Question and Solution PDF

Eighth Edition
GATE
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
Analog Circuits
Vol 5 of 10
RK Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
NODIA & COMPANY

GATE Electronics & Communication Vol 5, 8e
Analog Circuits
RK Kanodia & Ashish Murolia
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Preface to the Series
For almost a decade, we have been receiving tremendous responses from GATE aspirants for our earlier books:
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Choice Questions (MCQ), was a compilation of objective questions and solutions for all subjects of GATE
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Acknowledgements
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We wish you good luck !

R. K. Kanodia
Ashish Murolia
SYLLABUS
GATE Electronics & Communications

Small Signal Equivalent circuits of diodes, BJTs, MOSFETs and analog CMOS. Simple diode circuits, clipping,
clamping, rectifier. Biasing and bias stability of transistor and FET amplifiers. Amplifiers: single-and multi-stage,
differential and operational, feedback, and power. Frequency response of amplifiers. Simple op-amp circuits. Filters.
Sinusoidal oscillators; criterion for oscillation; single-transistor and op-amp configurations. Function generators and
wave-shaping circuits, 555 Timers. Power supplies.
IES Electronics & Telecommunication
Transistor biasing and stabilization. Small signal analysis. Power amplifiers. Frequency response. Wide banding
techniques. Feedback amplifiers. Tuned amplifiers. Oscillators. Rectifiers and power supplies. Op Amp, PLL, other
linear integrated circuits and applications. Pulse shaping circuits and waveform generators.
**********
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 DIODE CIRCUITS

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 DIODE 1
1.2.1 Operating Modes of a Diode 1
1.2.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Diode 2
1.2.3 Current-Voltage Characteristics of an Ideal Diode 2
1.3 LOAD LINE ANALYSIS 3
1.4 PIECEWISE LINEAR MODEL 3
1.5 SMALL SIGNAL MODEL 4

1.5.1 Small Signal Resistance 4
1.5.2 AC and DC Equivalent Model 4
1.6 CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS 6
1.6.1 Clippers 6
1.6.2 Clampers 8
1.7 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUIT 9
1.7.1 Voltage Doubler 10
1.7.2 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler 11
1.8 RECTIFIER CIRCUIT 11
1.8.1 Parameters of Rectifier Circuit 12
1.8.2 Classification of Rectifiers 12
1.9 HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS 12
1.10 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS 14

1.10.1 Centre Taped Full wave Rectifier 14
1.10.2 Bridge Rectifier 15
1.11 FILTERS 15
1.12 ZENER DIODE 16
1.13 VOLTAGE REGULATORS 16
EXERCISE 1.1 18
EXERCISE 1.2 36
EXERCISE 1.3 42
SOLUTIONS 1.1 47
SOLUTIONS 1.2 90
SOLUTIONS 1.3 111
CHAPTER 2 BJT BIASING

2.1 INTRODUCTION 117
2.2 BASIC BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 117

2.2.1 Simplified Structure of BJT 117
2.2.2 Operating Modes of BJT 118
2.2.3 Circuit Symbol and Conventions for a BJT 118
2.3 BJT CONFIGURATION 119
2.3.1 Common Base Configuration 119
2.3.2 Common Emitter configuration 120
2.3.3 Common-Collector Configuration 122
2.4 CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS IN BJT 122
2.4.1 Relation between Current Gain 122
2.4.2 Relation between Leakage Currents 123
2.5 LOAD LINE ANALYSIS 123
2.6 BIASING 125

2.6.1 Fixed Bias Circuit 125
2.6.2 Emitter Stabilized Bias Circuit 126
2.6.3 Voltage Divider Bias 128
2.7 BIAS STABILIZATION 129
2.7.1 Stability factor 129
2.7.2 Total Effect on the Collector Current 129
2.8 EARLY EFFECT 130
EXERCISE 2.1 132
EXERCISE 2.2 147
EXERCISE 2.3 155
SOLUTIONS 2.1 159
SOLUTIONS 2.2 201
SOLUTIONS 2.3 224
CHAPTER 3 BJT AMPLIFIERS

3.2 AC LOAD LINE ANALYSIS 229
3.3 HYBRID EQUIVALENT MODEL 230

3.3.1 Current Gain 230
3.3.2 Voltage Gain 230
3.3.3 Input Impedance 231
3.3.4 Output Impedance 231
3.4 SMALL SIGNAL PARAMETER 232
3.4.1 Collector Current and the Transconductance 232
3.4.2 Base Current and Input Resistance at the Base 233
3.4.3 Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter 233
3.5 HYBRID- p MODEL 233
3.5.1 Hybrid p-model Circuit Including the Early Effect 235
3.6 ANALYSIS OF STANDARD MODELS 235
3.6.1 Common Emitter Fixed Bias Configuration 235
3.6.2 Voltage Divider Bias 236
3.6.3 Common-Emitter Bias Configuration 237
3.7 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER 238
3.7.1 Cut-off Frequency 239
EXERCISE 3.1 241
EXERCISE 3.2 254
EXERCISE 3.3 260
SOLUTIONS 3.1 265
SOLUTIONS 3.2 295
SOLUTIONS 3.3 315
CHAPTER 4 FET BIASING

4.2 JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET) 321

4.2.1 Circuit Symbols of JFET 321
4.2.2 Characteristics of JFET 322
4.3 METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (MOSFET) 323
4.3.1 n -channel Enhancement Type MOSFET 323
4.3.2 p-channel Enhancement Type MOSFET 325
4.3.3 n -channel Depletion Type MOSFET 326
4.3.4 p-channel Depletion Type MOSFET 326
4.4 SOME STANDARD CONFIGURATIONS FOR JFET 328
4.4.1 Fixed Bias Configuration 328
4.4.2 Self Bias Configuration 329
4.4.3 Voltage Divider Biasing 330
4.5 BIASING CONFIGURATION FOR DEPLETION TYPE MOSFET’S 331
4.6 SOME STANDARD CONFIGURATIONS FOR ENHANCEMENT TYPE MOSFET CIRCUITS 331
4.6.1 Feedback Biasing Configuration 331
4.6.2 Voltage Divider Biasing Configuration 332
4.6.3 Enhancement Mode NMOS device with the Gate Connected to the Drain 333
EXERCISE 4.1 334
EXERCISE 4.2 347
EXERCISE 4.3 354
SOLUTIONS 4.1 358
SOLUTIONS 4.2 388
SOLUTIONS 4.3 408
CHAPTER 5 FET AMPLIFIERS

5.2 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF JFET CIRCUIT 413

5.2.1 Transconductance 413
5.2.2 Output Resistance 414
5.3 SOME STANDARD CONFIGURATIONS 414
5.3.1 JFET Fixed Bias Configuration 414
5.3.2 JFET Self Bias Configuration with bypassed Capacitor 415
5.3.3 JFET Self Bias Configuration with Unbypassed RS 416
5.3.4 JFET Voltage Divider Configuration 418
5.3.5 JFET Source Follower (Common Drain) Configuration 418
5.3.6 JFET Common Gate Configuration 420
5.4 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF DEPLETION TYPE MOSFET 421
5.5 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS FOR ENHANCEMENT TYPE MOSFET 422
EXERCISE 5.1 423
EXERCISE 5.2 432
EXERCISE 5.3 438
SOLUTIONS 5.1 442
SOLUTIONS 5.2 467
SOLUTIONS 5.3 483
CHAPTER 6 OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

6.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATION 487

6.2.1 Power 487
6.2.2 Power Efficiency 487
6.3 EMITTER FOLLOWER AS POWER AMPLIFIER 487
6.3.1 Small Signal Voltage Gain of Emitter Follower 487
6.3.2 Relation between Input and Output Voltage 488
6.3.3 Emitter Follower Power Rating 488
6.3.4 Power Efficiency 489
6.4 PUSH-PULL STAGE 489
6.5 CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS 490

6.5.1 Class-A Operation 491
6.5.2 Class-B Operation : 492
6.5.3 Class-AB Output Stage 493
6.6 AMPLIFIER DISTORTION 494
6.6.1 Total harmonic Distortion 494
6.6.2 Relationship Between Total Power and THD 494
6.7 HEAT SINKS 494
6.7.1 Junction Temperature 495
6.7.2 Thermal Resistance 495
6.7.3 Transistor Case and Heat Sink 495
EXERCISE 6.1 496
EXERCISE 6.2 508
EXERCISE 6.3 513
SOLUTIONS 6.1 517
SOLUTIONS 6.2 539
SOLUTIONS 6.3 551
CHAPTER 7 OP- AMP CHARACTERISTICS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

7.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 555
7.3 IDEAL OP-AMP CIRCUIT 555

7.3.1 Transfer Characteristic of Ideal Op-amp 556
7.3.2 Common Mode Signal for Ideal Op-amp 556
7.4 PRACTICAL OP-AMP CIRCUITS 556
7.4.1 Inverting Amplifier 556
7.4.2 Non-inverting Amplifier 558
7.4.3 Unity Follower 558
7.4.4 Summing Amplifier 558
7.4.5 Amplifier with a T -network 559
7.5 PRACTICAL OP-AMP CIRCUITS WITH FINITE GAIN 559
7.5.1 Unity Follower 560
7.5.2 Inverting Amplifier 560
7.5.3 Non-inverting Amplifier 561
7.6 SLEW RATE 561
7.6.1 Maximum Signal Frequency in terms of Slew Rate 562
7.7 DIFFERENTIAL AND COMMON-MODE OPERATION 562
7.7.1 Differential Inputs 562
7.7.2 Common Inputs 562
7.7.3 Output voltage 562
7.7.4 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 562
7.8 DC OFFSET PARAMETER 563
7.8.1 Output Offset Voltage due to Input Offset Voltage 563
7.8.2 Output Offset Voltage due to Input Offset Current 563
EXERCISE 7.1 565
EXERCISE 7.2 578
EXERCISE 7.3 587
SOLUTIONS 7.1 591
SOLUTIONS 7.2 619
SOLUTIONS 7.3 644
CHAPTER 8 OP - AMP APPLICATION

8.2 INVERTING AMPLIFIER 649
8.3 NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER 650
8.4 MULTIPLE-STAGE GAINS 650
8.5 VOLTAGE SUBTRACTION 650
8.6 CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER 651
8.7 VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER 651
8.8 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER 652
8.9 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER 653
8.10 INTEGRATOR 654
8.11 DIFFERENTIATOR 655
8.12 LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER 655
8.13 EXPONENTIAL AMPLIFIER 656
8.14 SQUARE-ROOT AMPLIFIER 656
8.15 COMPARATOR 657
8.16 SCHMITT TRIGGER 657
8.17 NON INVERTING SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUIT 658
8.18 PRECISION RECTIFIER 659
8.19 FUNCTION GENERATOR 660
EXERCISE 8.1 661

EXERCISE 8.2 679
EXERCISE 8.3 684
SOLUTIONS 8.1 688
SOLUTIONS 8.2 734
SOLUTIONS 8.3 751
CHAPTER 9 ACTIVE FILTERS

9.2 ACTIVE FILTER 757

9.2.1 Low Pass Filter 757
9.2.2 High Pass Filter 759
9.2.3 Band pass filter 759
9.3 THE FILTER TRANSFER FUNCTION 760
9.3.1 Pole-Zero Pattern of Low Pass Filter 761
9.3.2 Pole-Zero Pattern of Band Pass Filter 761
9.3.3 First-Order Filter Transfer Function 762
9.3.4 Second-order Filter Transfer Function 763
9.4 BUTTERWORTH FILTERS 765
9.5 THE CHEBYSHEV FILTER 765
9.6 SWITCHED CAPACITOR FILTER 765
9.7 SENSITIVITY 766
EXERCISE 9.1 767
EXERCISE 9.2 778
EXERCISE 9.3 781
SOLUTIONS 9.1 786
SOLUTIONS 9.2 813
SOLUTIONS 9.3 818
CHAPTER 10 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER AND OSCILLATOR

10.2 FEEDBACK 821

10.2.1 Negative Feedback 821
10.2.2 Positive Feedback 822
10.3 THE FOUR BASIC FEEDBACK TOPOLOGIES 822
10.3.1 Voltage Amplifier 822
10.3.2 Current Amplifier 823
10.3.3 Transconductance Amplifier 823
10.3.4 Transresistance Amplifier 824
10.4 ANALYSIS OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER 824
10.5 OSCILLATORS 826
10.6 OP-AMP RC OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS 826

10.6.1 Wein Bridge Oscillator 826
10.6.2 Phase Shift Oscillator 827
10.7 LC OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT 827
10.7.1 Colpitts Oscillator 827
10.7.2 Hartley oscillator 828
10.8 THE 555 CIRCUIT 828
10.8.1 Monostable Multivibrator 828
10.8.2 Astable Multivibrator 829
EXERCISE 10.1 830
EXERCISE 10.2 840
EXERCISE 10.3 844
SOLUTIONS 10.1 849
SOLUTIONS 10.2 873
SOLUTIONS 10.3 878
***********
GATE STUDY PACKAGE Electronics & Communication
Sample Chapter of Analog Circuits (Vol-5, GATE Study Package)
CHAPTER 1
Page 15
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
DIODE CIRCUITS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A general goal of this chapter is to develop the ability to use the piece wise
linear model and approximation techniques in the hand analysis and design
of various diode circuits. The chapter includes the following topics:
• Introduction to diode
in
• AC and DC analysis of diode.
o.
• Application of diodes to perform signal processing functions: rectification,
clipping and clamping.
a.c
• Zener diode, which operates in the reverse breakdown region
• Application of Zener diode in voltage regulators
1.2 DIODE
di
no
Diode is a two terminal device with nonlinear i -v (current-voltage)
w.
characteristics. Figure 1.1 shows the circuit symbol of a diode. In the diode
symbol, the triangular head denoting the allowable direction of current flow
and the vertical bar representing the blocking behaviour for currents in the
ww
opposite direction. The corresponding terminals are called the anode (or p
-terminal) and the cathode (or n -terminal) respectively.
Figure 1.1: Diode Circuit Symbol
1.2.1 Operating Modes of a Diode

A diode operates in the following two modes:
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Forward Bias
If the p-terminal of a diode is at higher voltage level than the n -terminal
(i.e. positive voltage applied across diode), a positive current flows through
the diode. The diode, operating in this mode, is said to be turned ON or
forward biased. Mathematically, we define the condition for a forward biased
diode as
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Page 16 Vanode > Vcathode _

b
Chap 1 Vp > Vn ` Forward bias
Diode Circuits
VD = Vp - Vn > 0b
a
Reverse Bias
If the p-terminal of an ideal diode is at lower voltage level than the n
-terminal (i.e. negative voltage applied across diode), then there is no current
across the diode. The diode operating in this mode is said to be turned OFF
or reverse biased. Mathematically, we define the condition for a reverse
biased diode as
Vanode < Vcathode _
b
Vp < Vn ` Reverse bias
VD = Vp - Vn < 0b
a
1.2.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Diode
The theoretical relationship between the voltage (VD) and current (iD) in the
pn junction is given by
iD = IS [exp ( hVV ) - 1] ...(1.1)
i. n
D
T
where the parameter IS is the reverse saturation current, VT is thermal

voltage, and h is the emission coefficient or ideality factor.
NOTE :
.c o
Thermal voltage at room temperature is VT = 0.026 V . The value of ideality factor is in the
a
range 1 # h # 2 . For germanium, h = 1, and for silicon, h = 2 .
i
1.2.3
d
Current-Voltage Characteristics of an Ideal Diode
o
The ideal diode may be considered as the most fundamental non-linear circuit
. n
element. Figure 1.2 (a) and (b) shows the current-voltage characteristics of
w
an ideal diode in the forward bias and reverse bias regions, respectively.
w
w
(a) Forward Biased Diode,
(b) Reverse Biased Diode
Figure 1.2: Current-Voltage Characteristic of (a) Forward Biased Diode, (b) Reverse Biased
Diode
Combining the two graphs, we get the overall current-voltage

characteristic of an ideal diode (as opposed to the i -v characteristic of a
diode given in equation (1.1)) as shown in Figure 1.3.


