisoner, and sentences are sometimes shortened for good behavior. The
latter in particular is classic negative reinforcement: the removal of something undesirable (days in
prison) in response to a given behavior.

Examples of Punishment

In psychology, punishment doesn't necessarily mean what it means in casual usage. Psychology defines
punishment as something done after a given deliberate action that lowers the chance of that action
taking place in the future. Whereas reinforcement is meant to encourage a certain behavior,
punishment is meant to discourage a certain behavior.

1. An employee who misses work may suffer a cut in wages. The loss of income (an undesired
consequence) constitutes the punishment for missing work (an undesired behavior).

2. A sharp "No!" addressed to a pet engaging in unacceptable behavior is a classic example of

punishment. The shout punishes the pet, conditioning it to avoid doing wrong behavior in the future.

3. Punishments are commonly used in lab experiments. Most often, a lab animal is punished for a
given behavior with a mild electric shock.

Just as there are examples of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, there are also
examples of positive punishment (like the ones above) and negative punishment. With the latter, a
positive situation is removed when an undesired behavior is performed. For example, a parent may take
a favorite toy away from a child who is misbehaving.

Examples of Extinction

Psychology defines extinction as the loss of conditioning over time when the conditioning stimuli are no
longer present. Over time, an animal (or person) will become less conditioned unless the stimuli that
conditioned them in the first place is reapplied.

1. An employee punished once for missing work, then never again, may become more likely to
miss work later on because they no longer expect to be punished for absence.

2. Animals often test the limits of their conditioning. For instance, a cat punished with a spray
bottle every time it climbs on a counter may come near the counter or jump on the counter when it
believes no one is around. If no punishment occurs, the cat is likely to keep jumping on the counter
because the conditioning against it is extinct.

3. In school, if a student receives a gold star for an excellent test score but does not receive more
gold stars in subsequent tests, he may become increasingly unmotivated to perform well in future tests.
The operant conditioning of the positive behavior (doing well on a test) is becoming extinct.

B.F. Skinner and Conditioning

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was a psychologist and researcher credited with establishing the principles of
operant conditioning. B.F. Skinner began with Thorndike's law of effect, which states that behaviors that
cause satisfactory results will be repeated. Skinner considered satisfaction to be insufficiently specific to
measure and set out to design a means of measuring learned behaviors.

The operant conditioning chamber, popularly known as a Skinner box, was his solution. He kept his test
subjects, primarily pigeons and rats, in circumstances that allowed him to closely observe their behavior.
He would isolate the animal and every time the animal performed a defined behavior, like pushing a
lever, it'd be rewarded with food. When the animal began to reliably push the lever, he'd know it had
been conditioned.
Skinner's work took that first principle and applied it to human behavior, representing the school of
psychology called behaviorism. Behaviorism defined much of psychology for the second half of the 20th
century but is currently being combined with other psychological perspectives.

Operant Conditioning and You

It can be uncomfortable to talk about human behavior in the clinical language of psychology. That said,
operant conditioning describes a simple phenomenon that happens in every part of life. It's just one of
the mechanisms by which people learn. It's vital to understand how that mechanism works to make sure
it works best for you.

Theoretical Model of Symbolic Interactionism

Other sociologists study government and power by relying on the framework of symbolic interactionism,
which is grounded in the works of Max Weber and George H. Mead.

Symbolic interactionism, as it pertains to government, focuses its attention on figures, emblems, or

individuals that represent power and authority. Many diverse entities in larger society can be considered
symbolic: trees, doves, wedding rings. Images that represent the power and authority of the United
States include the White House, the eagle, and the American flag. The Seal of the President of the
United States, along with the office in general, incites respect and reverence in many Americans.

Symbolic interactionists are not interested in large structures such as the government. As micro-
sociologists, they are more interested in the face-to-face aspects of politics. In reality, much of politics
consists of face-to-face backroom meetings and lobbyist efforts. What the public often sees is the front
porch of politics that is sanitized by the media through gatekeeping.

Symbolic interactionists are most interested in the interaction between these small groups who make
decisions, or in the case of some recent congressional committees, demonstrate the inability to make
any decisions at all. The heart of politics is the result of interaction between individuals and small groups
over periods of time. These meetings produce new meanings and perspectives that individuals use to
make sure there are future interactions.

Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is defined as a set of psychological theories and therapeutic
techniques that have their origin in the work and theories of Sigmund Freud.
The core idea at the center of psychoanalysis is the belief that all people possess
unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories (Cherry 2020).
Sigmund Freud (Source: (WGBH 1998)

- Father of Psychoanalysis
- Jewish background, though avowed atheist.
- He had a medical background wanted to do “neurophysiologic research”. -
He had a private practice in nervous and brain disorders.
Table 1.1: Levels of Mental Life

Levels of Mental Life Description

The material that we have no immediate access to,

and we cannot bring into consciousness. It
1. Unconscious
includes repressed feelings, hidden memories,
habits, thoughts, desires, and reactions.

It stores all the thoughts of which you could bring

into consciousness fairly easily if you wanted to;
2. Preconscious
thoughts that can be easily recalled without special
techniques.

It contains those thoughts of which you are

3. Conscious
currently aware (e.g. logic and reasoning).
Table 1.2: Provinces of the Mind
Provinces of the Mind Description

• It is the oldest and most primitive

psychic energy;
1. Id • Representing the biological foundations
of personality;
• Is concerned only with satisfying
 personal desires; and
• The actions taken by the id are based on
the Pleasure Principle (motivate the
organism to seek pleasure).

• The “executive”;
• The primary job of the ego is to mediate/
balance the demands of the Id and the outer
forces of reality;
2. Ego
• The center of reason, reality-testing, and
common sense; and
• Governed by the Reality Principle
• The “ideal”;
• Consequence of the oedipal drama
(sexual desire [child] toward the parent of
the opposite sex – jealous feelings [child]
toward the parent of the same sex);
3. Superego
• The moral arm of the personality, it
corresponds to one’s conscience; and
• Bids the psychic apparatus to pursue
idealistic goals and perfection.