Happiness

Happiness is used in the context of mental or emotional states, including positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to
intense joy.[1] It is also used in the context oflife satisfaction, subjective well-being, eudaimonia, flourishing and well-being.[2][3]

Since the 1960s, happiness research has been conducted in a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including gerontology, social
psychology, clinical and medical research and happiness economics.

Contents
Definitions
Philosophy
Religion
Eastern religions
Buddhism
Hinduism
Confucianism
Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Roman Catholicism
Islam

Psychology
Theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Self-determination theory
Modernization and freedom of choice
Positive psychology

Measurement of happiness
Relationship to physical characteristics
Possible limits on happiness seeking
Economic and political views
Contributing factors and research outcomes
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Definitions
[4][5][6][7] and on possible differences in understanding by culture.[8][9]
'Happiness' is the subject of debate on usage and meaning,

The word is used in several related areas:[10]

current experience, including (a) thefeeling of an emotion (affect) such as pleasure or joy,[1] or (b) a more general
sense of 'emotional condition as a whole'.[11] For instance Daniel Kahneman has defined happiness as "what I
experience here and now".[12] This usage is prevalent in dictionary definitions of happiness. [13][14][15]
 appraisal of life satisfaction, such as of quality of life.[16] For instance
Ruut Veenhoven has defined happiness as "overall appreciation of one's
life as-a-whole."[17][18]
subjective well-being,[19] which includes measures ofaffect and of life
satisfaction.[20] For instance Sonja Lyubomirsky has described
happiness as “the experience of joy, contentment, or positive well-being,
combined with a sense that one's life is good, meaningful, and
worthwhile.”[21]
eudaimonia,[22] which is sometimes translated as flourishing.
These uses can give different results.[23] For instance the correlation of income Happy children playing in water
levels has been shown to be substantial with life satisfaction measures, but to be far
weaker, at least above a certain threshold, withaffect measures.[24][25]

[26] qualifying happiness as apolyseme and a fuzzy concept.

The implied meaning of the word may vary depending on context,

.[27]
Some users accept these issues, but continue to use the word because of its convening power

Philosophy
In the Nicomachean Ethics, written in 350 BCE, Aristotle stated that happiness (also
being well and doing well) is the only thing that humans desire for its own sake,
unlike riches, honour, health or friendship. He observed that men sought riches, or
honour, or health not only for their own sake but also in order to be happy. Note that
eudaimonia, the term we translate as "happiness", is for Aristotle an activity rather
than an emotion or a state.[28] Thus understood, the happy life is the good life, that
is, a life in which a person fulfills human nature in an excellent way. Specifically,
Aristotle argues that the good life is the life of excellent rational activity. He arrives
at this claim with the Function Argument. Basically, if it's right, every living thing
A smiling 95-year-old man from
has a function, that which it uniquely does. For humans, Aristotle contends, our
Pichilemu, Chile.
function is to reason, since it is that alone that we uniquely do. And performing one's
function well, or excellently, is good. Thus, according to Aristotle, the life of
excellent rational activity is the happy life. Aristotle does not leave it at that,
however. He argues that there is a second best life for those incapable of excellent
rational activity. This second best life is the life of moral virtue.

Many ethicists make arguments for how humans should behave, either individually
or collectively, based on the resulting happiness of such behavior. Utilitarians, such
as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, advocated the greatest happiness principle
as a guide for ethical behavior.
A butcher happily slicing meat.
Friedrich Nietzsche savagely critiqued the English Utilitarians' focus on attaining the
greatest happiness, stating that "Man does not strive for happiness, only the
Englishman does." Nietzsche meant that making happiness one's ultimate goal and the aim of one's existence, in his words "makes
one contemptible." Nietzsche instead yearned for a culture that would set higher, more difficult goals than "mere happiness." He
introduced the quasi-dystopic figure of the "last man" as a kind of thought experiment against the utilitarians and happiness-seekers.
these small, "last men" who seek after only their own pleasure and health, avoiding all danger, exertion, difficulty, challenge, struggle
are meant to seem contemptible to Nietzsche's reader. Nietzsche instead wants us to consider the value of what is difficult, what can
only be earned through struggle, difficulty, pain and thus to come to see the affirmative value suffering and unhappiness truly play in
.[29][30]
creating everything of great worth in life, including all the highest achievements of human culture, not least of all philosophy

Darrin McMahon claims that there has been a transition over time from emphasis on the happiness of virtue to the virtue of
happiness.[31]
Happiness may be said to be a relative concept; the source of happiness for one person might not be the source of happiness for
another.