Page 17
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Figure 1.3: Current-Voltage Characteristic of an Ideal Diode
1.3 LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
The applied load to a device normally have an important impact on the

point or region of operation of the device. Load line analysis is the graphical
approach to analyse the operation of a circuit. Consider the network shown
in Figure 1.4 (a). Applying KVL in the circuit,
E - VD - VR = 0
in
E = VD + ID R ...(1.2)
o.
a.c
di
no
w.
w (a) (b)
Figure 1.4: (a) A Simple Diode Circuit, (b) Load Line Characteristic for the Diode Circuit
w
Substituting VD = 0 in equation (1.2), we have
ID = E ...(1.3)
R V =0 D
Again, substituting ID = 0 in equation (1.2), we get

VD = E ID = 0
The two variables (VD , ID ) are the same as the diode axis variable, so
we draw the load line and determine the point of intersection, as shown in
Figure 1.4 (b).
1.4 PIECEWISE LINEAR MODEL
Figure 1.5 shows the piecewise linear model of a diode forward characteristic.
The exponential curve is approximated by two straight lines, line A with
zero slope and line B with a slope of rd . The straight line model or piecewise
linear model can be described as
ID = 0 , VD # Vg
V - Vg
ID = D , VD $ Vg
rd
where rd = Diode forward resistance
Vg = cut in voltage of diode

Page 18
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: (a) Piecewise Linear Model of the Diode Forward Characteristics, and (b) its
Equivalent Circuit Representation
1.5 SMALL SIGNAL MODEL
When pn junction diode is used in a linear amplifier circuit, the time varying
or ac characteristics of the diode becomes important. For these circuits, we
i. n
define the small signal model of diode. For the small signal model analysis,
assume that the ac signal is small compared to the dc component, so that a
between the diode current and voltage can be written as

VD
o
linear ac model can be developed from the non linear diode. The relationship
.c
VDQ + vd
where VDQ
iD . I e = I e
i a
S VT S VT
is the dc quiescent voltage and vd is the ac component. So,
o
iD = I e eV
d
Since, the ac signal is small, i.e
VDQ
S VT
vd
T ...(1.4)
. n vd << VT
So,
w w ev /V . 1 + vd
d T
VT
Substituting the above expression to equation (1.4), we get
...(1.5)
w iD = _IS e V i a1 + VT k = IDQ a1 + vd k
=
V vd
DQ
IDQ
VT
+ IDQ vd
S
Quiescent diode current S
VT
AC current
(dc bias current)
(signal current)
VDQ
where IDQ . I e S VTis the quiescent diode current. Thus, the relationship
between the ac components of the diode voltage and current is
id = IDQ vd ...(1.6)
VT
1.5.1 Small Signal Resistance

The small signal incremental resistance of a diode is defined as
rd = vd = VT [see equation (1.6)]
id IDQ
where VT is thermal voltage and IDQ is the quiescent diode current.
1.5.2 AC and DC Equivalent Model

In the above sections, we have already discussed the diode characteristics for
ac and dc supply. Figure 1.4 (a) and (b) illustrate the equivalent dc model
(bias model) and ac model (small signal model) of a diode.


Page 19
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Figure 1.4 (a): Bias Model and (b): Small Signal Model of a Diode
METHODOLOGY: ANALYSIS OF SINGLE DIODE CIRCUIT
In using the piecewise linear model to the diode, the first objective is to
determine the Linear region (forward bias or reverse bias) in which the
diode is operating To do this, we can :
Step 1: Find the input voltage conditions such that a diode is ‘ON’
(forward bias) then find the output signal for this condition.
.in
Step 2: Find the input voltage condition such that a diode is OFF
(Reverse bias) then find the output signal for this condition.
NOTE :
.co
Step 2 can be performed before step 1.
ia
od
METHODOLOGY: ANALYSIS OF MULTIPLE DIODE CIRCUIT
.n
Analyzing multidiode circuit requires determining if the individual
w
diodes are ON or OFF. In many cases, the choice is not obvious so we
must initially guess the state of each diode, then analyse the circuit to
w
determine if we have a solution consistent with our initial guess. To do
w
this, we may follow the steps given below.
Step 1: Assume the state of a diode. If a diode is assumed ON the voltage
across the diode is assumed to be Vg . If a diode is assumed to be
OFF the current through the diode is assumed to be zero.
Step 2: Analyse the linear circuit with the assumed states.
Step 3: Evaluate the resulting state of each diode. If the initial assumption
were that a diode is OFF and the analysis shows that ID = 0 or
VD # Vg then the assumption is correct if, however, the analysis
actually shows thatID > 0 or VD > Vg , then the initial assumption
is incorrect. Similarly, if the initial assumption were that a diode
is ON and the analysis shows that ID $ 0 or VD $ Vg , then the
initial assumption is correct. If, however, the analysis shows that
ID < 0 or VD < Vf , then the initial assumption is incorrect.
Step 4: If any initial assumption is proven incorrect then a new
assumption must be made and the new linear circuit must be
analysed. Step 3 must than be repeated.
NOTE :
For simplification at the initial step always assume that all the diodes are OFF then find
the voltage across diodes VD then follow step 3.

Page 20 1.6 CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

Chap 1
Diode Circuits Diode can be used in wave shaping circuits that either limit or clip portion
of a signal, or shift the dc voltage level. The circuits are called clippers and
clampers, respectively.
1.6.1 Clippers
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits are used to eliminate portion
of a signal that are above or below a specified level without distorting
the remaining part of the alternating waveform. The simple form of diode
clipper-one resistor and diode depending on the orientation of the diode the
positive or negative region of the input signal is clipped OFF. There are two
general categories of clippers:
1. Series clipper
2. Parallel clipper.
1. Series Clipper
The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series
with the load. Table 1.1 summarizes the output waveform of various
i. n
biased and unbiased series clipper circuits for the input waveform shown
in Figure 1.5.
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
Figure 1.5: Sinusoidal Input Waveform
Table 1.1: Series Clipper Circuits and its Output Waveform
w Series Clippers
Unbiased Series
Clipper Using
Clipper Circuits Output Waveforms
Ideal Diode


Series Clippers Clipper Circuits Output Waveforms Page 21
Biased Series Chap 1
Clipper Using Diode Circuits
Ideal Diode
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
2. Parallel Clipper
The parallel clipper (or shunt clipper) has the diode in a branch parallel to
ww
the load. Table 1.2 summarizes the output waveform of various biased and
unbiased parallel clipper circuits for the input waveform shown in Figure
1.5.
w
Table 1.2: Parallel Clipper Circuits and its Output Waveform
Parallel Clippers Clipper Circuits Output Waveforms

Unbiased
Parallel Clippers
Using Ideal
Diode

Page 22 Parallel Clippers Clipper Circuits Output Waveforms

Chap 1 Biased Parallel
Diode Circuits Clippers Using
Ideal Diode
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
Following are some important points that must be remembered while
analysing a parallel clipper circuit:
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES IN PARALLEL CLIPPER
1. When the diode is in downward direction the signal will be transmitted

below the reference voltage.
2. When the diode is in upward direction the signal will be transmitted
above the reference voltage.
3. Under any circumstances - dc, ac, instantaneous values, pulses, and so
on; Kirchoff’s voltage law must be satisfied.
1.6.2 Clampers
Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level. In a steady state, the
output waveform is an exact replica of the input waveform, but the output


signal is shifted by a dc value that depends on the circuit. The network must Page 23
have a capacitor, a diode, and a resistive elements but it can also employ an Chap 1
independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift. Figure 1.6 shows a Diode Circuits
clamper circuit and a sinusoidal input waveform.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.6: (a) Input Sinusoidal Waveform, (b) Clamper Circuit
For the positive half cycle of input waveform, diode is short and the
output is zero, as shown in Figure 1.7 (a). The capacitor is charged in the
positive half cycle. In the negative cycle, the diode is open and the output is
vo =- V - V =- 2V
in
Thus, we get the output waveform of the clamper as shown in Figure 1.7 (c).
o.
a.c
di
no (a) (b)
w.
ww
(c)
Figure 1.7: Equivalent Clamping Circuit for (a) Positive Half Cycle, (b) Negative Half
Cycle of Input Waveform, (c) Output Waveform of Clamper Circuit
Following are some important points that must be remembered while

solving a clamper circuit:
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES IN CLAMPER CIRCUIT
1. When the diode is in downward direction the total signal will be

clamped below the reference voltage.
2. When the diode is in upward direction the total signal will be clamped
1.7 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUIT
Voltage multiplier Circuits provide a means by which multiple dc voltages

can be generated from a single ac source and power transformer. Here, we
will discuss some typical voltage multiplier circuits.

Page 24 1.7.1 Voltage Doubler

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Voltage doubler circuits provide twice the peak voltages of the transformer
secondary. Figure 1.8 shows the half wave voltage doubler circuit.
Figure 1.8: Half Wave Voltage Doubler Circuit
The output waveform of the voltage doubler can be determined by

following two methods:
METHODOLOGY 1: TO ANALYSE OUTPUT OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
Step 1: For positive voltage half cycle across the transformer secondary,
diode D1 conducts so capacitor C1 will be charged.
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Step 2: For negative voltage half cycle across the transformer secondary,
. n
diode D2 will conduct and capacitor C2 will be charged.
w w
w
Step 3: Applying KVL in loop 1, we get
- Vm - Vm - vo = 0
vo =- 2Vm
METHODOLOGY 2: TO ANALYSE OUTPUT OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
Step 1: For the given voltage doubler circuit, we deduce that it includes
a negative clamper and a peak detector.


Page 25
Step 2: For the negative clamper (diode is in downward direction), the
Chap 1
total signal will be clamped below the reference voltage, i.e.
Diode Circuits
(vo) clamper =- Vm - vi
Step 3: Since, the peak detector provides the peak voltage at output, so
we get
vo =- 2Vm
NOTE :
If a circuit includes a diode and a capacitor, then the circuit is either a clamper or
a peak detector. For a clamper, output is always across diode; whereas for a peak
detector, output is across capacitor.
1.7.2 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler

Figure 1.9 shows the voltage tripler and quadrupler. It is an extension
of the half wave voltage doubler, which develops three and four times
the peak input voltage. For positive half cycle D1 and D 3 will conduct so
conduct.
.in
capacitor C1 , C 3 , C2 will be charged. For negative half cycle D2 and D 4 will
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w
Figure 1.9: Votage Tripler and Quadrupler
1.8 RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage into one that

is limited to one polarity. The diode is useful for this function because of its
nonlinear characteristic that is current exists for one voltage polarity, but
is essentially zero for the opposite polarity. The block diagram of a rectifier
circuit is shown in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Block diagram of an electronic power supply

Page 26 1.8.1 Parameters of Rectifier Circuit

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Some important parameters for rectifier are described in the following texts:
1. DC load current: The dc load current of a rectifier is given by
area under curve of output waveform
Idc =
2p
2p
= 1 # I d (wt)
2p 0
2. DC load voltage: If the rectifier is terminated to load RL , then the dc

load voltage of the rectifier is given by
Vdc = Idc RL
3. RMS load current: The rms load current of a rectifier is defined as
Irms =
2p 0 ^ h
1 2p I 2 d wt
#
4. RMS load voltage: The rms load voltage of a rectifier is given by
Vrms = Irms RL
5. Ripple: The time dependent component present in the output of the
i. n
rectifier filter is known as ripple.
6.
r.f. =
.c o
Ripple factor: The ripple factor of a rectifier is obtained as
rms value of alternating component in output current
averge value of output current
=
i a
Îrms h2 - (Idc)
2
o
Idc
d
= b Irms l - 1
2
7.
. n Idc
Voltage regulation: The percentage voltage regulation for a rectifier is
w w defined as
%VR =
(Vdc) NL - (Vdc) FL
(Vdc) FL
w 8.
where (Vdc) FL is the full load dc voltage and (Vdc) NL is the null load
voltage. Ideally VR should be zero.
Rectifier efficiency: The rectifier efficiency is defined as
DC power delivered to the load
h = = Pdc
AC input power Pac
9. Peak inverse voltage: It is the maximum reverse bias voltage across the
diode where the diode withstand.
1.8.2 Classification of Rectifiers

Rectifier circuits can be classified as
1. Half wave rectifier
2. Full wave rectifier
In the following sections, we will discuss some typical classes of rectifiers.
1.9 HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS
For a half wave rectifier, the output voltage appears only during the half
cycle of the input signal. Figure 1.11 shows a half wave rectifier, its input
waveform, and the corresponding output waveform.


Page 27
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 1.11: (a) Half Wave Rectifier Circuit, (b) Input Waveform, and (c) Output Waveform
.in
Some important parameters for a half wave rectifier are described in the
following table.
.co
Table 1.3: Parameters of a Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
S.N.
ia
Parameters Expression
1.
d
DC load current
o
Idc = Im
p
2.
.n
DC load voltage Vdc =
pc
Vm
R f + RS
+ 1m
ww RL
where RL is load resistance, RS is second
transformer resistance, and R f is forward
3. w Null load dc voltage

resistance of diode.
^Vdc hNL = pm
V
if RL = 3, i.e. load terminal is open

Irms = Im
4. RMS load current
2
Vrms = Vm
5. RMS load voltage
2
6. Ripple factor r.f. = 1.21
7. Voltage regulation Ideally VR should be zero, i.e. %VR = 0
8. Rectifier efficiency h . 40.6
9. Peak inverse voltage In half wave rectifier, the PIV rating of the
diode must equal or exceed the peak value of
the applied voltage, i.e. PIV $ Vm
10. Output frequency f , i.e. same as input frequency

Page 28 1.10 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

Chap 1
Diode Circuits The full wave rectifier inverts the negative portions of the sine wave so
that a unipolar output signal is generated during both halves of the input
sinusoidal. Following are the full wave rectification methods:
1. Centre tap full wave rectifier
2. The Bridge rectifier
1.10.1 Centre Taped Full wave Rectifier

One possible implementation of full wave rectifier is centre taped full wave
rectifier. Figure 1.13 shows a centre taped full wave rectifier, input waveform,
and the corresponding output waveform. The current through the two diodes
in the circuit is given by
I1 = Im sin wt , 0 < wt < p
I2 = Im sin wt , p < wt < 2p
i. n
(a)
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w (b) (c)
Figure 1.13: (a) Full Wave Rectifier, (b) Input Waveform, and (c) Output Waveform
w Some important parameters for a centre taped full wave rectifier are
summarized in the following table.
Table 1.4: Parameters of Centre Taped Full Wave Rectifier
S.N. Parameters Expression
Idc = 2Im
1. DC load current
p
^Vdc hNL = p m if RL = 3, i.e. load terminal

3. Null load dc voltage 2V
is open
Irms = Im
4. RMS load current
2
Vrms = Vm
5. RMS load voltage
2
8. Rectifier efficiency h . 81.2 %
9. Peak inverse voltage PIV = 2Vm
10. Output frequency 2f , where f is the input frequency.


1.10.2 Bridge Rectifier Page 29
Chap 1
An alternative implementation of the full wave rectifier is bridge rectifier.
Diode Circuits
Figure 1.14 shows a bridge rectifier, input waveform, and the corresponding
output waveform.
(a)
.in
(b)
.co (c)
Figure 1.14: (a) Bridge Rectifier, (b) Input Waveform, (c) Output Waveform
ia
Some important parameters for a bridge rectifier are summarized in the
table below.
S.N.
od
Parameters Expression
1.
.n
DC load current Idc = 2Im
p
3.
ww
Null load dc voltage ^Vdc hNL = p m
2V
4.
w RMS load current
if RL = 3, i.e. load terminal is open
Irms = Im
2
Vrms = Vm
5. RMS load voltage
2
8. Rectifier efficiency h . 81.2 %
9. Peak inverse voltage PIV = Vm
10. Output frequency 2f , where f is the input frequency.
1.11 FILTERS
A capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor of a half wave rectifier
to form a simple filter circuit as shown in fig 1.15.
Conduction Interval
The diode only conducts for a short time TT during each cycle. This time
is called the conduction interval.

Page 30 Output Voltage

Chap 1
During the discharge period the voltage across the capacitor is described by
Diode Circuits
vo ^ t h = Vm e-t/RC
At the end of discharge interval, we have the output
VL = Vm e-Tl/RC
where Tl is the discharge time.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.15: (a) Capacitor Filter Circuit, (b) Input and Output Waveform for the Filter
Ripple Voltage
i. n
The output voltage is no longer constant as in the ideal peak detector circuit
between Vm and VL , i.e.

