Protection and Switchgear by U.A.Bakshi and M.V.Bakshi PDF

2 9 Univetsal Relay Tcwque Equation ····-~-----··· 2-28
Reylew Oynr.iP(ls . ,, ! , ! ,, !
11,, 0 • , • • ,, . 2-29
Ch§kr3 ().1 to ).111
3. 1 ln!rOductioo 3-1
\~
).3
).5
3 3 e, 1stw pm1ecsm as
3.31 AWwEW }5
3 4 Frame leakageProtection of Busbar -···----- ...... - .. 3-6
3 5 Cottulating Current Protoction of Busbar ... ,,. .......... 3-7
3 6 High Impedance Olfferanllal Protection of Busbar 3-8
3 7 O.ffg1lties m 811shar Pmtecl)on 3-9
Rl!ll!ew Questions 3-9
4.1 Oostance Rela ................................................................................... 4-1
...................................................... - ··-·-·--·· 4--10
4.32 Torque Egieon

'3-3 OperlllnO ~ ''•' 4-12
•3•~ •. 12
,,, . 4-12
J.f]
'4 2 Torque Equll!On .. . .. .. . . 4-13
'""
4-17
4-17
'52°"1raT,...~~y. .. ..... • •
' s 3~ erd A!ti!n!lg!! al DollalQ Atlays' '
4.6 Fr ................................................... .... ,,,,, ' . 4-21
Review 01resrms
5 I lnl!Qduc;tm ,, ''o!'QO'"ot'ol'I!' ::tees:lnrnn"teee••te••211 err n Inn

I I I I ••• t I •••••••• I 2 S-1
5 2 Genera!OCfaults
' '
5 2 t z flbm" ptwe Fam

5 2 l 3 5aMy ......Til[J]£11dts
S 2 2 Rl'!lX Ea:ftt
6 2 3 AbnormolRurm! (i(!ndi!lon! ..
5.2.) • O..u1::a!Q
$ 2 3 3\U : gq Lofdi1a.
~z111wctre•em
5,3 Basic Dif!erenbal ProtecUon Scheme for Generators..,,,,,,,,,,, . ,,,,.., ..... 5-6
5 4 Basic Percentage Differential Prot!'Uon Scheme !Qr Generiito!l. ., S-7
5.5 Merz..f>nc:eProtection of Altemalor Stator Wlndongs.. . . . . .... .... .. }§
5 6 Restricted EM!b Fault Protecllon of Generator 5-11
5 6 I Ellecl al Elrrl ~on 1' al Ymdirg Unptotedld S.12
5 7 Unrestricted Eaah Fault Pmtectioo,,,,,,, "! " I
5-15
5 8 Balanced Earth fault Pmledioo 5-16
5,9 100% Earth Fault Protection, .. 5-18
5 10 Stator Pl'OIKbon Against lntllflum Faults,, ..... . - 5=19
5 11 Rotor Fanb F111ft Pmtoclion
s 12 Protecuon AQP110st Loss of Excitat!OI! ......... - •11- 11••111!1 S-22
......... -~
514 ProtllCllOn Against Unbalanced Loading 5-30

E•emp!es wtth Solutions , ,,.,, ,,.,, ···1: ".. ,., ,, . ,, , .. , . , . ,S.31
~- ..·~~-=-:::::::::::::::::.
•
8 2 Phaso Comparison Melhod ol Carrier Current Protection................... 8-5

8 3 Advantages ot Camer Current Protecdon .. 8-7
8.4 St.a tic Relays M
8.5 Basic ElemenlS ot a Static Relay .8-9
8.5 1 lneut Elomn , . M
8.S2 MH$Uriog Elomn. . .. ............................. .M
8 5.3 Outpu1 EJomn. ........ ' .. &-11
8.5.4 Feed 8llnlnl . . . .. • • .... ' . ' . . . 11-11
.......... ' . 8-12
•12
.' . &-13
8. 7 Semiconductor Devices used in Static Relays ...... . 8-13
8.8 Static nme Cunent Relay................................ .. .
a a 1 s1arrc r.,.,..omr. Cbar¥Je(tltQ
.. .... .... . ...... ......
8.8.2 Static: "- OYetturenl Relay ... .. . .. ' 11-16
8.8.3 lnYefSeTllll&Oml1IR!!lay ....... . ' .. 11-18
8.9 Directional Static Overourrent Relay 8-19
8 10 Static Of1'1erentiel Retay.......................................... 8-20
11 Stelle Orsta- Reta .. ' - .... --···· . 8-21
8 12 Mlcroorocnw Bttsod Roley,, l•1ll11/ ••Ill ' I Ott100 I t!!!!!!l!I!!!!! 8-23
ROYIOW QueslJOOs ... 0 • t t t lo""' .•• "I.to It ... ,,. ,11:26
9.1 Introduction ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .. """""""""" """" ,,..,, """" "'"" 9-1