Not all cultures seek to maximise happiness,[32][33][34] and some cultures are averse to happiness.[35][36]

Religion

Eastern religions

Buddhism
Happiness forms a central theme of Buddhist teachings.[37] For ultimate freedom from
suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path leads its practitioner to Nirvana, a state of everlasting
peace. Ultimate happiness is only achieved by overcoming craving in all forms. More
mundane forms of happiness, such as acquiring wealth and maintaining good friendships, are
also recognized as worthy goals for lay people (see sukha). Buddhism also encourages the
generation of loving kindness and compassion, the desire for the happiness and welfare of all
beings.[38][39]

Hinduism
In Advaita Vedanta, the ultimate goal of life is happiness, in the sense that duality between
Atman and Brahman is transcended and one realizes oneself to be the Self in all.

Patanjali, author of the Yoga Sutras, wrote quite exhaustively on the psychological and
Tibetan Buddhist monk
ontological roots of bliss.[40]

Confucianism
The Chinese Confucian thinker Mencius, who had sought to give advice to ruthless political leaders during China's Warring States
period, was convinced that the mind played a mediating role between the "lesser self" (the physiological self) and the "greater self"
(the moral self), and that getting the priorities right between these two would lead to sage-hood. He argued that if one did not feel
satisfaction or pleasure in nourishing one's "vital force" with "righteous deeds", then that force would shrivel up (Mencius, 6A:15
2A:2). More specifically, he mentions the experience of intoxicating joy if one celebrates the practice of the great virtues, especially
through music.[41]

Abrahamic religions

Judaism
Happiness or simcha (Hebrew: ‫ )שמחה‬in Judaism is considered an important element in the service of God.[42] The biblical verse
"worship The Lord with gladness; come before him with joyful songs," (Psalm 100:2) stresses joy in the service of God. A popular
teaching by Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a 19th-century Chassidic Rabbi, is "Mitzvah Gedolah Le'hiyot Besimcha Tamid," it is a great
mitzvah (commandment) to always be in a state of happiness. When a person is happy they are much more capable of serving God
[43]
and going about their daily activities than when depressed or upset.

Roman Catholicism
The primary meaning of "happiness" in various European languages involves good fortune, chance or happening. The meaning in
Greek philosophy, however, refers primarily to ethics.
In Catholicism, the ultimate end of human existence consists in felicity, Latin equivalent to the Greek eudaimonia, or "blessed
happiness", described by the 13th-century philosopher-theologian Thomas Aquinas as a Beatific Vision of God's essence in the next
life.[44]

According to St. Augustine and Thomas Aquinas, man's last end is happiness: "all men agree in desiring the last end, which is
happiness."[45] However, where utilitarians focused on reasoning about consequences as the primary tool for reaching happiness,
Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that happiness cannot be reached solely through reasoning about consequences of acts, but also
requires a pursuit of good causes for acts, such as habits according to virtue.[46] In turn, which habits and acts that normally lead to
happiness is according to Aquinas caused by laws:natural law and divine law. These laws, in turn, were according to Aquinas caused
by a first cause, or God.

According to Aquinas, happiness consists in an "operation of the speculative intellect": "Consequently happiness consists principally
in such an operation, viz. in the contemplation of Divine things." And, "the last end cannot consist in the active life, which pertains to
the practical intellect." So: "Therefore the last and perfect happiness, which we await in the life to come, consists entirely in
contemplation. But imperfect happiness, such as can be had here, consists first and principally in contemplation, but secondarily, in
[47]
an operation of the practical intellect directing human actions and passions."

Human complexities, like reason and cognition, can produce well-being or happiness, but such form is limited and transitory. In
temporal life, the contemplation of God, the infinitely Beautiful, is the supreme delight of the will. Beatitudo, or perfect happiness, as
[48]
complete well-being, is to be attained not in this life, but the next.

Islam
Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), the Muslim Sufi thinker, wrote "The Alchemy of Happiness", a manual of spiritual instruction throughout
the Muslim world and widely practiced today
.