.c o
but has ripple voltage ^Vr h. The ripple voltage is defined as the difference
Vr = Vm - VL = Vm ^1 - e-Tl/RC h
Since, RC >> Tl, so we may write
i a
Vr . Vm b Tl l
o RC d
or
. n
Vr . Vm T
RC
(Tl . T )
or
w w Vr = Vm
fRC
( f = 1/T )
w
1.12 ZENER DIODE
Zener diodes are designed to provide a specified breakdown voltage. The

breakdown voltage of the zener diode is nearly constant over a wide range
of reverse bias currents. This makes the zener diode useful in a voltage
regulator, or a constant voltage reference circuit. Figure 1.16 shows the
zener diode and its equivalent circuit models for ON and OFF states.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.16: Equivalent Circuit Model for a Zener Diode for (a) ON State and (b) OFF
State
1.13 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
A Voltage regulator is a device or combination of devices designed to maintain

the output voltage of a power supply as nearly constant as possible. One of


the simplest discrete Regulator consists of only a resistor and a zener diode, Page 31
as shown in Figure 1.17. Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Figure 1.17: Basic Zener Regulator
METHODOLOGY: TO ANALYSE ZENER REGULATOR CIRCUIT
The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The zener regulator
can be analysed in the following steps.
Step 1: Remove the zener diode from the network.
.in
co
Step 2: Calculate the voltage across the resulting open circuit.
. RL v
ia V = VL =
R + RL i
od
Step 3: Determine the state of the zener diode by checking the obtained
value of voltage V for the following conditions
.n If V $ Vz , the zener diode is ON
w If V < Vz , the diode is OFF

Step 4: Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit for the resulting
w state of zener diode. For ON state, equivalent mode of Figure
w 1.16(a) can be substituted, while for OFF state the open circuit
equivalence of Figure 1.16(b) is substituted.
Step 5: Solve the resulting equivalent circuit for the desired unknowns.
For example, assume that the equivalent circuit for the zener
regulator is as shown below.
So, we get the various parameters for the circuit as

Load voltage, VL = Vz
Load current, IL = VL
R
Current through resistance R, IR = VR = Vi - VL
R R
Zener current, Iz = IR - IL
Power dissipated by Zener diode, Pz = Vz Iz
***********

Page 32
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.1 Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in
figure below. The diode in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
The waveform of output voltage vo is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.1.2
w
Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in
w
w
MCQ 1.1.3 Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage, shown in


Page 33
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
.in
MCQ 1.1.4
.co
Consider the given circuit and a waveform for the input voltage. The diode
a
in circuit has cutin voltage Vg = 0 .
i
od
.n
ww
MCQ 1.1.5 For the circuit shown below, let cut in voltage Vg = 0.7 V.
The plot of vo verses vi for - 10 # vi # 10 V is

Page 34
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.6 For the circuit shown below the cutin voltage of diode is Vg = 0.7 V.
The plot of vo versus vi is i. n

.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.7 For the circuit shown below each diode has Vg = 0.7 V.
The vo for - 10 # vs # 10 V is


Page 35
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.8 A symmetrical 5 kHz square wave whose output varies between + 10 V and
- 10 V is impressed upon the clipping shown in figure below
.in
.co
ia
d
If diode has rf = 0 and rr = 2 MW and Vg = 0 , the output waveform is
o
.n
ww
w
MCQ 1.1.9 In the circuit shown below, the three signals of fig are impressed on the
input terminals.
If diode are ideal then the voltage vo is

Page 36
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.10 For the circuit shown below the input voltage vi is as shown in figure.
i. n
Assume the RC time constant large and cutin voltage of diode Vg = 0 . The
output voltage vo is
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.11 For the circuit shown below, the input voltage vi is as shown in figure.
Assume the RC time constant large and cutin voltage Vg = 0 . The output
voltage vo is


Page 37
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.12 In the circuit I is DC current and capacitors are very large. Using small
signal model which of following is correct ?
hVT
(A) vo = vs (B) vo = vs
hVT + IRs
vs
in
(C) vo = (D) vo = 0
hVT + IRS
o.
Common Data For Q. 13 to 15 :
.c
Consider the circuit shown below. Assume diodes are ideal.
a
di
no
w.
MCQ 1.1.13
ww
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 5 V, then output voltage vo is
(A) 9 V
(C) 0 V
(B) 9.474 V
(D) 8.943 V
MCQ 1.1.14 If v1 = v2 = 10 V, then output voltage vo is
(A) 9 V (B) 9.474 V
(C) 4 V (D) 8.943 V
MCQ 1.1.15 If v1 =- 5 V and v2 = 5 V then vo is
(A) 9.474 V (B) 8.943 V
(C) 4.5 V (D) 9 V
Common Data For Q.16 and 17 :

Consider the circuit shown below. Assume diodes are ideal.

Page 38 MCQ 1.1.16 If v1 = v2 = 10 V, then output voltage vo is

Chap 1 (A) 0 V (B) 9.737 V
Diode Circuits
(B) 9 V (D) 9.5 V
MCQ 1.1.17 If v1 =- 5 V and v2 = 10 V, the output voltage vo is
(A) 9 V (B) 9.737 V
(C) 9.5 V (D) 4.5 V
MCQ 1.1.18 In the circuit shown below diodes has cutin voltage of 0.6 V. The diode in
ON state are
(A) only D1 (B) only D2

(C) both D1 and D2 (D) None of these
i. n
MCQ 1.1.19 For the circuit shown below cutin voltage of diode is Vg = 0.7 . What is the
value of v and i ?
.c o
i a
o d
.
(C) 2 V, 0 mA n
(A) 2.3 V, 2.65 mA (B) 2.65 V, 2.3 mA
(D) 0 V, 2.3 mA
MCQ 1.1.20
w w
For the circuit shown below the value of v and i are (if the diode is ideal)
w
(A) + 5 V, 0 mA (B) + 1 V, 0.6 mA
(C) + 5 V, 0.4 mA (D) + 1 V, 0.4 mA
MCQ 1.1.21 For the circuit shown below each diode has Vg = 0.6 V and rf = 0 . Both
diode will be ON if


(A) vs > 3.9 V (B) vs > 4.9 V Page 39
(C) vs > 6.3 V (D) vs > 5.3 V Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Common Data For Q. 22 and 23 :

The diode In the circuit shown below has the non linear terminal characteristic
as shown in figure. Let the voltage be vi = cos wt V.
MCQ 1.1.22 The current iD is

(A) 2.5 (1 + cos wt) mA (B) 5 (0.5 + cos wt) mA
(C) 5 (1 + cos wt) mA (D) 5 (1 + 0.5 cos wt) mA
MCQ 1.1.23 The voltage vD is
.in
(A) 0.25 (3 + cos wt) V
co
(B) 0.25 (1 + 3 cos wt) V
.
(C) 0.5 (3 + 1 cos wt) V
ia
(D) 0.5 (2 + 3 cos wt) V
MCQ 1.1.24
od
The circuit inside the box in figure shown below contains only resistor and
diodes. The terminal voltage vo is connected to some point in the circuit
.n
inside the box.
ww
w
The largest and smallest possible value of vo most nearly to is respectively
(A) 15 V, 6 V
(B) 24 V, 0 V
(C) 24 V, 6 V
(D) 15 V, - 9 V
MCQ 1.1.25 The Q -point for the Zener diode shown below is
(A) (0.34 mA, 4 V)

(B) (0.34 mA, 4.93 V)
(C) (0.94 mA, 4 V)
(D) (0.94 mA, 4.93 V)

Page 40 Common Data For Q. 26 to 28 :

Chap 1
In the voltage regulator circuit shown below the zener diode current is to be
Diode Circuits
limited to the range 5 # iz # 100 mA.
MCQ 1.1.26 The range of possible load current is

(A) 5 # iL # 130 mA
(B) 25 # iL # 120 mA
(C) 10 # iL # 110 mA
(D) None of the above
MCQ 1.1.27 The range of possible load resistance is
(A) 60 # RL # 372 W
(B) 60 # RL # 200 W
(C) 40 # RL # 192 W
(D) 40 # RL # 360 W i. n
MCQ 1.1.28
.c o
The power rating required for the load resistor is
(A) 576 mW
(C) 480 mW
i a (B) 360 mW
(D) 75 mW
MCQ 1.1.29
o d
A clipper circuit is shown below.
. n
w w
w Assuming forward voltage drops of the diodes to be 0.7 V, the input-output
transfer characteristics of the circuit is


MCQ 1.1.30 The following circuit has a source voltage Vs as shown in the graph. The Page 41
current through the circuit is also shown. Chap 1
Diode Circuits
The element connected between a and b could be
.in
.co
ia
MCQ 1.1.31
od
In the voltage doubler circuit shown in the figure, the switch ‘S ’ is closed at
t = 0 . Assuming diodes D1 and D2 to be ideal, load resistance to be infinite
.n
and initial capacitor voltages to be zero. The steady state voltage across
capacitor C1 and C2 will be
ww
w
(A) Vc1 = 10 V,Vc2 = 5 V
(B) Vc1 = 10 V,Vc2 =- 5 V
(C) Vc1 = 5 V,Vc2 = 10 V
(D) Vc1 = 5 V,Vc2 =- 10 V
MCQ 1.1.32 What are the states of the three ideal diodes of the circuit shown in figure ?
(A) D1 ON, D2 OFF, D3 OFF

(B) D1 OFF, D2 ON, D3 OFF
(C) D1 ON, D2 OFF, D3 ON
(D) D1 OFF, D2 ON, D3 ON

Page 42 MCQ 1.1.33 The equivalent circuit of a diode, during forward biased and reverse biased
Chap 1 conditions, are shown in the figure.
Diode Circuits
(I)
(II)
If such a diode is used in clipper circuit of figure given above, the output
voltage Vo of the circuit will be
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Assuming the diodes D1 and D2 of the circuit shown in figure to be ideal
MCQ 1.1.34
ones, the transfer characteristics of the circuit will be


MCQ 1.1.35 A voltage signal 10 sin wt is applied to the circuit with ideal diodes, as shown Page 43
in figure, The maximum, and minimum values of the output waveform Vout Chap 1
of the circuit are respectively Diode Circuits
(A) + 10 V and - 10 V
(B) + 4 V and - 4 V
(C) + 7 V and - 4 V
(D) + 4 V and - 7 V
MCQ 1.1.36 The forward resistance of the diode shown in Figure is 5 W and the remaining
parameters are same at those of an ideal diode. The dc component of the
source current is
.in
.co
ia
(A) Vm
50p
od (B) Vm
50p 2
(C) Vm
.
100p 2n (D) 2Vm
50p
MCQ 1.1.37
ww
The cut-in voltage of both zener diode DZ and diode D shown in Figure
is 0.7 V, while break-down voltage of DZ is 3.3 V and reverse break-down
w
voltage of D is 50 V. The other parameters can be assumed to be the same
as those of an ideal diode. The values of the peak output voltage (Vo) are
(A) 3.3 V in the positive half cycle and 1.4 V in the negative half cycle.
(B) 4 V in the positive half cycle and 5 V in the negative half cycle.
(C) 3.3 V in both positive and negative half cycles.
(D) 4 V in both positive and negative half cycle
Common Data For Q. 38 and 39

In the circuit shown in Figure, the source I is a dc current source. The
switch S is operated with a time period T and a duty ratio D . You may
assume that the capacitance C has a finite value which is large enough
so that the voltage. VC has negligible ripple, calculate the following under
steady state conditions, in terms of D , I and R

Page 44
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.38 The voltage Vc , with the polarity shown in Figure,

(A) I (B) I (1 - DT)
C C
(C) I (1 - D) T (D) - I T
C C
MCQ 1.1.39 The average output voltage Vo , with the polarity shown in figure
(A) - I T (B) - I D2 T
C 2C
(C) I (1 - DT) (D) I (1 - D) T
2C 2C
Common Data For Q. 40 and 41:

Consider the given circuit and the cut in voltage of each diode is Vg = 0.6 V .
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
MCQ 1.1.40
JAEGER/120/3.9
w w
What is the value of ID1 , ID2 , ID3 respectively?
(A) 1.94 mA, - 0.94 mA , 1.86 mA (B) 1.47 mA, 0.94 mA, 0 mA
MCQ 1.1.41w
JAEGER/120/3.9
(C) 1.47 mA, 0 mA, 0.94 mA
The value of VD1 , VD2 , VD3 respectively is
(A) 0.6, - 4.10 , 0.6
(D) 1.94 mA, 0 mA, 0.94 mA
(B) 0.6, - 8.8 , 0.6

(C) 0.6, 0.6, 0.6 (D) 0.6, 0.6, - 4.10
MCQ 1.1.42 The voltage regulator shown below, what are the nominal and worst case
JAEGER/168/3.82 values of zener diode current if the power supply voltage, zener break down
voltage and registor all have 5 % tolerance?
I znom I znom I zworst

^minh
(A) 1.2 mA 0 mA 0 mA
(B) 0.5 mA 0.70 mA 0.103 mA
(C) 0.5 mA 0.60 mA 0.346 mA
(D) 0.5 mA 0.796 mA 0.215 mA


MCQ 1.1.43 What are the nominal and worst case values of zener power dissipation? Page 45
(A) 10.8 mW, 0 mW, 0 mW (B) 4.5 mW, 7.52 nW, 1.80 mW Chap 1
(C) 4.5 mW, 6.81 mW, 2.03 mW (D) 4.5 mW, 5.13 mW, 5.67 mW Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.44 The diode circuit in figure shown below the biasing of the diode D1 , D2 is
(A) ON, ON (B) ON, OFF

(C) OFF, ON (D) OFF, OFF
MCQ 1.1.45
.in
The diode circuit shown in figure. Assume that diode is ideal, what will be
the biasing modes of diode D1 , D2 and D 3 ? (FB " forward biased, RB "
reverse biased)
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
(A)
(B)
w
D1
FB
FB
D2
FB
FB
D3
FB
RB
(C) FB RB RB
(D) FB RB FB
MCQ 1.1.46 The diode in the circuit shown below have linear parameter of Vg = 0.7 (for
BOYL- Si), Vg = 0.3 (for Ge) and rf = 0 for both the diode. What is the biasing
STEAD/68/2.14
condition of diode D1 and D2 ?
(A) D1 - ON , D2 - ON (B) D1 - ON , D2 - OFF

(C) D1 - OFF , D2 - ON (D) D1 - OFF , D2 - OFF

Page 46 MCQ 1.1.47 In the voltage regulator circuit below rating of zener diode is given, then the
Chap 1 range of values of vi that will maintain the zener diode in the ‘ON’ state is
Diode Circuits
(A) 16.87 1 vi 1 36.87 V

(B) 16.87 1 vi 1 23.67 V
(C) 23.67 1 vi 1 36.87 V
(D) None of the above
MCQ 1.1.48 Consider the given a circuit and a waveform for the input voltage.
BOYL-
STEAD/109/29
i. n
.c o
If the diode has cut in voltage Vg = 0 , the output waveform of the circuit is
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
MCQ 1.1.49 Assume that the diode cut in voltage for the circuit shown below is Vg = 0.7V
BOYL- . Which of clamper circuit perform the function shown below ?
STEAD/112/41


Page 47
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.50 Having lost his 2.4 V cellphone charger, an electrical engineering student
tries several stores but does not find adaptors with outputs less than 3 V. He
then decides to put his knowledge of electronics to work and constructs the
circuit shown in figure where three identical diodes in forward bias produce a
total voltage of Vout = 3VD - 2.4 V and resistor R1 sustain remaining voltage.
Neglect the current drawn by the cellphone and assume VThermal = 26 mV .
The reverse saturation current IS for the diode is
.in
(A) 6 mA
.co (B) 2.602 # 10-16 A
ia
(C) 8.672 # 10-14 A (D) 7.598 # 10-14 A
od
Common Data For Q. 25 to 27:
.n
The circuit diagram of a zener regulator is shown in figure below. The data
sheet specification for zener IN4742A provides following values
.
ww
Vz = 12 V at IzT = 21 mA , Rz = 9 (assume constant) IzM = 76 mA , Izk = 1 mA
w
MCQ 1.1.51 The values of zener diode voltages ^Vz hmax , ^Vz hmin respectively are
DESH-
PANDE/169/3.17 (A) 11.82 V, 12.5 V
(B) 12.5 V, 11.82 V
(C) 12.18 V, 11.82 V
(D) 12.5 V, 11.5 V
MCQ 1.1.52 The maximum value of load current over which the zener diode is in ON
state.
(A) 36.88 mA (B) 35.88 mA
(C) 36.36 mA (D) 35.36 mA
MCQ 1.1.53 The value of RL (Load resistance) corresponding to maximum load current is
(A) 329.43 W (B) 334.44 W
(C) 325.37 W (D) 320.49 W

Page 48 Common Data For Q. 54 and 55 :