9 2 Eormalian al an Atr. 9-2
9.21 Z trh> i ofT!!!Wnn

9 2 2 Majntenwq al., Aa;
9 2 3 Ale E•tMm
9 2.3 1 Hict?Rsr t-a Melhod
9.3 O.C. Cirouit Break:irlg _9-A

9.4 A.C. Circuit Breakinig -~5
9 5 Short Cfrotnt il R- l Series Cira1il 9:0
9.6 Current lntenuption In A.C. Circuit Breakers 9-11
9.7 Transient Reoovery Voltage 9-12
9 8 Effect ol Ocl'ferent P8'ame1ers on Transient Recove!Y Voltage (TRY) 9-13
9 i.1 Elled ill Nani F!!QU!!1CY on TRI/. .. . . .. . . . . . . §:1'
9 8 2 Effed rf pnw Fido{ on IRV '!-IS
9 9 Recov~Y•e 9-16
9:9.1 El*f of l!iiiiiiice !liOP on Rocxwott VQb!l! . . .. .. . i'16
9 t 2 Efled of,,,,,_ Reedion on RecoretX Vc!tage .. .. . . .. ,6
910 S.f te F Tranalent -··· ~17
9.11 Double Frequ.er,cy Transtent.................................. .. .... ...... .. 9*17
9.12 Oertvatlon of Rate or Rise or TRV 9-18
9.121 Emot11Qr1QMtxlrnumVa1utor!ltt!!itingVQ!ta(!!!E, Ind~ nn.t. t.21
9 12 2 E.'!pttatlon tor RRRV tnd Maxrnum RRRV .. . .. . • .. . .. • t-21
9.12 3 FrequencyolClldlllion of Re\'lnting Vohage (Transienc) .. .. .. • .. .. .. 9-22
9 12' ~ v~ IJnde< VIMOIJI Cond~ions. . • .. . • • • • .. t-22
9.12.5 Fnt Pat lo Clelw Faclof.. • . . . . . . . .. • .. ~
9.13 Interruption of Capaolllve Currents .••...• . ..9-27
9.14 Current ChoppS)g (Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current) 9-29
--
9. 1 S Resistance Switching 9-32
9.16 Arc ExtillCtiofl 9--35
9161 Hl!;tl ~ lrrlerrupbon. . • • •
...
9.1§-2 Low Rm!!g Ill OJroot Zero l!Wnmli9n .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. . .
9.16 3 M1iclal Omnt l.em lntem1ption .. . .. ".' • '!h16
9 17 lonjza!joo of Gases .. , ,. , .. , , ,. .. , , .. , , 9-36
9 11 1 Jle?mlhiza!3m 9,,~
s. 11.2 lorW!lan hr eorm .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . &-37