Psychology
Happiness in its broad sense is the label for a family of pleasant emotional states, such as joy, amusement, satisfaction, gratification,
euphoria, and triumph.[49]

Happiness can be examined in experiential and evaluative contexts. Experiential well-being, or "objective happiness", is happiness
measured in the moment via questions such as "How good or bad is your experience now?". In contrast, evaluative well-being asks
questions such as "How good was your vacation?" and measures one's subjective thoughts and feelings about happiness in the past.
Experiential well-being is less prone to errors in reconstructive memory, but the majority of literature on happiness refers to
peak-end rule.[50]
evaluative well-being. The two measures of happiness can be related by heuristics such as the

Some commentators focus on the difference between the hedonistic tradition of seeking pleasant and avoiding unpleasant
.[51]
experiences, and the eudaimonic tradition of living life in a full and deeply satisfying way

Theories on how to achieve happiness include "encountering unexpected positive events",[52] "seeing a significant other",[53] and
"basking in the acceptance and praise of others".[54] However others believe that happiness is not solely derived from external,
momentary pleasures.[55]

Theories

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being
ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments
of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during
which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihály
Csíkszentmihályi. Amitai Etzioni points out that Maslow's definition of human needs, even on the highest level, that of self-
actualization, is self-centered (i.e. his view of satisfaction or what makes a person happy, does not include service to others or the
common good—unless it enriches the self). As implied by its name, self-actualization is highly individualistic and reflects Maslow's
[56]
premise that the self is “sovereign and inviolable” and entitled to “his or her own tastes, opinions, values, etc.”

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory relates intrinsic motivation to three needs: competence,
autonomy, and relatedness.

Modernization and freedom of choice

Ronald Inglehart has traced cross-national differences in the level of happiness
based on data from the World Values Survey. He finds that the extent to which a
society allows free choice has a major impact on happiness. When basic needs are
satisfied, the degree of happiness depends on economic and cultural factors that Smiling woman from Vietnam
enable free choice in how people live their lives. Happiness also depends on religion
in countries where free choice is constrained.[57]

Positive psychology
Since 2000 the field of positive psychology has expanded drastically in terms of scientific publications, and has produced many
different views on causes of happiness, and on factors that correlate with happiness.[58] Numerous short-term self-help interventions
[59][60]
have been developed and demonstrated to improve happiness.

Measurement of happiness
Several scales have been developed to measure happiness:

The Subjective Happiness Scale(SHS) is a four-item scale, measuring global subjective happiness.The scale
requires participants to use absolute ratings to characterize themselves as happy or unhappy individuals, as well as
it asks to what extent they identify themselves with descriptions of happy and unhappy individuals. [61][62]

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is used to detect the relation between personality traits and
positive or negative affects at this moment, today, the past few days, the past week, the past few weeks, the past
year, and generally (on average). PANAS is a 20-item questionnaire, which uses a five-po int Likert scale (1 = very
slightly or not at all, 5 = extremely).[63][64] A longer version with additional affect scales is available in a manual.[65]
The Satisfaction with Life Scale(SWLS) is a global cognitive assessment oflife satisfaction developed by Ed Diener.
The SWLS requires a person to use a seven-item scale to state their agreement or disagreement (1 = strongly
disagree, 4 = neither agree nor disagree, 7 = strongly agree) with five statements about their life. [66][67]

The UK began to measure national well being in 2012,[68] following Bhutan, which already measured gross national
happiness.[69][70]

The 2012 World Happiness Report stated that in subjective well-being measures, the primary distinction is between cognitive life
evaluations and emotional reports.[71] Happiness is used in both life evaluation, as in “How happy are you with your life as a
whole?”, and in emotional reports, as in “How happy are you now?,” and people seem able to use happiness as appropriate in these
verbal contexts. Using these measures, theWorld Happiness Reportidentifies the countries with the highest levels of happiness.

Etzioni argues that happiness is the wrong metric, because it does not take into account that doing the right thing, what is moral, often
[72]
does not produce happiness in the way this term is usually used.

[73][74]
Happiness has been found to be quite stable over time.

Relationship to physical characteristics

Even though no evidence of happiness causing improved physical health has been found, the topic is being researched by Laura
Kubzansky, a professor at the Lee Kum Sheung Center for Health and Happiness at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health,
Harvard University.[75] A positive relationship has been suggested between the volume of gray matter in the right precuneus area of
[76]
the brain and the subject's subjective happiness score.

