Concrete cover which protects reinforcement will be removed due to explosive spalling and thus

steel bars will be subjected to fire. This weakens reinforcement bars and led to decrease ultimate load
carrying capacity of the reinforced concrete element.

When structural concrete elements are exposed to fire, it is possible that explosive spalling of
concrete takes place. The explosive spalling of concrete is occurred when free water (water that is not
employed for hydration reaction and remained unused in concrete) in concrete is changed to steam
because of concrete exposure to fire, and if the steam is not released in concrete then it causes explosive
spalling.

Therefore, it is considerably important to understand nature of explosive spalling of concrete and

factors that influence it. These factors may be material, geometry, structurally or environmentally based
and will be discussed in the following sections.

Factors Affecting Explosive Spalling of Concrete Structural Elements Exposed to Fire

Heating Rate of Concrete

This factor substantially influences the explosive spalling of concrete occurrence. As the heating rate
increases both likelihood and severity of explosive spalling is increased.

Heating Exposure of Concrete

The possibility of explosive spalling of concrete occurrence rises as the number of reinforced concrete
element subjected to fire is increased.

For example, the response of reinforced concrete slab to fire is better in comparison to reinforced
concrete beams. This is because only one side of the former is subjected to fire whereas there are three
faces in the latter that exposed to fire.

This is evident that simple external shapes that have no pronounced feather are a better option to
construct when fire exposure is considered.

Size of the Section of Reinforced Concrete Element

Spalling explosion is less likely to occur in extremely thin wall, this is believed to be due to the ease of
free water escape out of concrete and decrease in pore water pressure in the member.

It is reported that, explosions have low likelihood in thick sections such as nuclear containment walls.

Shape of Reinforced Concrete Element Section

Explosive spalling of concrete is more frequent in cross sections that changes rapidly for instance level
surfaces and round corner outperform corners specifically in extreme angles when exposed to fire.
Moisture Content of Reinforced Concrete Member
Explosive spalling of concrete is likely to occur in normal strength concrete with moisture content of
greater than 2% by weight and rarely occurred when moisture content is smaller than 2%. This amount
of moisture content is difficult to obtain practically.

With a given set of conditions, explosive spalling is less likely to present in concrete with moisture
content of less than 3% by weight whereas it is reported that considerably dense high strength concrete
with moisture content of 2.3-3% suffered explosive spalling.

This is because of low permeability and porosity which lead to impede the escape of water and
consequently pore water pressure is large hence the risk of explosive spalling is great even though
tensile strength is large in high strength concrete.

Moisture content decreases with time which means the possibility of explosive spalling is reduced as
well.

Moisture content depends hugely on the environment that the structure is constructed in, for example,
moisture content of elements inside buildings is smaller than those of outside.

Permeability of Reinforced Concrete Element

It influences vapor release rate greatly, and it is demonstrated experimentally that the occurrence of
explosive spalling is rare if concrete permeability is smaller than (5 x 10–11 cm2).
Age of Reinforced Concrete Member
It is claimed that, the likelihood of explosive spalling is induced with the increase of concrete element
age and this might be due to decline in moisture content.

Strength of Concrete
Interestingly, the occurrence of explosive spalling of concrete is rarely expected in low strength
concrete. In contrary, there is great possibility of explosive spalling occurrence in high strength
concrete.

Compressive Stress and Restrain

Possibility of explosive spalling increases as compressive stress and restrain on the element is increased.
The compressive stress can be increased by reducing section size or increasing the applied load.

Type of Aggregates used in Reinforced Concrete Element

It is observed that, if aggregate with low thermal expansion is employed, the likelihood of explosive
spalling of concrete is decreased. The possibility of explosive spalling decreases if siliceous, limestone,
basalt, and lightweight aggregate are utilized.
The above statement is applied when dry aggregate is used because explosive spalling is more likely to
occur when the aggregate is saturated.

The Size of Aggregate used in Reinforced Concrete Member

It is demonstrated by test that, the larger the aggregate size the less likely that explosive spalling of
concrete occur.

Cracking of Concrete Member

Cracks help the escape of moisture in concrete. On the other hand, it is a source of the crack
propagation.

Reinforcement Utilized in Concrete Element

Explosive spalling of concrete occurs in unreinforced portion of concrete element and it is not extended
beyond reinforcement layers like cage of stirrups and longitudinal bars in columns and beams.

Concrete Cover to Reinforcement

It is experimentally noted that, as concrete cover increases the possibility of concrete element to
explosive spalling is increased. It is reported that, explosive spalling of concrete should be expected if
concrete cover is larger than 40 mm for dense concrete and greater than 50 mm for lightweight concrete.

Sever explosive spalling is not anticipated if concrete cover is equal or less than 15 mm. this might be
due to small mass of unsupported concrete.

Supplementary Reinforcement
Supplementary reinforcement does not prevent the occurrence of explosive spalling but is restrict its
effect. Occasionally, mesh reinforcement is provided to limit the effect of explosive spalling when
concrete cover is larger than 40 mm. Supplementary reinforcement ease the repair of concrete after the
fire.