Chap 1
A breakdown diode has Vz = 6.2 V at 25cC and az = 0.02%/cC . A silicon
Diode Circuits
diode with VF = 0.7 V and a temperature coefficient of - 1.8 mV/cC is
connected in series with the breakdown diode.
MCQ 1.1.54 The new value of reference voltage and the temperature coefficient of the
REA/29/1.31 series combination of diode D and zener diode.
(A) 6.9 V, - 0.008 %/cC (B) 6.9 V, - 0.0289 %/cC

(C) 6.9 V, - 0.056 %/cC (D) 6.2 V, - 0.056 %/cC
MCQ 1.1.55 The new value of Vref at a temperature of 50cC is
(A) 6.186 (B) 6.886 V
i. n
(C) 6.914 V (D) 6.700 V
MCQ 1.1.56 The diode circuit given below. Assume diode is ideal. The operating states
of diodes D1 , D2 are
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w
(A)w D1
ON,
D2
ON
w (B)
(C)
(D)
ON,
OFF,
OFF,
OFF
ON
OFF
MCQ 1.1.57 Consider the given circuit. The diode in circuit has cut in voltage Vg = 0.6 V
and zener diode voltage Vz = 9.4 V .
Plot vo versus vi is


Page 49
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.1.58 Assume that the diodes in the circuit are ideal. What are the operating
states of diodes ?
D1
.in
D2
(A)
(B)
ON
ON
.coON
OFF
(C)
(D)
OFF
OFF
ia ON
OFF
MCQ 1.1.59
od
Assuming that the diodes are ideal in the given circuit.
.n
ww
w
Status of
(A) ON,
the diodes D1 , D2 and D 3 are respectively
OFF, OFF
(B) ON, OFF, ON
(C) ON, ON, OFF
(D) ON, ON, ON
MCQ 1.1.60 What is the value of voltage V and current I respectively ?
(A) 0 V, 0 Amp (B) 7.5 V, 7.5 mAmp
(C) 7.5 V, 0 Amp (D) 0 V, 7.5 mAmp
**********

Page 50
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.2
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.1 In the circuit shown below, D1 and D2 are ideal diodes. The current i2 is
_____ mA
QUES 1.2.2 Let cutin voltage Vg = 0.7 V for each diode in the circuit shown below.
i. n
.c o
i a
The voltage vo is _____ volts
QUES 1.2.3
o d
For the circuit in the figure below. The value of vD is _____volts.
. n
w w
w -
QUES 1.2.4 The cutin voltage for each diode in circuit shown below is Vg = 0.6 V. Each
diode current is 0.5 mA. The value of R 3 will be _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.5 The diodes in the circuit shown below has parameters Vg = 0.6 V and rf = 0
. The current iD is ____ mA.
2


Page 51
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

The diodes in the given circuit have linear parameter of Vg = 0.6 V and rf = 0.
.in
QUES 1.2.6
.co
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 0 V, then vo is _____ volts.
QUES 1.2.7
ia
If v1 = 10 V and v2 = 5 V, then vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.8
od
If v1 = v2 = 0 , then output voltage vo is _____ volts.
.n
w
The diodes in the circuit shown below have linear parameters of Vg = 0.6
V and rf = 0 .
w
w
QUES 1.2.9 If v2 = 0 , then output voltage vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.10 If v2 = 5 V, then vo is____volts.
QUES 1.2.11 If v2 = 10 V, then vo is_____ volts.
QUES 1.2.12 Ten diodes, each of them provides 0.7 V drop when the current through it
is 20 mA, connected in parallel operate at a total current of 0.1 A. What
current flows in each diode (in Amp) ?
QUES 1.2.13 In the voltage regulator circuit shown below the maximum load current iL
that can be drawn is _____ mA.

Page 52 QUES 1.2.14 In the voltage regulator shown below the power dissipation in the Zener
Chap 1 diode is _____ watts.
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.15 In the voltage regulator circuit shown below the power rating of Zener diode
is 400 mW. The value of RL that will establish maximum power in Zener
diode is _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.16 The secondary transformer voltage of the rectifier circuit shown below is
i. n
vs = 60 sin 2p60t V. Each diode has a cut in voltage of Vg = 0.7 V. The
ripple voltage is to be no more than vrip = 2 V. The value of filter capacitor
will be _____ mF .
.c o
i a
o d
. n
QUES 1.2.17
w w
The input to full-wave rectifier shown below is vi = 120 sin 2p60t V. The
w diode cutin voltage is 0.7 V. If the output voltage cannot drop below 100 V,
the required value of the capacitor is _____ mF .
QUES 1.2.18 For the circuit shown below diode cutin voltage is vin = 0 . The ripple voltage
is to be no more than vrip = 4 V. The minimum load resistance, that can be
connected to the output is _____ kW.
QUES 1.2.19 Assuming that the diodes in the given circuit are ideal, the voltage Vo
is_____ volts.


Page 53
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
QUES 1.2.20 Assume that D1 and D2 in given figure are ideal diodes. The value of current
is _____ mA.
QUES 1.2.21
.in
The current through the Zener diode in figure is _____ mA.
.co
ia
od
.n
QUES 1.2.22
w
Assuming that in given circuit the diodes are ideal. The current in diode D1
is ____ mA.
w
w
In the zener diode voltage regulator circuit shown in the figure below, the
zener diode has the following parameter.
Vz = 5 V , Rz = 0 W
QUES 1.2.23 What is the value of RL min (Minimum load resistance) for zener voltage
regulator circuit (in kW ) ?
QUES 1.2.24 The value of output voltage vo for RL = 1 kW is ____ volts.

Page 54 QUES 1.2.25 If RL = 3, the value of power dissipation in the zener diode is ____ mW.
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

Given that a half-wave rectifier circuit driven from a transformer having
a secondary voltage of 12.6Vrms , f = 60 Hz with R = 15 W and C = 25 mF .
Assume the diode on voltage Von = 1 V .
QUES 1.2.26 The value of the DC output voltage ^Vo,dch is _____ volts.
QUES 1.2.27 The value of ripple voltage is ____ volts.
i. n
QUES 1.2.28
.c o
Assume that in the given circuit diodes are ideal. The value of ID2 is __mA.
i a
o d
. n
w w
w
QUES 1.2.29 The diode in the circuit shown below have linear parameter of Vg = 0.7 V
and rf = 0 W . The value of the current ÎD2h in diode D2 is ____ mA.
QUES 1.2.30 Given that VThermal = 26 mV . A diode is biased with a current of 1 mA. What is
the value of the current change (in mA ), if VD (Diode voltage) changes by 1 mV?
QUES 1.2.31 A transformer convert the 110 V, 60 Hz line voltage to a peak to peak swing of 9
V. A half wave rectifier follows the transformer to supply the power to the laptop
computer of RL = 0.436 W. What is the minimum value of the filter capacitor
(in Farad) that maintains the ripple below 0.1 V ? (Assume VD, on = 0.8 V )
QUES 1.2.32 A full wave rectifier is driven by a sinusoidal input Vin = Vo cos wt , where
Vo = 3 V and w = 2p ^60 Hzh. Assuming VD, on = 800 mV , what is the value
of the ripple amplitude (in volt) with a 1000 mF smoothing capacitor and a
load resistance of 30 W.


Common Data For Q. 33 and 34 : Page 55
A full wave rectifier circuit is powered by ac mains. Power transformer Chap 1
Diode Circuits
has a center-tapped secondary. RMS secondary voltage across each half of
secondary is 20 V. The dc winding resistance of each half of secondary is 5 W
. Forward resistance of diode is 2 W. If the equivalent load resistance is 50 W,
QUES 1.2.33 The value of dc power delivered to load is ____ watt.
QUES 1.2.34 The percentage load regulation is _____.
QUES 1.2.35 The efficiency of rectification is ____
QUES 1.2.36 In the circuit shown in figure, both diodes have h = 1, but D1 has 10 times
the junction area of D2 . The value of voltage V is ____ mV.
.in
.co
QUES 1.2.37
ia
Assume that the voltage drop across each of the diodes in the circuit shown
d
below is 0.7 V. The value of current through diode D1 , is ID1 = _____ mA
o
.n
ww
w
The circuit shown below has R = 100 W , RC = 2 kW , RL = 2 kW . Also, assume
a constant diode voltage of 0.6 V and capacitors are very large using the
small signal model for VC = 1.6 V .
QUES 1.2.38 What is the Q-point value of the diode current (in mA) ?
vo ^ t h
QUES 1.2.39 The value of is _____
vin ^ t h
***********

Page 56
Chap 1 EXERCISE 1.3
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.3.1 Which of the following filter types is suitable only for large values of load
MAINI/585/2 resistance ?
(A) Capacitor filter (B) Inductor filter
(C) Choke-input filter (D) p-type CLC filter
MCQ 1.3.2 Which of the following filter types is suitable only for small values of load
resistance ?
(A) Capacitor filter (B) Inductor filter
(C) Choke-input filter (D) p-type CLC filter
MCQ 1.3.3 A rectifier is used to
(A) convert a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage
i. n
(B) convert d.c. voltage to a.c. voltage
(C) both (a) and (b)
MCQ 1.3.4
(D) convert voltage to current
.c o
The ripple factor of a inductor filter is
(A) RL w
2 3L
i a (B) RL
2 3L
(C) RL
3 2 wL
o d (D) RL
3 2wL
MCQ 1.3.5
. n
A bleeded resistor is used in a d.c. power supply because it
(A) keeps the supply OFF (B) keeps the supply ON
MCQ 1.3.6
w w
(C) improves filtering action (D) improves voltage regulation
A half wave diode rectifier and full wave diode bridge rectifier both have an
w input frequency of 50 Hz. The frequencies of outputs respectively are

(A) 100 Hz and 50 Hz
(C) 100 Hz each
(B) 50 Hz and 100 Hz
(D) 50 Hz each
MCQ 1.3.7 A full wave bridge diode rectifier uses diodes having forward resistance of 50
ohms each. The load resistance is also 50 ohms. The voltage regulations is
(A) 20% (B) 50%
(C) 100% (D) 200%
MCQ 1.3.8 Which of the following components is essential for a voltage multiplier circuit
(A) resistor (B) inductor
(C) capacitor (D) both (A) and (C)
MCQ 1.3.9 In the circuit of Fig. the approximate value of Vo across the germanium
diode is


(A) 10 V (B) 5 V Page 57
(C) 2.5 V (D) 0.3 V Chap 1
Diode Circuits
MCQ 1.3.10 When used in a circuit, a zener diode is always
(A) forward-biased (B) reverse-biased
(C) connected in series (D) at a temperature below 0cC
MCQ 1.3.11 For ideal Rectifier and filter circuits, % regulations must be
(A) 1% (B) 0.1%
(C) 5% (D) 0%
MCQ 1.3.12 A particular green LED emits light of wavelength 5490cA . The energy
bandgap of the semiconductor material used there is (Planck’s constant
= 6.626 # 10-34 J- s )
(A) 2.26 eV (B) 1.98 eV
(C) 1.17 eV (D) 0.74 eV
MCQ 1.3.13 The function of bleeder resistor in a rectifier with LC filter is to
(A) maintain the minimum current through C
.in
(B) maintain the minimum current necessary for optimum inductor operation
(C) maintain maximum current through L
co
(D) Charge capacitor C to maximum value
.
MCQ 1.3.14
ia
The forward resistance of the diode shown in figure is 5 W and the remaining
parameters are same as those of an ideal diode. The dc component of the
d
source current is
o
.n
ww
w
(A) Vm
50p
V
(B) Vm
50p 2
(C) m
(D) 2Vm
100p 2 50p
MCQ 1.3.15 The relation between diode current, voltage and temperature is given by
(A) I = Io _1 - e hV i (B) I = Io _e hV - 1i
V V
T T
(C) I = Io _e + 1i
V V
hVT (D) I = Io e hVT
MCQ 1.3.16 The Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) is defined as

(A) Pdc (B) Pdc
Pac rated Pac
(C) Irms (D) Im
Idc Idc
MCQ 1.3.17 The Peak inverse voltage (PIV) of an half wave rectifier and full-wave
rectifier are
(A) Vm , 2Vm respectively (B) 2Vm , Vm respectively
V
(C) 2 , Vm respectively
m
(D) Vm , V2 respectively
m
MCQ 1.3.18 Inductor filter should be used when

(A) load current is high (B) load current is low
(C) high load resistance RL (D) none of the above

Page 58 MCQ 1.3.19 The value of critical inductance in an LC filter is

Chap 1
(A) Lc = 3wRL (B) Lc = RL
Diode Circuits 3w
(C) Lc = 3 w (D) None of the above
RL
MCQ 1.3.20 Transformer utilization factor is more for
(A) half wave rectifier
(B) center tapped full wave rectifier
(C) bridge rectifier
(D) all of the above
MCQ 1.3.21 The zener diode in the regulator circuit shown in figure has a Zener voltage
of 5.8 Volts and a Zener knee current of 0.5 mA. The maximum load current
drawn from this circuit ensuring proper functioning over the input voltage
range between 20 and 30 Volts, is
i. n
(A) 23.7 mA
(C) 13.7 mA
.c o (B) 14.2 mA
(D) 24.2 mA
MCQ 1.3.22
i a
The circuit which converts undirectional flow to D.C. is called
(A) Rectifier circuit
o
(B) Converter circuit d
. n
(C) filter circuit
MCQ 1.3.23 w
(D) Eliminator
w
The value of current that flows through RL in a ‘p’ section filter circuit at
no load is
w
LAL KISHORE
198/4
(A) 3 (B) 0.1 mA
(C) 0 (D) few mA
MCQ 1.3.24 The voltage at V1 and V2 of the arrangement shown in Fig. will be respectively.
(Assume diode cut in voltage Vg = 0.6 V )
(A) 6 V and 5.4 V

(B) 5.4 V and 6 V
(C) 3 V and 5.4 V
(D) 6 V and 5 V


MCQ 1.3.25 For an input VS = 5 sin wt (assume ideal diode), the circuit shown in Fig. will Page 59
be behave as a Chap 1
Diode Circuits
(A) clipper, sine wave clipped at - 2 V

(B) clamper, sine wave clamped at - 2 V
(C) clamper, sine wave clamped at zero volt
(D) clipped, sine wave clipped at 2 V
MCQ 1.3.26 A clipper circuit always
(A) needs a dc source
in
(B) clips both half cycles of input signal
o.
(C) clips upper portion of the signal
(D) clips some part of the input signal
MCQ 1.3.27
a.c
The primary function of a clamper circuit is to
(A) suppress variations in signal voltage
di
(B) raise positive half-cycle of the signal
no
(C) lower negative half-cycle of the signal
(D) introduce a dc level into an ac signal
MCQ 1.3.28
w.
A zener diode has a dc power dissipation rating of 500 mW and a zener
voltage rating of 6.8 V. The value of IZM is
ww
(A) 70 mA
(B) 72 mA
(C) 73.5 mA
(D) 75 mA
MCQ 1.3.29 When the reverse current in a zener diode increases from 20 mA to 30 mA,
the zener voltage changes from 5.6 V to 5.65 V. The zener resistance is
(A) 2 W (B) 3 W
(C) 4 W (D) 5 W
MCQ 1.3.30 A 4.7 V zener has a resistance of 15 W. When a current 20 mA passes
through it, then the terminal voltage is
(A) 5 V
(B) 10 V
(C) 15 V
(D) 4.7 V
MCQ 1.3.31 In a full wave rectifier, the current in each of the diodes flows for
(A) the complete cycle of the input signal
(B) half cycle of the input signal
(C) for zero time
(D) more than half cycle of input signal

Page 60 MCQ 1.3.32 The ripple factor of power supply is a measure of

Chap 1 (A) its filter efficiency
Diode Circuits
(B) diode rating
(C) its voltage regulation
(D) purity of power output
MCQ 1.3.33 Larger the value of filter capacitor
(A) larger the p-p value of ripple voltage
(B) larger the peak current in the rectifying diode
(C) longer the time that current pulse flows through the diode
(D) smaller the d.c. voltage across the load
MCQ 1.3.34 In a centre-tap full-wave rectifier, if Vm is the peak voltage between the
centre tap and one end of the secondary, the maximum voltage coming
across the reverse-biased diode is
(A) Vm (B) 2Vm
(C) Vm /2 (D) Vm / 2
MCQ 1.3.35 In a bridge type full wave rectifier, if Vm is the peak voltage across the
i. n
secondary of the transformer, the maximum voltage coming across each
reverse-biased diode is
(A) Vm
(C) Vm /2
.c o (B) 2Vm
(D) Vm / 2
MCQ 1.3.36
i a
In a half wave rectifier, the peak value of the ac. voltage across the secondary
o d
of the transformer is 20 2 V . If no filter circuit is used, the maximum d.c.
voltage across the load will be
(A) 28.28 V
.
(C) 14.14 V n (B) 25 V
(D) 9 V
w w ***********

SOLUTIONS 1.1 Page 61

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
SOL 1.1.1 Option (D) is correct.