Possible limits on happiness seeking

June Gruber[77] suggests that seeking happiness can have negative effects, such as failure to meet over-high expectations,[78] and
instead advocates a more open stance to all emotions.[79] A 2012 study found that wellbeing was higher for people who experienced
both positive and negative emotions.[80][81] Other research has analysed possible trade-offs between happiness and meaning in
life.[82][83][84] Not all cultures seek to maximise happiness.[35][85][86][87][88]

Economic and political views

In politics, happiness as a guiding ideal is expressed in the United States Declaration
of Independence of 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson, as the universal right to "the
pursuit of happiness."[89] This seems to suggest a subjective interpretation but one
that nonetheless goes beyond emotions alone. In fact, this discussion is often based
on the naive assumption that the word happiness meant the same thing in 1776 as it
does today. In fact, happiness meant "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing" in the 18th
century.[90]

Common market health measures such as GDP and GNP have been used as a
Newly commissioned officers
measure of successful policy. On average richer nations tend to be happier than
celebrate their new positions by
poorer nations, but this effect seems to diminish with wealth.[91][92] This has been throwing their midshipmen covers
explained by the fact that the dependency is not linear but logarithmic, i.e., the same into the air as part of the U.S. Naval
percentual increase in the GNP produces the same increase in happiness for wealthy Academy class of 2011 graduation
countries as for poor countries.[93][94][95][96] Increasingly, academic economists and and commissioning ceremony.
international economic organisations are arguing for and developing multi-
dimensional dashboards which combine subjective and objective indicators to
provide a more direct and explicit assessment of human wellbeing. Work by Paul Anand and colleagues helps to highlight the fact
that there many different contributors to adult wellbeing, that happiness judgement reflect, in part, the presence of salient constraints,
and that fairness, autonomy, community and engagement are key aspects of happiness and wellbeing throughout the life course.

Libertarian think tank Cato Institute claims that economic freedom correlates strongly with happiness[97] preferably within the
context of a western mixed economy, with free press and a democracy. According to certain standards, East European countries
(ruled by Communist parties) were less happy than W [98]
estern ones, even less happy than other equally poor countries.

However, much empirical research in the field of happiness economics, such as that by Benjamin Radcliff, professor of Political
Science at the University of Notre Dame, supports the contention that (at least in democratic countries) life satisfaction is strongly
and positively related to the social democratic model of a generous social safety net, pro-worker labor market regulations, and strong
labor unions.[99] Similarly, there is evidence that public policies that reduce poverty and support a strong middle class, such as a
higher minimum wage, strongly affects average levels of well-being.[100]

It has been argued that happiness measures could be used not as a replacement for more traditional measures, but as a
supplement.[101] According to professor Edward Glaeser, people constantly make choices that decrease their happiness, because they
have also more important aims. Therefore, the government should not decrease the alternatives available for the citizen by
[102]
patronizing them but let the citizen keep a maximal freedom of choice.

Good mental health and good relationships contribute more than income to happiness and governments should take these into
account.[103]
Contributing factors and research outcomes
Research on positive psychology, well-being, eudaimonia and happiness, and the theories of Diener, Ryff, Keyes, and Seligmann
covers a broad range of levels and topics, including "the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions
of life."[104]

See also
Action for Happiness
Aversion to happiness
Biopsychosocial model
Extraversion, introversion and happiness
Hedonic treadmill
Laurie Santos
Mania
Paradox of hedonism
Philosophy of happiness
Pleasure
Psychological well-being
Serotonin
Subjective well-being
World Happiness Report
Thomas Traherne