For the given circuit, we first determine the linear region (forward bias or
reverse bias) in which the diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
equivalent circuit is,
.in
Step 2: The voltage across the diode terminal is obtained as
.co v p = vi
vn = 5 V
at the p-terminal
at the n - terminal
a
Step 3: Now, we have the condition
i
od v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
.n
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.
CASE I:
wwIf vi > 5 V , then diode is ON. So the equivalent circuit is
w
So, the output voltage is
vo = vi
CASE II:
If vi < 5 V , then diode is OFF. So equivalent circuit is
Since no current flows in the circuit (i.e. i = 0 ), so we get

vo = 5 V
Step 4: From the two results obtained in the above steps, we sketch the
output waveform as shown below.

Page 62
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
SOL 1.1.2 Option (C) is correct.

i. n
v p =- 2 V at the p-terminal
vn = vi at the n - terminal
v p > vn
.c o
diode is ON
i a
v p < vn diode is OFF
CASE I:
o d
. n
If vi < - 2 V , then diode is ON. So the equivalent circuit is,
w w
w
So, the output voltage is obtained as
vo = vi + 2
CASE II:
If vi > - 2 V , then diode is OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is,
Since no current flows in the circuit (i.e. i = 0 ), so we get

vo = 0 V
output waveform as shown below.


Page 63
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, equivalent circuit is,
in
.
.co vp = 4 V
Vn = vi
at the p-terminal
at the n - terminal
ia v p > vn diode is ON
od v p < vn diode is OFF

.n
CASE I:
wwIf vi < 4 V , then diode is ON. So the equivalent circuit is
w
So, the output voltage is,
vo = 4 V
CASE II:
If vi > 4 V , then diode is OFF. So equivalent circuit is

vo = vi

Page 64 output waveform as shown below.

Chap 1
Diode Circuits

reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that both the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
i. n
.c o
Step 2: For the assumption, the voltage across diode D1 is obtained as
i a
v p1 = vi at the p-terminal
o dvn1 = 8 V at the n - terminal

Step 3: Voltage across the diode D2 is obtained as
. n v p2 = 0 V at the p-terminal
w w vn1 = vi + 6 at the n - terminal

Step 4: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
w v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
CASE I:
If vi + 6 < 0 or vi < - 6 diode D1 is OFF and diode D2 is ON. So,
the equivalent circuit is

vo =- 6 V
CASE II:
If - 6 V < vi < 8 V , then both diodes D1 and D2 are OFF. So, the
equivalent circuit is


Page 65
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

vo = vi
CASE III:
When vi > 8 V , then diode D1 is ON and D2 is OFF. So, the
.in
.covo = 8 V
Step 5: From the results obtained in the above step, we sketch the output
a
waveform as shown below.
i
od
.n
SOL 1.1.5
ww
Option (B) is correct.
w
Step 2: Apply KVL in loop 1,

10 - 10kI - 20kI + 10 = 0
I = 20 mA = 2 mA
30 3
vo = 10 - 10 # 2 = 10 = 3.333 V
3 3
v p > vn diode is ON

Page 66 Using these conditions, we determine the output voltage.

Chap 1
Diode Circuits CASE I
vi $ 3.333 + 0.7 or vi > 4.03
Diode is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is

vo = vi - 0.7
CASE II
vi # 4.03
Diode is OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n vo = 3.33
Step 4: From the results obtained in the above step, we sketch the ransfer
w w characteristic is as shown below.
w
the equivalent circuit is,



v p < vn diode is OFF Page 67
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage. By Chap 1
using voltage divider rule, Diode Circuits
vn = 1k 15 = 5 V
1k + 2k #
CASE I :
If vi # 5.7 V then Diode is OFF, we have the same circuit as shown
above. So, the output voltage is,
vo = vi
CASE II.
If vi $ 5.7 then Diode is ON and So, the equivalent circuit is,
.in
.co
By using super node technique
vo - 0.7 - 15 + vo - 0.7 + vo - vi = 0
ia2k 1k 1k
od
vo = 0.4vi + 3.42
.n
Step 3 From the two results obtained in the above steps, we sketch the Transfer
w
characteristic is as shown below. So, the transfer characteristic is
w
w
reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage
CASE I:
For positive part of vs ^0 # vs # 10 Vh: For vs > 0 V , when D1 is
OFF current through D2 is (D2 is ON). So, the equivalent circuit
stage is

Page 68
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
I = 10 - 0.7 = 0.465 mA
10 + 10
vo = 10k # 0.465 mA = 4.65 V
If vs > 4.65 then diode D 4 is always OFF. So, the equivalent circuit
is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w So, the output voltage is
w vo = 4.65 V
If 0 < vs < 4.65 , diode D 3 and D 4 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit
is,

vo = vs - 0.7 + 0.7 = vs


CASE II:
Page 69
For negative part of vs ^- 10 # vs # 0h: For vs < 0 V , when D 3 is Chap 1
OFF and D 4 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is Diode Circuits
Current through D 4 is
- 0.7 - ^- 10h
I = = 0.465 mA
10 + 10
vo =-^10k # 0.465h =- 4.65
If vs > - 4.65 then D1 & D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is,
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
ww
w So, the output voltage is
vo = vs
If - 10 < vs < - 4.65 then D2 is OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is

vo =- 4.65 V

Page 70 Step 3: From the results obtained in the above steps, we sketch the Transfer
Chap 1 characteristic is as shown below.
Diode Circuits
SOL 1.1.8 Option (B) is correct.

output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
i. n
.c o
i a
o dv p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
. n
w w CASE I:
If vi < 2.5 V then diode is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is,
w
vo = vi & vo =- 10 V
CASE II.
If vi > 2.5 V ,then diode is OFF, rr = 2 MW . So, the equivalent circuit
is
For positive wave waveform,


vi = 10 V Page 71
Nodal analysis at Node vo , Chap 1
vo - vi + vo - 2.5 = 0 Diode Circuits
2M 1M
3vo = vi + 5
3vo = 15
vo = 5 V
output waveform is as shown below.
.in
SOL 1.1.9
.co
For this circuit KVL gives,
v1 - v 2 = v D - v D ,
ia 1 2
v1 - v 3 = v D - v D
d
1 3
Suppose that v1 is positive and exceeds v2 and v 3 . Then D1 must be forward-
no
biased with vD = 0 and consequently vD < 0 and vD < 0 . Hence D2 and D 3
1 2 3
block, while v1 is passed as vo . This is so in general. The largest positive
w.
input signal is passed as vo , while the remainder of the input signals are
blocked. If all input signals are negative, vo = 0 .
SOL 1.1.10
ww
This is a clamper circuit. Clamper circuit consists capacitor and a diode.
The capacitor is in series and the diode in shunt. In clamper circuit,
1. When the diode is in downward direction the total signal will be clamp
below the reference voltage.
2. When the diode is in upward direction the total signal will be clamp
In the given circuit, the diode is in upward direction and the reference
voltage is zero then the total signal will be clamp above the 0 V. So, the
output voltage is
ALTERNATIVE METHOD :
For the given circuit, we consider the following two cases:
CASE I:
In negative cycle diode will be ON and Capacitor will be charged
So, the equivalent circuit is,

Page 72
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
vo = 0
CASE II:
In positive half cycle diode will be OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is
By using KVL in loop 1, we have

vo = 10 + 10 = 20 V
From the two results obtained in the above cases, we sketch the output
voltage as shown below.
i. n
.c o
i a
SOL 1.1.11
o
Option (A) is correct. d
. n
This is a clamper circuit. In this circuit, the diode is in upward direction. So,
total signal will be clamp above the + 5 V . From the results obtained in the
w
above steps, we sketch the output waveform is as shown below.
w
w
During - 20 V cycle of vi , diode is ON and capacitor will charge up
instantaneously to 25 V. Output is + 5 V during this cycle.
During the +10 V of vi , diode is OFF and capacitor will hold on this voltage
level, giving total output voltage +35 V.
SOL 1.1.12 Option (A) is correct.
In DC equivalent circuit capacitor is open. So, the equivalent circuit is


Current through diode is I . So, we get the small signal resistance Page 73
hV hV Chap 1
rd = T = T
Idc I Diode Circuits
The small signal equivalent circuit is as follows
For small signal response, open dc current source, short capacitor C1 and C2 ,
and replace diode with it small signal resistance rd . So, the output voltage is
hVT
vo = v s rd
= vs I
rd + Rs hVT
+ Rs
I
hVT hVT
= vs = vs
hVT + Rs hVT + IRs
SOL 1.1.13
.in
Option (A) is correct.
output.
.co
ia
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, the equivalent circuit is
od
.n
ww
w
Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage. So,
v pn1 = 10 - 0 = 10 V
v pn2 = 5 - 0 = 5 V
Step 3: Assume diode is D1 is ON and diode D2 is OFF.
Current through diode D1 ,
iD1 = v1 - 0 = 10 - 0 = 1 Amp
1+9 1+9

Page 74 So output voltage,

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
vo = 1 # 9 = 9 V
Voltage across diode D2
v pn2 = v p2 - vn2
= 5 - 9 =- 4
So diode D2 is in OFF state.
Step 4: From the results obtained in the above steps, the output voltage is,
Vo = 9 V

output.
Step 1:Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
Since, the equivalent circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
d
o
. n v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
w w Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.

Step 3: Assume that diode D1 and D2 is in ON state. So, the equivalent
circuit is
Nodal analysis
v 0 - 10 + vo - 10 + vo = 0
1 1 9
Step 4: From the two results obtained in the above steps, the output voltage
is,
vo = 20 # 9 = 9.474 V
19
In this case iD1 and iD2 both are positive. So, D1 and D2 are ON
(assumption is correct)


reverse bias) in which the two diodes are operating, and then obtain the Page 75
output. Chap 1
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit Diode Circuits

Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage.So the
.in
.co
ia
od
.n
Step 3: From the results obtained in the above steps, the output voltage is,
vo = 5 # 9 = 4.5 V
SOL 1.1.16
ww
10
w
reverse bias) in which the two diode are operating, and then obtain the
output.

Applying these conditions, we determine the output voltage
Step 3: Diode D1 and D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is

Page 76
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Using Nodal analysis

vo - 10 + vo - 10 + vo - 5 = 0
1 1 9
vo = 9.737 V
For this voltage, iD1 and iD2 are positive, so D1 and D2 are ON
(assumption is correct).
i. n
output.
.c o
Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes
Step 3: Diode D1 is OFF and D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is
Node analysis at node vo

vo - 10 + vo - 5 V = 0
1W 9W
10vo = 95


So, the output voltage is Page 77
vo = 9.5 V Chap 1
Diode Circuits
In this case, iD1 is negative, iD2 is positive, so D1 is OFF and D2 is
ON (i.e. assumption is correct).
For the given circuit, we determine the linear region (forward bias or reverse
bias) in which the two diodes are operating.
in
o. v p < vn diode is OFF

Applying these conditions, we analyse the circuit.
.c
Step 3: Both diodes are ON. So, the equivalent circuit is
a
di
no
w.
Using Nodal analysis at Node 1,
ww V - 4.8 + V + V - 4.4 = 0
12 18 6
V = 3.71 V
In this case, iD1 and iD2 are positive, so D1 and D2 are ON (assumption
is correct).
output.

Page 78 v p > vn diode is ON

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Applying these conditions, we obtain the required unknowns.
Step 3: When diode D2 is ON. So, the equivalent circuit is
v = 3 - 0.7 = 2.3 V
This diode D1 is not conducting because of diode D2 is ON. (highly
forward biased).
2.3 - ^- 3h
i = = 2.65 mA
2
i. n
output.
.c
So, the equivalent circuit is,o
i a
o d
. n
w w
v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we obtain the required unknowns
Step 3: Diode D1 is OFF & D2 is ON. Since the equivalent circuit is
v =5V
i = 5-v
10 kW
= 5 - 5 = 0 mA
10k
The given circuit is,


Page 79
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
vs - v1 > 0.6
For both diode is ON when v1 > 0.6 . Using nodal analysis at node v1 ,
v 1 + 0. 6 - v s + v 1 - v s + v 1 + v 1 - 0 . 6 = 0
5k 5k 500 500
v1 = 2vs + 5.4 > 0.6
22
vs > 3.9 V
The thevenin equivalent circuit for the network to the left of terminal ab is
shown below.
.in
.co
ia
od
.n vTH = 100 (2 + cos wt) = 1 + 0.5 cos wt V
200
ww RTH = 100 # 100 = 50 W

100 + 100
The diode can be modeled with v f = 0.5 V and
w rf = 0.7 - 0.5 = 50 W ,
0.004
v - vf
iD = TH = 1 + 0.5 cos wt - 0.5
RTH + rf 50 + 50
= 5 (1 + cos wt) mA
The voltage, vD = rf iD + v f
= 50 # 5 (1 + cos wt) # 10-3 + 0.5
= 0.75 + 0.25 cos wt = 0.25 (3 + cos wt) V
The output voltage cannot exceed the positive power supply voltage and
cannot be lower than the negative power supply voltage.
For Zener diode
| Vpn | > Vz Zener diode is ON
| Vpn | < Vz Zener diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we determine the Q-point of the zener diode.
If we assume that the Zener diode is off, then the voltage across resistor (the
diode) is given by

Page 80
V = 3.6 20
Chap 1 11 + 3.6 #
Diode Circuits = 4.93
So, V > vz
Therefore, the zener diode is in ON State. In ON condition, the diode circuit
is
So, the current through the diode is
Iz = iR - iC = 20 - 4 - 4
11k 3. 6
= 0.343 mA
Given the current through the Zener diode,
The given circuit is

5 # iz # 100 mA
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
From the circuit, we have
w
So,w iL = iR - iz
iL^maxh = iR - iz (min) = 6.3 - 4.8 - 5 = 125 - 5
12
w and iL (min)
= 120 mA
= iR - iz (max) = 125 - 100
= 25 mA
Thus, 25 m # iL # 120 mA
In Previous Question, the range of iL is
25 # iL # 120 mA
So, 25 m # 4.8 # 120 mA
RL
or 40 # RL # 192 W
The power rating required for the load resistor is
pL = iL (max) vz = ^120h^4.8h = 576 mW
output.


So, the equivalent circuit is, Page 81
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes are
For normal diode,
For Zener diode,
| Vpn | < Vz Zener diode is OFF
CASE I:
.in
If vi < - 0.7 , pn diode are OFF and zener diode behave as forward
.co
bias. So, the equivalent circuit is
ia
od
.n
wwCASE II:
vo =- 0.7
w - 0.7 # vi # 5.7 both zener and diode D will be off. So, the
vo = vi
CASE III:
5.7 < vi < 10 Diode D will be ON and zener will be OFF. So, the

Page 82 vo = 5 + 0.7 = 5.7 V

Chap 1 Step 3: From the results obtained in the above steps, the transfer
Diode Circuits characteristics is

From the characteristics of voltage and current, we observe that only positive
current flowing through the element and negative cycle is blocked. Therefore,
given element is forward diode.
i. n
.c o
as
i a
Step 1: We have the input waveform, vi = 5 sin wt . So, we draw the waveform
o d
. n
w w
w Step 2: For half part of the circuit. When positive half cycle of input is
applied, diode D1 is ON and D2 is OFF. So, capacitor C1 will charge
upto + 5 Volt
VC =+ 5 Volt
1
This is a clamper circuit. So, output of the circuit is
In this clamper, diode is in downward position. So, it is negative

clamper.


Step 3: Second part of the circuit is peak detector as shown below. Page 83
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
So, it allows only peaks at the output. Thus, from the results obtained
in the above step, the output voltage is
VC =- 10 Volt
2

reverse bias) in which the diode are operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit So,
in
the equivalent circuit is,
o.
a.c
di
no
w.
ww v p < vn diode is OFF

Applying these conditions, we obtain the required unknowns
Step 3: In the given circuit, D 3 is always OFF because it is connected to 5 A
current source and D1 is always ON because it is connected to 10 V
battery source. So, voltage drop across D1 is always positive.
Step 4: Now, we check for D2 diode.
v p = 0 V , vn = 2.5 V (current divider rule)

Since, diode current and voltage is negative. So, D2 is OFF.
Step 5: Thus, from results obtained in above case, we conclude that D1 is
ON, D2 is OFF, and D 3 is OFF.

Page 84 Step 1: Assume that the diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit. The
Chap 1 equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits
According to voltage divide rule, the output voltage is
vo = 10k 10 sin wt = 5 sin wt

10k + 10k #
v p < vn
So diode is always OFF. Thus, we get the output voltage as shown
below.
i. n
.c o
i a
SOL 1.1.34
o
d
. n
w
output.
w
w The equivalent circuit is

CASE I:
If vi < 10 V D1 is OFF. Since,
vo = 10 V
So, D2 is OFF. Since the equivalent circuit is


Page 85
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
The output voltage is

vo = 10 V
CASE II:
If vi > 10 Volt , D1 is ON, i.e.
vo = vi
So, D2 is OFF. Since the equivalent circuit is
.in
.co
The output voltage is
vo = vi
ia
Step 3: In both cases diode D2 is always OFF. From the results obtained in
above steps, we get the transfer characteristic as
od
.n
ww
SOL 1.1.35 w
Option (D) is correct.
For the given input signal, we obtain the output in following steps:
Step 1: In the positive half cycle (when Vin > 4 V ), diode D2 conducts and
D1 will be off. So, the equivalent circuit is

Vout = + 4 Volt
This is the maximum output voltage.
Step 2: In the negative half cycle diode D1 conducts and D2 will be off so the
circuit is

Page 86
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Applying KVL,
Vin - 10kI + 4 - 10kI = 0
Vin + 4 = I
20k
Since, the minimum input voltage is Vin =- 10 V , so we obtain the
corresponding current as
I = - 10 + 4 =- 3 mA
20k 10
Thus, the minimum output voltage is obtained as
Vin - Vout = I
i. n
10
- 10 - Vout =- 3 m
10k 10
.c o
Vout =- (10 - 3)
=- 7 volt
i a
o d
This is a half-wave rectifier circuit. So, the dc voltage is given by,
Vdc = Vm
. n p
Equivalent circuit with forward resistance is
w w
w
So, the dc current in the circuit is
Vm
(Vm /p)
Idc = p = = Vm
rf + R (5 + 45) 50p
For the given input voltage, we consider the following two cases.
CASE I:
For positive half cycle ^vo < 4 Vh, the equivalent circuit is
By using voltage divider rule,


vo = 1k 10 sin wt Page 87
1k + 1k Chap 1
vo = 5 sin wt Diode Circuits
For peak positive value of input zener diode will be ON state So,
vo = 3.3 + 0.7
vo = 4 V
CASE II:
For negative value of input, the zener diode will be in OFF state. So, the
.in
.co
ia
od
So, we get the output voltage as
vo =- 1k # 10 sin wt
1k + 1k
.n =- 5 sin wt
ww
Thus, we have the peak value
vo =- 5
Option (C) is correct.
w
SOL 1.1.38
When the switch is opened, current flows through capacitor and diode is ON
in this condition. So, the equivalent circuit during TOFF is
I = C dVc
dt
& Vc = I t + Vc (0)
C
Initially, Vc (0) = 0
Vc = I t
C
At t = Toff , Vc = I Toff
C
So, the duty cycle is
D = TON = TON
TON + TOFF T
TON = DT

Page 88 TOFF = T - TON = T - DT

Chap 1
So, Vc = I (T - DT)
Diode Circuits C
= I (1 - D) T
C
During TOFF , output voltage is
Vo = 0 volt .
When the switch is closed, diode is off and the circuit is,
In steady state condition,

C dVc = I2
dt
I2 = C I
C
i. n a dVc = I
dt C
Average output voltage,

Vo =- Vc = - I t
C
.c o
Vo = 1 ; #
d
T 0
ia
DT = T
ON I
b-C t l dt +
TOFF
#0 0 dtE
o
2 DT
=- 1 . I :t D
T C 2 0
. n 2 2
=- 1 . I . D T =- I D .T
T C 2 C 2
2
SOL 1.1.40
w w
w reverse bias) in which the three diodes are operating, and then obtain the
output.
Step 1: Assume that the three diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
So, equivalent circuit is
As seen by biasing of diode, for each diode the p-terminal of diode

is greater than the n -terminal. So, our assumption is incorrect.
Step 2: For first iteration, assume that all three diode are ON. So, equivalent
circuit is


Page 89
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
VC = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
VB =- 0.6 + 0.6 = 0 V
VA = VB - 0.6 = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
So, current I1 is
I1 = 10 - VB = 10 - 0 = 1 mA
10 kW 10k
Current through diode D1 is
.in
ID1 =
VA - ^- 20h
10 kW
= - 0.6 + 20 = 1.94 mA
10k
. o
Also, current I2 is
c VC - ^- 10h
= - 0.6 + 10 = 0.94 mA
ia I2 =
10k 10k
od
Applying KCL at node VB ,
I 1 = I D1 + I D2
.n 1 mA = 1.94 mA + ID2
ID2 =- 0.94 mA 1 0
wwApplying KCL at node VC ,

I D2 + I D 3 = I 2
w - 0.94 mA + ID3 = 0.94 mA

ID3 = 1.86 mA 2 0
From the result ID1 and ID3 are greater than zero and ID2 which is
less than zero, represent a contradiction. So, diode D 3 will be OFF.
Step 3: For second iteration let us assume D1 and D 3 are ON and D2 is OFF
so
Applying KVL in Loop 1,

10 - 10kI1 - 0.6 - 10ID1 - ^- 20h = 0
In Loop 1, we have I1 = ID1 . Substituting it in above expression,

ID1 = 29.4 = 1.47 mA 2 0

Page 90
Chap 1 20k
Diode Circuits Current through diode D 3 is
- 0.6 - ^- 10h
ID3 = = 0.94 mA 2 0
10k
Current through diode D2 is
ID2 = 0 (because D2 is OFF)
From previous solution the equivalent circuit is
i. n
So voltage drop at diode D1 is
VD1 = 0.6 V
Voltage drop across diode D 3 is
.c o
i a
VD3 = 0.6 V
o d
and voltage across the diode D2 is
VD2 = VP2 - Vn2
.
where
n Vn2 = 0 - 0.6 =- 0.6 V
and
w
So,
w VP2 = 10 - I1 R1 (Put I1 = 1.47 m )
= 10 - 1.47 m # 10 kW =- 4.70 V
VD2 = VP2 - Vn2
w
=- 4.70 - ^- 0.6h =- 4.10 V
Let us consider the given circuit for nominal and worst cases.
CASE I:For Nominal Values

Assume that Zener diode is OFF and redraw the given circuit,

vo = 10k 30 = 12 V
10k + 15k #
vo > vz
So, zener diode is in ON state. Therefore, the equivalent circuit is


Page 91
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Applying KCL at vz node,

IS = I z + I L
or 30 - 9 = I + vz - 0
z
15 kW 10k
or Iz = 21 - 9 = 0.5 mA
15k 10k
So, nominal value of zener diode current is
I znom = 0.5 mA
CASE II: For Worst Values
For 5 % tolerance (worst case), we have
VS max = 30 ^1.05h = 31.5
.in VS min = 30 ^0.95h = 28.5

= 15k ^1.05h = 15.75 kW
.co RS max
RS min = 15 ^0.95h = 14.25 kW
= 10k ^1.05h = 10.5 kW
ia RL max
RL min = 10 ^0.95h = 9.5 kW
od Vz max
Vz max
= 9 ^1.05h = 9.45 V
= 9 ^0.95h = 8.55 V
.n Iz = IS - I L
ww
For Iz max
Iz = VS - Vz - Vz - 0
I zworst
max =
RS RL
VS max - Vz min - Vz min
w I zworst
max =
RS min
31.5 - 8.55 - 8.55
14.25k
RL max
10.5
= 1.610 mA - 0.814 m = 0.796 mA
For Iz min I zworst
min = VS min - Vz max - Vz max
RS max RL min
I zworst
min = 28.50 - 9.45 - 9.45
15.75k 9.5k
= 1.209 mA - 0.99 mA = 0.215 mA
From the solution obtained in previous problem,
I znom = 0.50 mA
So, P znom = V znom Îz hnom
= 9 # 0.5 = 4.5 mW
In calculation of I zmax we use V zmin . So, P zmax is also calculated for the same
condition. Therefore, the maximum power dissipation is
P zmax = V zmin I zmax
= 8.55 # 0.796 m = 6.81 mW
Similarly, P zmin = V zmax I zmin

Page 92 = 9.45 # 0.215 m = 2.03 mW

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
bias) in which the two diode are operating.
So, equivalent circuit is
i. n
.c
D1 is ON and diode D2 is OFF. o
For these condition, we conclude from the above circuit that diode
as
i a
Step 3: For the result obtained in above step, we draw the equivalent circuit
o d
. n
w w
w
Thus, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF is correct option.
bias) in which the diode are operating.
Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,


Step 2: Now, we have the condition for both the diodes Page 93
v p > vn diode is ON Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Applying these conditions to above circuit, we conclude that D1 , D2
, D 3 are ON.
Step 3: If D1 , D2 , D 3 are ON, then equivalent circuit is
.in
Current I1 = 10 - 5 = 1.667 mA
3k
.co
Current I2 = 5 - 0 = 0.714 mA
7k
Applying KCL at vA node,
ia i 1 + i D2 = I 2
od iD2 = 0.714 mA - 1.667 m

=- 0.9527 mA
.n
So, diode D2 is OFF because iD2 1 0
Step 4: For diode D2 to be OFF, the modified circuit is
ww
w
Current i1 = 10 - 0 = 1 mA
3k + 7k
0 - ^- 5h
Current i 3 = = 2 mA
2.5k
Applying KCL at Node VB ,
i 1 + i D3 = i 3
iD3 = 2 m - 1 mA = 1 mA
ID3 2 0
So, diode D 3 is ON.
Step 5: Thus, from the above results, we have
D1 D2 D3
FB RB FB

Page 94 SOL 1.1.46 Option (C) is correct.

Chap 1 Since, 15 V voltage source is used for biasing the diodes. So, the applied
Diode Circuits
voltage will turn both diodes ON. Therefore, we get the equivalent circuit as
In this case, the voltage across the parallel arm is not same. So it does not
follow the KVL rule. When the supply is turned ON, it will increase from
0 to 15 V within milliseconds. During the rise in voltage across the diodes,
when 0.3 V is established across the germanium diode it will turn ‘ON’ and
maintain a level of 0.3 V. So, silicon diode always remains OFF. Therefore,
we get the equivalent circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
SOL 1.1.47
w w
w For the given circuit, we first determine the region (ON or OFF region) in
which the zener diode is operating, and then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the zener diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit.
Condition for ON state of zener diode is

VA $ vz
Since, zener diode will be ON. So, we have
VA min = 20 V
VA = RL v
R + RL # L
VA min = RL # vi min
R + RL
^R + RL h
vi min = # vA min
RL


Page 95
= 1200 + 220 # 20 Chap 1
1200
Diode Circuits
= 23.67 V
So, the load current is
iL = Vz - 0 = 20 = 16.67 mA
1.2 k 1.2 k
Applying KCL at node VA ,
IR = Iz + IL
IR max = Iz max + IL
vi max - vz = 60m + 16.67 mA
R
vi max = 76.67m # 220 + vz
= 16.87 V + 20 V = 36.87 V
For the given input waveform, we obtain the output voltage waveform
considering the positive and negative half cycles.
CASE I:
.in
o
For positive half wave of the input, the diode D1 and D 3 will be forward
c
biased and diode D2 , D 4 will be reverse diode. So, equivalent circuit diagram
is
.
ia
od
.n
ww
w
vo + vi = 0
vo =- vi ...(1)
CASE II:
For negative half cycle of the input, the diode D 4 and D2 will be ON, and
D1 and D 3 will be OFF. So, the equivalent circuit is

vo - vi + 0 = 0
vo = vi
Thus, from the obtained results in above two cases, we get the complete
output waveform as

Page 96
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

For the given problem, we analyze the clamper circuit as
Step 1: In clamper circuit, the capacitor in series and diode in shunt. In peak
detector diode is in series and capacitor in shunt. So, we conclude
that circuit given in options (a), (b), and (c) are clamper circuit, but
the circuit given in option (d) is peak detector.
Step 2: Again, we observe that the output waveform is clamped downward
the reference voltage, it means the direction of diode must be in
downward direction and the reference voltage is V = 2 V . Thus,
option (b) follows the condition.
Given the circuit,
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
. n
w w
So, the current flowing through resistor R1 is given by
I = Vad - Vout
w R1
= 3 - 2.4 = 6 mA
100
Since, no current is drawn by cellphone, so this current I flows through each
diode and hence diode current equation is
VD
I = IS eV T
or 6 m = IS e 800m
26m
or IS = 2.602 # 10-16 A
When there is no load ^RL = 3h, IL = 0 . Under this condition, maximum
current flows through the zener diode. So, maximum current passing through
zener is IzM , when load current is zero. This current is more than IzT , so
voltage across zener diode changes due to small zener resistance. Therefore,
the maximum zener voltage is
^Vz hmax = Vz + Îz max - IzT h Rz
= 12 + ^76m - 21mh 9
= 12 + 0.495 = 12.5 V
Similarly, we obtain the minimum Zener voltage as


^Vz hmin = Vz - ÎzT - Iz minh Rz Page 97
= Vz - ÎzT - IzK h Rz Chap 1
= 12 - ^21 - 1h 9 m = 11.82 V
Diode Circuits

Consider the given circuit,
Applying KCL at node A,

I L = IS - I z
ÎL hmax = ÎS hmax - Iz min
= Vi - Vz min - Izk Rz - Izk
in
R
o. = 24 - 11.82 - 1 # 9 - 1m
330
SOL 1.1.53
a.c
= 36.88m - 1m = 35.88 mA
di
When load current is maximum, the load resistance will be
RL = Vz min
no IL max
= 11.82 = 329.43 W
SOL 1.1.54
w.
35.88m
For the given circuit, we first determine the region (ON or OFF region)
ww
in which the zener diode is operating, and the normal diode is forward or
reverse then obtain the output.
Step 1: Assume that the zener diode is OFF, and replace it by open circuit
Zener diode operates in ON state, if

Vref $ vz
Step 2: From the biasing, we observe that the diode is in forward bias and
zener diode is in ON state So, equivalent circuit is

Page 98 The reference voltage for the circuit is

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Vref = Vz + Vg
= 6.2 + 0.7 = 6.9 V
Step 3: Thus, the temperature coefficient is obtained as
Vz a z + Vf a f 6.2 # 0.02 + ^- 1.8mh

= 100
Vz + Vf 6.9
= 1.24m - 1.8m
6.9
=- 0.56m /cC
6.9
=- 0.0811 m/cC
=- 0.008 %/cC
The new value of Vref at 50cC = Vref + TT # temperature coefficient
= 6.9 - 0.56m # ^50 - 25h
= 6.9 - 0.014 = 6.886 V
i. n
.c o
a
i
o d
. n
w w
Applying these conditions, we conclude that the diodes D1, D2 are
ON.
Step 3: When both diodes are operating in ON state, we have the equivalent
network as
By nodal analysis, we obtain the voltage at node A as

V - 0 + V - ^- 10h = 5m
2k 1k


V + 2V + 20 = 5m # 2k Page 99
3V =- 10 Chap 1
Diode Circuits
V =- 10
3
Step 4: At node A voltage is negative, so we get
VPn1 < 0 , VPn2 > 0
Therefore, diode D1 is OFF and diode D2 is ON. So, equivalent
circuit is as shown below.
From the above circuit, ID2 > 0 . Thus, diode D1 is OFF and Diode
D2 is ON.
.in
o
SOL 1.1.57
We have the condition for both the diodes are
.c
For normal diode,
a
di v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
diode is OFF
no
For Zener diode,
w. | Vpn | < Vz Zener diode is OFF

Using these conditions, we analyze the given circuit.
ww
Step 1: For positive half cycle, the diode D2 , D 3 , D 4 are operating in OFF
state and diode D1 is in forward biased for Vi 2 0.6 . Now, consider
the following two cases for positive half cycle.
CASE I:
If 0 1 vi 1 10 V , then zener diode is in OFF state. So, it operates
as normal diode. In this case, the voltage across zener diode VPn 1 0
. So, it operates in reverse bias.
So, output voltage vo = vin
CASE II:
If vi 2 10 V , then voltage across zener diode is V 2 vz . So, zener
diode is in ON state.