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Further reading
Anand Paul "Happiness Explained: What Human Flourishing Is and What W e Can Do to Promote It", Oxford: Oxford
University Press 2016.ISBN 0198735456
Michael Argyle "The psychology of happiness", 1987
Boehm, J.K.; Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). "Does Happiness Promote Career Success?".Journal of Career Assessment.
16 (1): 101–16. doi:10.1177/1069072707308140.
Norman M. Bradburn "The structure of psychological well-being", 1969
C. Robert Cloninger, Feeling Good: The Science of Well-Being, Oxford, 2004.
Gregg Easterbrook "The progress paradox – how life gets better while people feel worse", 2003
Michael W. Eysenck "Happiness – facts andmyths", 1990
Daniel Gilbert, Stumbling on Happiness, Knopf, 2006.
Carol Graham "Happiness Around the World: The Paradox of Happy Peasants and Miserable Millionaires", OUP
Oxford, 2009. ISBN 978-0199549054
W. Doyle Gentry "Happiness for dummies", 2008
James Hadley, Happiness: A New Perspective, 2013, ISBN 978-1493545261
Joop Hartog & Hessel Oosterbeek "Health, wealth and happiness", 1997
Hills P., Argyle M. (2002). "The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of
psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Dif
ferences". Psychological Wellbeing. 33 (7): 1073–82.
doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6.
Robert Holden "Happiness now!", 1998
Barbara Ann Kipfer, 14,000 Things to Be Happy About, Workman, 1990/2007, ISBN 978-0761147213.
 Neil Kaufman "Happiness is a choice", 1991
Stefan Klein, The Science of Happiness, Marlowe, 2006, ISBN 156924328X.
Koenig HG, McCullough M, & Larson DB.Handbook of religion and health: a century of research reviewed(see
article). New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.
McMahon, Darrin M., Happiness: A History, Atlantic Monthly Press; 2005.ISBN 0871138867
McMahon, Darrin M., The History of Happiness: 400 B.C. – A.D. 1780 , Daedalus journal, Spring 2004.
Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons From A New Science, Penguin, 2005, ISBN 978-0141016900.
Luskin, Frederic, Kenneth R. Pelletier, Dr. Andrew Weil (Foreword). "Stress Free for Good: 10 Scientifically Proven
Life Skills for Health and Happiness." 2005
James Mackaye "Economy of happiness", 1906
Desmond Morris "The nature of happiness", 2004
David G. Myers, Ph.D.,The Pursuit of Happiness: Who is Happy – and Why , William Morrow and Co., 1992,
ISBN 0688105505.
Niek Persoon "Happiness doesn't just happen", 2006
Benjamin Radcliff The Political Economy of Human Happiness(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
Ben Renshaw "The secrets of happiness", 2003
Fiona Robards, "What makes you happy?" Exisle Publishing, 2014,ISBN 978-1921966316
Bertrand Russell "The conquest of happiness", orig. 1930 (many reprints)
Martin E.P. Seligman, Authentic Happiness, Free Press, 2002, ISBN 0743222989.
Alexandra Stoddard "Choosing happiness – keys to a joyful life", 2002
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Analysis of Happiness, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1976
Elizabeth Telfer "Happiness : an examinationof a hedonistic and a eudaemonistic concept of happiness and of the
relations between them...", 1980
Ruut Veenhoven "Bibliography of happiness– world database of happiness : 2472 studies on subjective
appreciation of life", 1993
Ruut Veenhoven "Conditions of happiness", 1984
Joachim Weimann, Andreas Knabe, and Ronnie Schob, eds. Measuring Happiness: The Economics of Well-Being
(MIT Press; 2015) 206 pages
Eric G. Wilson "Against Happiness", 2008
Amitai Etzioni. Happiness is the Wrong Metric. Springer: 2018. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69623-2

Articles and videos

Journal of Happiness Studies, International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies(ISQOLS), quarterly since 2000, also
online
A Point of View: The pursuit of happiness(January 2015), BBC News Magazine
Srikumar Rao: Plug into your hard-wired happiness– Video of a short lecture on how to be happy
Dan Gilbert: Why are we happy?– Video of a short lecture on how our "psychological immune system" lets us feel
happy even when things don’t go as planned.
TED Radio Hour: Simply Happy– various guest speakers, with some research results

External links
History of Happiness – concise survey of influential theories
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry "Pleasure"– ancient and modern philosophers' and neuroscientists'
approaches to happiness
The World Happiness Forum promotes dialogue on tools and techniques for human happiness and wellbeing.
Action For Happiness is a UK movement committed to building a happier society
Improving happiness through humanistic leadership– University of Bath, UK
The World Database of Happiness– a register of scientific research on the subjective appreciation of life.
Oxford Happiness Questionnaire– Online psychological test to measure your happiness.
Track Your Happiness – research project with downloadable app that surveys users periodically and determines
personal factors
Pharrell Williams – Happy (Official Music Video) added to YouTube by P. Williams: i Am Other – Retrieved 2015-11-
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Four Levels of Happiness– A modern take on the Greco-Christian understanding of happiness in 4 levels.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Happiness&oldid=878707405
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This page was last edited on 16 January 2019, at 13:51(UTC).

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