Page 100
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

vo = 9.4 + 0.6 = 10 V
Step 2: For negative half cycle, the diode D1 is in reverse bias. So, no more
use of zener diode and diode D2 , D 3 , D 4 are ON if vi < - 1.8 V other
wise it is OFF. Consider the following cases for negative half cycle.
CASE I:
When - 1.8 1 vin 1 0 , the equivalent circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
vo = vin
CASE II:
o d
. n
If vin 1- 1.8 V , then diode D2 , D 3 and D 4 is in ON state. So,
w w
w
Therefore, the output voltage is
vo =- 0.6 - 0.6 - 0.6
=- 1.8 V
Step 3: From the above results, we sketch the plot between vin and vo as



Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. Page 101
So, the equivalent circuit is Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Step 2: By using voltage divide rule, we have
vP2 = 5k 15 = 5 V
5k + 10k #
So, voltage across diodes D1 and D2 are
vPn1 = 15 V and vPn2 = 5 V
Step 3: Now, we have the operating conditions for the diode
.in v p > vn
v p < vn
diode is ON
co diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that both diodes are
.
operating in ON state. But, the n -terminals of diode are commonly
a
connected, so the result is incorrect.
i
d
Step 4: For the obtained voltage, we conclude that diode D1 approaches the
ON state first. So, we check for D1 ON and D2 OFF. The equivalent
o
circuit is
.n
ww
w
Step 5: By using voltage divider rule, we have
vP2 = 5k 15 = 5 V
5k + 10k #
vn2 = 10k # 15 = 10 V
5k + 10k
So, voltage across diode D2 is
vPn2 = 5 - 10
vPn2 =- 5
vPn2 1 0
i.e. diode D2 is OFF (assumption is correct). Thus, diode D1 is ON
and D2 is OFF.
bias) in which the diodes are operating.
Step 1: Assume that all the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit.

Page 102 So, the equivalent circuit is

Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Step 2: By using voltage divider rule,
1k + 1k + 1k + 1k # ^
V1 = 1k 15 - ^- 15hh
V1 = 1 # 30 = 7.5 V
4
Voltage across diode D1 is
vPn1 = vP1 - vn1
= V1 - 0 = 7.5 V
vPn1 2 0
Step 3: Now, we have the condition for the diode
v p > vn
v p < vn i. n
diode is ON
diode is OFF
.c o
For these conditions, we conclude that diode D1 is ON.
Step 4: Now, we draw the equivalent circuit (for the diode D1 ON) for
a
checking the operating regions of diodes D2 and D 3 .
i
o d
. n
w w
Step 5: Using voltage divider rule,
w V2 =
1k + 1k + 1k ^
=- 5 V
1k - 15 Vh
vPn2 = vP2 - vn2

= 0 - ^- 5h = 5
So, diode D2 is also ON.
Step 6: Again, we redraw the equivalent circuit (for the diodes D1 and D 3
ON) for checking the operating region of diode D 3 .
V3 = 1 kW ^- 15h =- 7.5 V
1k + 1k
vPn3 = VP3 - Vn3


=- 7.5 - 0 =- 7.5 V Page 103
vPn3 1 0 Chap 1
So, diode D 3 is OFF. Diode Circuits
Step 7: Thus, combining the all results obtained in above cases, we conclude
that diode D1 is ON, D2 is ON, and diode D 3 is OFF.
From the results obtained in previous problem, we have the equivalent
circuit as
Thus, we get the voltage,

V = V2 - V3
in
= 0 - ^- 7.5 Vh
and the current,

o. = 7.5 V
a.c I = V1 - V2
1 kW
di = 0 - 0 = 0 Amp
1k
no **********
w.
ww

Page 104
Chap 1 SOLUTIONS 1.2
Diode Circuits
SOL 1.2.1 Correct answer is 4.

reverse bias) in which the diodes are operating, and then obtain the required
unknowns.
Step 2: Now, we have the condition i. n

v p > vn
v p < vn
.c o
diode is ON
i a diode is OFF
Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode D1 is OFF and
D2 is ON.
o d
Step 3: For the result obtained in the above case, the equivalent circuit is
. n
w w
w
i1 = 0 mA , i2 = 5 - 3 = 4 mA
500
SOL 1.2.2 Correct answer is - 3.57 .



Applying these conditions, we conclude that both diodes are ON. Page 105
But, the p-terminals of the diodes are commonly connected, so it Chap 1
violates the result. Diode Circuits
Step 3: When diode D1 is OFF, and diode D2 is ON, then equivalent circuit
is
10 - 0.7 - ^- 10h
I = = 1.287 mA
15k
V = 10 - ^1.287 mh # 10k =- 2.87 V
So, diode D1 is OFF (our assumption is correct).
Step 4: For the diode D1 OFF, we have
.in
iD1 = 0 mA
So,
.co vo =- 10 + ^5kh^1.287 mh
=- 3.57 V
SOL 1.2.3
ia
Correct answer is - 2 .
od
.n
ww
w
Step 2: By using voltage divider rule,
vA = 10k 4=2V
10k + 10k #
vB = 10k 8=4V
10k + 10k #
Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode is OFF.
Step 4: So, the voltage across diode is
vD = vA - vB = 2 - 4 =- 2 V
SOL 1.2.4 Correct answer is 2.93.
Each diode having a forward bias current or iD > 0 . So, each diode is
operating in ON state. Therefore, the equivalent circuit is

Page 106
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
From the circuit,we obtain the resistance

R1 = 9.4 - 4.4
0.5
= 10 kW
4.4 - ^- 0.6h
i. n
R2 =
1
= 5 kW
R3 =
- 0.6 - ^- 5h
1.5
.c o
i
= 2.93 kW
a
SOL 1.2.5 Correct answer is 7.6 .
If D 3 is ON, then
o d
.
In this case, n vo = 5 - 0.6 = 4.4
w w iD1 < 0 , iD2 > 0

So, diode D1 is OFF and diode D2 is ON. Therefore, the equivalent circuit is
Thus, the current through the diode D2 is

iD2 = 4.4 - 0.6
0.5k
= 7.6 mA
SOL 1.2.6 Correct answer is 1.07 .



Page 107
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode D1 is OFF and D2
is ON.
Step 3: So, the equivalent circuit is
.in
.co
ia
od
Using Nodal analysis, we obtain the output voltage as
vo - 10 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 = 0
.n 9.5 0.5k
SOL 1.2.7
ww
Correct answer is 5.82 .
v 0 = 1.07 V
w
If v1 = 10 V , v2 = 5 V , then D2 is OFF and D2 is ON. In that case, the
Using nodal analysis at node vo ,

vo - 10 + vo - 0.6 - 5 = 0
9.5 0.5
v 0 = 5.82 V
the equivalent circuit is (for v1 = v2 = 0 )

Page 108
Chap 1
Diode Circuits

Applying these conditions, we conclude that both diodes will be ON.
Step 3: For the both diodes operating in ON condition, we have the equivalent
circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
d
By using nodal analysis at node vo ,
vo - 10 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 + ^vo - 0.6h - 0 = 0
o
.
9.5k
n 0.5k 0.5k
vo = 0.842 V
SOL 1.2.9
w w
Correct answer is 8.93 .
w

Applying these conditions, we conclude that diode D2 is OFF and D1
is ON.
Step 3: For the obtained operating state, the equivalent circuit is


Page 109
Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Using Nodal analysis, we get the output voltage as

vo - 0 + ^vo + 0.6h - 10 = 0
9.5k 500
vo = 8.93 V
In previous problem, we have obtained the output voltage
vo = 8.93 V
This is the voltage at n -terminal of D2 . So, the required voltage v2 to turn
ON the diode D2 is
in
v2 = 8.93 + 0.60 = 9.53 V
o.
Since, for the given problem we have v2 = 5 V. So, the output in this case is
same as in previous.
SOL 1.2.11
Now, we have
a.c
Correct answer is 9.16.
di v2 = 10 V
which is greater than the required voltage to turn ON the diode D2 . So,
o
the diodes D1 and D2 both are ON for the given voltage. Therefore, the
n
.
w
ww
Applying KCL at node vo ,
vo - 0 + ^vo + 0.6h - 10 + ^vo + 0.6h - 10 = 0
9.5k .5k .5k
or vo = 9.16 V
Since the diodes are connected in parallel, so each diode has the current
iD = 0.1 A = 0.01 A
10

Page 110 For Zener diode,

Chap 1
vo > vz Zener diode is ON
Diode Circuits
, vo < vz Zener diode is OFF
Zener diode in ON state.
According to KCL
iR = iz + iL
For iL (max) & iz (min) = 0
iR = iL (max)
iL (max) = 30 - 9 = 1.4 mA
15 kW
We have the given circuit,
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Step 1: From the circuit, the voltage across Zener diode is obtained as
. n V = 75 # 50 = 16.66 V
225
w w
Step 2: For Zener diode, we have the condition
V > vz Zener diode is ON
w V < vz Zener diode is OFF

Checking this condition for the obtained value V , we conclude that
V > Vz
16.66 > 15 V
i.e. the Zener diode is ON.
Step 3: For the Zener diode operating in ON condition, the equivalent circuit
is
Step 4: From the equivalent circuit, we obtain the current through Zener
diode as
iR = iz + iL
iz = iR - iL = 50 - 15 - 15
150 75
iz = 33.33 mA


Step 5: So, the power dissipation in Zener diode is Page 111
pz = vz # iz = 15 # 33.33 = 0.5 Watt Chap 1
Diode Circuits
Zener diode is operating in ON state, so equivalent circuit is
Now, we obtain the required value of unknown in following steps.

Step 1: Since, the maximum power (power rating) in zener diode is
pz = 400 mW
So, the maximum current through the zener diode is
pz
iz = = 400 = 40 mA
vz 10
Step 2: Again, from the circuit we have the current through the resistance
222 W as
.in
.coiR = 20 - 10 = 45 mA
222
Step 3: For maximum power in zener diode, the value of RL is obtained as
ia iL (min) = iR - iz (max)
od 10 = 45 - 40
RL
RL = 10 = 2 kW
SOL 1.2.16
.n
5
ww
Given the secondary transformer voltage,
vs = 60 sin 2p60t V
w
So, the maximum voltage across capacitor is given by
Vmax = (vs) max - 2 # VD, on
= 60 - 1.4 = 58.6 V
Thus, the capacitance is given by
C = Vmax = 58.6 = 24.4 mF
2fRvrip 2 (60) 10 # 103 # 2
Given the input to full-wave rectifier,
vi = 120 sin 2p60t V
So, we have the voltage across both the secondary transformer as
vs = 120 sin 2p60t V
Therefore, the maximum voltage across the capacitor is
Vmax = (vs) max - VD, on
= 120 - 0.7 = 119.3 V
Since, the input cannot drop below 100 V, so we have
vrip = 119.3 - 100 = 19.3 V
Thus, the capacitance is obtained as
C = Vmax = 119.3 = 20.6 mF
2fRvrip 2 (60) 2.5 # 103 # 14.4

Page 112 SOL 1.2.18 Correct answer is 6.25.

Chap 1
Since, we know
Diode Circuits
vrip = v max
fRL C
So, RL = v max = 75 = 6.25 kW
fCvrip 60 # 50 # 10-5 # 4
Step 2: Now, we have the condition i. n

v p > vn
v p < vn
.c o
diode is ON
diode is OFF
i a
Checking the given circuit for these conditions, we conclude that D2
o d
is always OFF and D1 is ON.
Step 3: So, we draw the equivalent circuit for the obtained result as
. n
w w
w
Step 4: By to voltage divider rule, we obtain
vo = 10k 10
10k + 10k #
=5V


Step 2: Now, we have the condition Page 113
Diode Circuits
Checking the given circuit for the conditions,
Diode D1 " v pn = 2 =+ ve . So D1 is ON.
Diode D2 " v pn =- 2 =- ve . So D2 is OFF.
Step 3: Thus, for the obtained result, we draw the equivalent circuit as
Step 4: From the equivalent circuit, we get
in
I =0
SOL 1.2.21
o.
Correct answer is 2.
We analyze the given circuit in following steps.
a.c
Step 1: Assume that Zener diode is OFF, and draw the equivalent circuit as
di
no
w.
, ww
Step 2: For Zener diode, the operating regions are defined as
V > Vz
V < Vz
Zener diode is ON
Zener diode is OFF
Checking the given circuit for the conditions, we have
V > vz
i.e. zener diode is ON and work as a voltage regulation.
Step 3: For the obtained result, we draw the equivalent circuit as
Step 4: From the circuit, we obtain
Iz = 3.5 - 3.3 = 2 mA
0.1k
output.

Page 114 Step 1: Assume that the two diodes are OFF, and replace its by open circuit.
Chap 1 So, the equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits

Checking the given circuit for the conditions, we conclude that Vpn
of diode D2 is highly positive respect to D1 . So, D1 is OFF and D2 is
ON.
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
5 - ^- 8h
. n
Current, I =
2k
= 6.5 mA
w w Voltage, V = 5 - 6.5 # 1 =- 1.5 V

So, diode D1 is OFF (assumption is correct). Therefore,
ID = 0
w
We have the regulator circuit as
For RL min the load current will be maximum. Since, by applying KCL at
Node A, we have
IS = IL + Iz
So, for IL max the value of Iz has to be minimum, i.e.
Iz min = 0 mA
or VS - Vz = 0 + IL max
R
or Vz = 20 - 5 Vz
:Put IL,max = RL min D
RL min 5k
Thus, RL min = 5 = 1.66 kW
3m


SOL 1.2.24 Correct answer is 3.33. Page 115
Assume that zener diode is OFF and draw the equivalent circuit Chap 1
Diode Circuits

vo = 1k # 20
5k + 1k
3.33 V
Across the zener diode the voltage is vo = 3.33 V , and the Zener voltage is
vz = 5 V . So, we have
vo < vz
i.e. zener diode operates in OFF state (assumption is correct).Thus,
vo = 3.33 V
SOL 1.2.25
.in
For RL = 3, the equivalent circuit is
.co
ia
od
.n
Now, we analyse the circuit in following steps.
Step 1: Assume zener diode in OFF state and draw the equivalent circuit.
ww
w
Step 2: From the circuit, we have
vo = 30 V
Since vz = 9 V , so we conclude that
vo 2 vz
i.e. Zener diode is operating in ON state (assumption is incorrect).
Step 4: So, the current flowing through zener diode is
Iz = 30 - 9 = 1.4 mA
15k
Step 5: Thus, the power dissipation in Zener diode is

Page 116 Pz = vz Iz
Chap 1
= 9 # 1.4m = 12.6 mW
Diode Circuits
For the diode operating in ON state, simplified circuit is
The ideal dc output voltage in the absence of the ripple is given by

^Vdchoutput = ^Vdchinput - Von
Since, ^Vdchinput = ^Vrmshinput # 2
= 12.6 # 2 = 17.82 V
So, ^Vdchoutput = 17.82 - 1 = 16.82 V
Again, for the diode operating in ON state, we have the simplified circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
From the circuit, the ripple voltage is
. n Vrip . Vm - Vo T
R C
w w
Given that f = 60 Hz . So,
= Idc T
C
V - Vo
;a Idc = m
R
E
w Therefore,
T = 1 = 1 sec
f
Vrip = 16.8 #
60
1/60
15 25 # 10-3
= 0.747 V


Step 2: Now, we have the condition Page 117
Diode Circuits
Checking the given circuit for these conditions, we conclude that the
diodes D1 and D2 will be ON.
Step 3: For the obtained result, we get the equivalent circuit as
in
From the circuit, we obtain
o. ID2 =
15 - ^- 10h
5k + 10k
= 1.66 mA
a.c Vn2 = 10k # 1.66m - 10

= 6.6 V
i
Step 4: Since, we have assumed diode D1 ON, so
d
o Vp2 = 0 V
Therefore, the voltage across diode D2 is
n
w. Vpn2 1 0
i.e. D2 will be OFF due to D1 ON (assumption is incorrect).
ww
Step 5: Therefore, the total current from 15 V supply will go through diode
D1 and no current flow through diode D2 , i.e.
ID2 = 0
Step 6: Thus, the actual equivalent circuit is
Current through diodes D1 and D2 are
ID1 = 15 - 0 = 3 mA
5kW
ID2 = 0

Page 118 Step 1: Assume that the diodes are OFF, and replace it by open circuit. So,
Chap 1 equivalent circuit is
Diode Circuits
Step 2: For the equivalent circuit, we may conclude that the applied voltage
forward biases the diodes. So, both the diodes are operating in ON
state. So equivalent Circuit is
i. n
.c o
Step 3: For the equivalent circuit, we obtain
I2 =
i a
0.7 = 0.11 mA
6.6 kW
o d
I 3 = VB - 0
R2
. n = 18.6 - 0 = 1.66 mA
11.2k
w w
Step 4: Again, applying KCL at node VB ,
I 3 = ID2 + I2
w 1.66 m = ID2 + 0.11 mA

ID2 = 1.55 mA
The diode current equation is
ID = IS eVD ...(1)
VT
Differentiating with respect to VD ,
dID = I eVD 1 ...(2)
S
dVD VT VT
So we may write
TID = ID
TVD VT
Thus, TID = ID # TVD
VT
= 1m # 1m = 38.4 mA
26m
We have
DC bias current, ID = 1 mA


Small signal resistance, rd = VT = 26m = 26 W Page 119
ID 1m Chap 1
By ac analysis, we get small change in current as Diode Circuits
TID = TVD = 1m = 38.4 mA

rd 26
The ripple voltage is given by
Vm - VD, on T
Vrip = where Vm = peak voltage
RL C
or Vrip = Idc T
C
Given that peak to peak swing is
Vpeak - peak = 9 V
So, the peak voltage is obtained as
V
Vm = peak - peak = 9 = 4.5 V
2 2
Also, we have VD, on = 0.8 V
.in RL = 0.436 W
.co T = 1 = 1 = 16.67 ms
f
Thus, the capacitance is obtained as
60
ia C = 4.5 - 0.8 # 16.67 ms = 1.417 F

0.436 W 0.1
SOL 1.2.32
od
Full wave rectifier with smoothing capacitor and load resistance RL is
.n
ww
w
Ripple in full wave rectifier is
The output remains equal to zero for

Vin 1 2VD, on
So output voltage is
Vout = VP - 2VD, on
The capacitor is discharged for half of the input cycle (approx.), so the
ripple is approximately equal to half of that in half wave rectifier. Therefore,
ripple voltage in full wave rectifier is
V - 2VD, on
Vrip = 1 m T
2 R1 C1
=1 3 - 2 # 0.8
2 30 # 1000 # 10-6 # 60
= 0.389 V


Chap 1 Load current waveform for full wave rectifier is
Diode Circuits
By definition, average or dc current is given by

Idc = 1 iL ^ t h d ^wt h
T
#
T 0
= 1 i L d ^wt h
2p
#
2p 0
The load current is given by
Im sin wt 0 # wt # p
iL = )
- Im sin wt p # wt # 2p
So, the average dc current is obtained as
Idc = 1 < Im sin wt d ^wt h + - Im sin wt d ^wt hF
p 2p
2p 0 # # p
I
2p
i. n
= m 8^- cos wt h0p + ^cos wt h2ppB
= 2Im
p
Now, the rectifier circuit is
.c o ...(1)
i a
o d
. n
w w
w Where
Im = Vm
RS + R f + R L
RS " Secondary winding resistance
...(2)
R f " Diode forward resistance

RL " Load resistance
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get
Idc = 2Im = 2Vm
p p ^RS + R f + RL h
Again, for positive half cycle diode D1 is ON and D2 is OFF, and for negative
half cycle diode D1 is OFF and D2 is ON. Average or dc voltage Vdc is load
voltage produced by Idc flowing through the load, i.e.
Vdc = Idc RL = 2Im RL
p
Substituting equation (2) in above expression, we have
Vdc = 2Vm RL
p ^ S + R f + RL h
R
Since RS + R f << RL , so
Vdc = 2Vm
p


Therefor, dc power delivered to the load is given by Page 121
2
Pdc = Vdc Idc = I RL dc Chap 1
Diode Circuits
= b 2Im l RL = ; 2Vm
2 2
p p ^RS + R f + RL h E RL ...(3)
Given that, VS ^rms h = 20 V

RS = 5 W , R f = 2 W , RL = 50 W
Vm = 2 VS ^rms h
= 2 # 20 = 28.28 V
Substituting these values in equation (3), we get
Pdc = ; 2 # 28.28 E # 50
2
3.14 ^5 + 2 + 50h
= 4.98 watt
In previous solution, we have obtained
Vdc = 2Vm RL
p ^RS + R f + RL h
For calculation of Null load voltage ^VNL h, we put RL " 3 in above
expression, i.e.
.in
.co VNL = lim
R "3 L
2Vm
R + Rf
p d1 + S
RL
n
ia = 2Vm = 18.01 V
p
od
Also, the full load voltage is obtained as
.n VFL = Idc RL = 2Vm RL

p ^RS + R f + RL h
ww = 2 # 28.28 # 50
3.14 ^5 + 2 + 50h
= 15.80 V
w
Thus, the percentage load regulation is
% Load regulation = VNL - VFL # 100 %
VFL
= 18.01 - 15.80 # 100 = 14 %
15.80
The rectifier efficiency is defined as
Output dc power
h =
Input ac power
Now, we have the output dc power,
^Pdc ho = Vdc Idc = I dc2 RL
2
= b 2Im l RL
p
The input ac power is
^Pac hin = ^Vrms hi Îrms hi = c m m c m m
V V
2 i 2 i
^Vm hi Îm hi
=
2
= I m2
2 ^RS + R f + RL h

Page 122 Thus, we get

Chap 1 4 I2 R
Diode Circuits 2 m L
h = p
I m2
2 ^RS + R f + RL h
= 82 RL
p ^RS + R f + RL h
= 82 50
p 5 + 2 + 50
= 0.711
We redraw the given the diode circuit as
i. n
.c o
i a
From circuit, we have the current through D2 as
Also, we have
o d VD2
T
V1
ID2 = IS 2 e hV = IS 2 e hV
T ...(1)
. n VD1 = V1 - V
w w
So, the current through diode D1 is
V1 - V
ID1 = IS1 e hV T ...(2)
Now, the reverse saturation current is directly proportional to junction area,
w i.e.
IS \ A
where A denotes the junction area. Since, D1 has 10 times the junction area
of D2 . So, we get
IS1 = 10
IS2
Applying KCL at node V1 ,
I 1 = I D1 + I D2
or 10m = ID2 + 2m
or ID2 = 8 mA
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we have
V1 - V
ID1 = IS1 e V T
I D2 V
IS2 eV
1
T
or 2m = 10e-VV
8m
T
Thus, V = VT ln ^40h
= 92.22 mV


SOL 1.2.37 Correct answer is 31.8. Page 123
All the diodes are forward biased due to 12 V supply voltage. So, diode D1 Chap 1
, D2 , D 3 are ON. Diode Circuits

Voltage, V1 = 12 - 0.7 = 11.3
Voltage, V2 = 12 - 0.7 - 0.7 = 10.6 V
Voltage, V3 = 12 - 0.7 - 0.7 - 0.7 = 9.9 V
Current, I 3 = V3 - 0 = 9.9 - 0 = 9.9 mA
1 kW 1 kW
So, the current through diode D 3 is
.in ID3 = I 3 = 9.9 mA

Again, we obtain
.co I2 = V2 - 0
1 kW
ia = 10.6 - 0 = 10.6 mA
1 kW
od
Applying KCL at node V2 , we get current through diode D2 as
ID2 = I2 + ID3
.n = 10.6m + 9.9m
ww = 20.5 mA
From the circuit, we have the current
w I1 = V1 - 0 = 11.3 = 11.3 mA
1 kW 1k
Thus, applying KCL at node V1 we obtain the current through diode D1 as
ID1 = I1 + ID2
= 11.3 mA + 20.5m = 31.8 mA
For DC analysis, coupling capacitor C1 and C2 is open circuited. So, equivalent
circuit is
Since, diode is forward biased, so current through the diode is

IDQ = VC - 0.6
RC
= 1.6 - 0.6
2 kW
= 0.5 mA


Chap 1 For ac analysis, we have the diode resistance
Diode Circuits
hV
rd = T = 1 # 25mV = 50 W
IDQ 0.5m
In ac analysis, capacitor is short circuit and dc voltage source acts as a short
circuit. So, we get the small signal ac equivalent circuit is
The above circuit can be redrawn in simplified form as
Thus, by using voltage divider rule

vo ^ t h = i. n
2k || 50 || 2k
v ^t h
or
vo ^ t h
vi ^ t h
=
.c o
100 + 2k || 50 || 2k i
47.61
i a 100 + 47.61
= 0.33
o d
. n ***********
w w
w

SOLUTIONS 1.3 Page 125

Chap 1
Diode Circuits

In capacitor filter,
Ripple factor, r = 1
4 3 fCRL
For large value of RL (load resistance) the ripple factor should be small. So
it is suitable for large value of load resistance.
In inductor filter,
Ripple factor, r = RL
3 2 ^wL h
For small value of load resistance ^RL h the ripple factor should be small. So
.in
inductor filter is suitable for small values of load-resistance.
SOL 1.3.3
co
The rectifier circuit is to convert a.c. voltage to d.c. voltage.
.
SOL 1.3.4
ia
The ripple factor of Inductor filter is,
od r = RL
3 2 ^wL h
SOL 1.3.5
.n
Option (D) is correct.
A bleeder resistance RB , is connected in parallel with the load resistance as
w
shown in figure
w
w
It improves voltage regulation of the supply by acting as the preload on the
supply.
For half wave rectifier,
The output frequency fo = fi
Where, fi = input frequency
fo = 50 Hz
For full wave bridge rectifier
fo = 2fi
= 2 # 50
= 100 Hz
The full wave bridge diode rectifier,
2R f
% Voltage regulation = 100%
RL #

= 2 # 50 # 100%
Page 126
Chap 1 50
Diode Circuits = 200%
A voltage multiplier circuit is shown in figure
So essential component is capacitor.

Let us assume diode is OFF.
So the circuit is
i. n
.c o
i a
o d
Vpn < 0 , So diode is actually OFF.
So the equivalent circuit is
. n
w w
w
Vo = 10 V
Zener diode can work in the breakdown region without getting damaged. So
a Zener diode is always used in Reverse biased.
Voltage regulation – it is defined as the % change in regulated output voltage


for a change in load current from minimum to maximum value. Page 127
%VR = VNL - VFL # 100% Chap 1
VNL Diode Circuits
So it should be as small as possible for ideal rectifier and filter circuit,
% Regulation = 0%
From Planck’s equation,
E = hn
Eg = hC
l
-34 8
Eg = 6.626 # 10 #-310# 10
5490 # 10
= 3.62 # 10-19 J
= 2.26 eV
When the load resistance is infinity the value of the inductance will also tend
to be infinity to over come this problem, a bleeder resistor RB , is connected
in
in parallel with the load resistance as shown in Fig.
.
.co
ia
od
Therefore, a minimum current will always be present for optimum operation
SOL 1.3.14
.n
of the inductor.
w
The given circuit is half wave rectifier circuit so
w
DC current, Idc = Im =
p
Vm
^RL + RF h p
w =
^5
Vm
+ 45h p
= Vm
50p

The relation between diode current voltage and temperature is given by
I = Io êV/hV - 1h
T
where Io = reverse saturation current

V = voltage across diode
VT = temperature equivalent voltage
= KT
q
The transformer utilization factor (TUF) is defined as,
dc power delivered to the load
TUF =
ac rating of the transformer secondary
= Pdc
Rac rated
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) of an half wave rectifier is Vm .
PIV of an full wave rectifier with centre tapped is 2Vm .

Page 128 SOL 1.3.18 Option (A) is correct.

Chap 1 For inductor filter,
Diode Circuits
Ripple factor, r = RL
3 2 ^wL h
So the ripple factor value is low for low value of load resistance and low
value of load resistance means for heavy load currents.
The minimum value of inductance required to make the current to flow
through the circuit at all times is known as critical inductance. It depends
on load resistance and supply frequency. It is given by,
The critical inductance Lc = RL
3w
Transformer utilization factor,
For Half wave rectifier,TUF = 0.287
For Full wave centre tapped rectifier,
TUF = 0.693
For Full wave bridge rectifier,
TUF = 0.812
So, TUF is more in bridge rectifier. i. n
.c o
Zener diode is in OFF state. So, it work as voltage regulator.
i a
o d
. n
w w
w KCL at node A
IS = I L + I z
For maximum load current,
IS^maxh = IL^minh + Iz^minh
Vi^maxh - Vz
= IL^maxh + 0.5m
RS
IL^maxh = 30 - 5.8 - 0.5m
1000
= 24.2m - 0.5m = 23.7 mAmp
The p-section filter circuit is,
At no load, RL = 3


So current flow through is zero. Page 129
SOL 1.3.24 Option (A) is correct. Chap 1
Diode Circuits
The Diode D1 is ON due to 6 V and due to D1 is F.B. D2 is always in R.B.

So equivalent circuit is,
.in
.co
ia
od
So,
.n V2 = 6 - 0.6
= 5.4 V
SOL 1.3.25
ww V1 = 6 V
w
The given circuit is,
This is a clamper circuit and the diode is in downward direction the total
signal will be clamp below the reference voltage.
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits are used to eliminate portion
of a signal that are above or below a specified level without distorting the
remaining part of the alternating waveform.
Clamper circuits shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level.
-3
IZM = PZM = 500 # 10
VZ 6.8
= 73.5 # 10-3 A = 73.5 mA

Page 130 SOL 1.3.29 Option (D) is correct.

Chap 1
rZ = TVZ = 0.05 = 5W
Diode Circuits TIZ 10 # 10-3
VlZ = VZ + IZ rZ = 4.7 + ^20 # 10-3h # 15 = 5 V
The output of a rectifier consists of d.c. component as well as a.c. component.
The a.c. component in the output is called as ripple. So the ripple factor ^g h
is the ratio of ripple voltage or effective value of a.c. component voltage to
the average or d.c. voltage, so it defined the purity of output power.
rms value of a.c. component
g =
d.c. value of wave
Vm = 20 2 V i. n
Vdc = Vm
p
.c o
= 20 2
p
i a
o
=9V
d
. n ***********
w w
w


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Eighth Edition

NODIA & COMPANY

Copyright © By NODIA & COMPANY

NODIA & COMPANY

Printed by Nodia and Company, Jaipur

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GATE Electronics & Communications

IES Electronics & Telecommunication

CHAPTER 1 DIODE CIRCUITS

1.4 PIECEWISE LINEAR MODEL 3

1.5 SMALL SIGNAL MODEL 4

1.10 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS 14

1.12 ZENER DIODE 16

1.13 VOLTAGE REGULATORS 16

CHAPTER 2 BJT BIASING

2.2 BASIC BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR 117

2.6 BIASING 125

EXERCISE 2.1 132

EXERCISE 2.2 147

EXERCISE 2.3 155

SOLUTIONS 2.1 159

SOLUTIONS 2.2 201

SOLUTIONS 2.3 224

CHAPTER 3 BJT AMPLIFIERS

3.2 AC LOAD LINE ANALYSIS 229

3.3 HYBRID EQUIVALENT MODEL 230

EXERCISE 3.2 254

EXERCISE 3.3 260

SOLUTIONS 3.1 265

SOLUTIONS 3.2 295

SOLUTIONS 3.3 315

CHAPTER 4 FET BIASING

4.2 JUNCTION FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET) 321

EXERCISE 4.2 347

EXERCISE 4.3 354

SOLUTIONS 4.1 358

SOLUTIONS 4.2 388

SOLUTIONS 4.3 408

CHAPTER 5 FET AMPLIFIERS

5.2 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS OF JFET CIRCUIT 413

5.5 SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS FOR ENHANCEMENT TYPE MOSFET 422

EXERCISE 5.1 423

EXERCISE 5.2 432

EXERCISE 5.3 438

SOLUTIONS 5.1 442

SOLUTIONS 5.2 467

SOLUTIONS 5.3 483

CHAPTER 6 OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS

6.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATION 487

6.5 CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS 490

EXERCISE 6.2 508

EXERCISE 6.3 513

SOLUTIONS 6.1 517

SOLUTIONS 6.2 539

SOLUTIONS 6.3 551

CHAPTER 7 OP- AMP CHARACTERISTICS AND BASIC CIRCUITS

7.2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER 555

7.3 IDEAL OP-AMP CIRCUIT 555

EXERCISE 7.2 578

EXERCISE 7.3 587

SOLUTIONS 7.1 591

SOLUTIONS 7.2 619

SOLUTIONS 7.3 644