t. I 7 3 Thermal Etnooslon from Surface cl Cootacta .. .. • .. . . . • .. • .. . • • • t-37
9 17 ' S.alodlly e.n..iotl al Contac:I Surfacle . . • " .. .. • • . • .. .. • • • • • • .. &-37
917.5 ;~ ~ .. '.' '.'.'.'... . ''. '. '.'.... . . . ... . .. t-37
917 8~to.sion ................•..... ' '.... .. .. .. .. 9-31
9 .18 Oek>nizatiorl 9--37
9.18.1 R9COf'l'lbr'IOCI.. • • . • . . . • . • . • • • . • . • . • . . . . . . . • . • • •• .... . .. . .. . .
9 18 2 O.!Won .
•a
9 3 !'Andi ctn""''"'
9 19 Ate foana!loo . . . . . . . . . .• . " . . . " ..
9 20 H h Resistance /Ve lnterru tlon Melhoda . .9-38
........................ ' ... .. . .
9.202 Split!itg d Ale .. .. .. . .. • .. . .. .. .... " ....
9.20.3 Coolir!! d Ale .
9.21 Low Resistance or Zero Point Extinction •..•..••.•.•..•..... . 9-40
9.22 Arc l?UltM)'.lonThoorios .. .. . 9-40
9:221~ ··········· .. - .. g:::co
9.222 c-'s T!!ecrt·.. . .. .. .~1
examples wilh Solutions ' 9-43
Review OtJttStjqts ,, .. ,,.,, ,,.,,.,,.,, .,, .. ,,. . ct 2 2 I re "ti el 9-47
(1"1 to~)
10 1 Introduction 10.1
10.2 Requirements of Cirouit Breaker 10-1
10 3 Basic Adioo of a Circ1.;t Breaker 10-1
1 o 4 CLassifiratjon of Circ1 dt Breakers 10.3
10 5 AJr Blast Qrg dt Breakers 10.3
10 S 1 CllCMam ot IQ Air BllSI Ccali Blea*er 10-4
105.2\'lorb!g ' ..... ' .. ' ....... ' ..... IG-6
IOS~IOmsBls!Type, •.•.. , ..... • lo.8
lo.8
.1~
! o · I ' ! ' l ' ' ' IP.!O
10.5 5: Dlllctri""IO" 1 I ! 1 I ! ! I 1 I I I! I I I I I I $ ! $I I! I ' $ f ! I I ! IP.JO
1059~_... ".,., .. 10.10
10.6 Air Break CiraJlt Breaker.,, ,, , t ••••••• ,, •• ,, 10-11
10,6.l Cotwr!!1m.'.".'. "" ...... "" ... ".""". ....... ,,,,, .. '10-11
10.6.2 Wcrting ..................................••.............. 0 ••••• 1~12
10§}~ . '' ' 10-13
10.7 Su ur Hexalluoride SF Circuit Breaker 10·13
...... 1 4
10-14
10 112 aa.- l'!!!pe!ties . 10-14
tQ Z 1 3 Qgt:qic.Properties . tP.14
10 7.2 CormdMd Non·Nltw Typt Sf1 BIMMr...• 1!l-J§
10, l t Wptt!'!a' J f I f f I I f f $ I $ 0 ! !P.IZ
10 7 .3 $<l!llt "'- Puffer T11)! Sf t C!Sl!i! l!!!tkor 10-1&
10 7 4 Ooi4>!t !'!pm !)pt SFt C!M Btul<tt. ' . ' .. ' f • t ! pf I ! fr I• I I 10:18
10.7.S...,,.ayes d Sfo Circull er.. . • • 10-29
10.76On1ll><11!!!1!! .•..•.......•...•...•........ t • • • • • • • • ' ' 10.20
·············· ········ "
• r • r 1 r ' 1!1=21
10.8 Vacuum Ci.rtsJit Bre.a.kers - 10·21
10.8. 1 Elee!ricll BIW '*-In Hg!! \lacwn ...... 10-21
10 A 2 CQCflN!l!Xl 10:22
10.83WcMg 111-23
10.8.4 Advll!!aQ!! 10-24
10.8 s o;..a, .. '!5!! . "". . ' 10-24
10.8.8 RIQMrY S!gt!l Cllarllderislics 10-25
1 Q § 7 Ape!igJjicltl! ' '
10 9 011 C!rciri• Breakers 10-25
t • t
" ' ' ' 10-26
10 9 12 cntp BtW OI Ciroct Bma\W 1Q..11
10 9 2 Sell r.aoe1 f'res511re QI Cmrl&rake( 'JQ.30

10.921 Pllm Es•W•1 PU.. 10-31
10.12.2 ow. £)gj!kllioR Pot
10.9.lJ SelCoJ:s! 11011 EJ!pio!IOft Pot
1012.4 Ol-E>;t-1'111 I~
JO 9.3 FMeHP • OI CiQJi! Bieakm J!).33
10.10 Low Oil or Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker,, .... ,,.,.,,,'" .. .,,.. ,,,, .. ,,,,,, ,, .... 10-34
10 10 1 cnnmnm 10.35
10 10.2 Op!dol1 • • .• ' . . . .. .•..... 10.ll
10:31
10.IOA~ , - ,,, - . - . ' - r ' '' '. '1 ' ••• t 1C)..37
···- ,. . . .•..•••.•.
10-37
10. 10.6 ApcJlii ........ ""." " ". ".. ' ""....... • ".". " ' ' 10-37
10.11 HVOC CiraJit Breaker 10·38
10.12 Selection ofCitcult Breaker 10-38
10.13 Circuit Break« Ratings 1().4()
10.13,1 RlkldVolrlgt .•••..•.• ' .••••..•.. I ••••••••••••••••• ' •••• ' •••••• tf).41
10, 13.2 Ra'8d ~ t.Ytl, 111-41
o,,.,.. o o o o o o o O t O o o Io• o Io o o 0 0 0 0 0 ' I ' 0 0 0 0 00 ' 0 0 > ' ' 0' 0' >
JO 13 3 Rited 10,u
10.13.4 Rt!td F•!""Y ,, ,, .. .. .. . . . " ... " .... ' 111-41
10.13.5 Rmd Dlnlan al Short CJrQ.i\ •• " ...... ' • ..... . 1M2
(ldll~~.:::::::L:::::::::::::..
•
I
10 13.6 Rat..i Slot ClrOlll BttakN>g Curreot . . .. • .. .. • • • •• . . . . .. 10-42 I
10.13.7 Rattd Sloall QM Maklrg Cunllll . • .. • .. • . . . . . . .. ' 1°"3
10.13.8 Rated Pie!< Wc!And CullMI . .. .. . .. .. • .. .. ....... ' .... ..10-43
10.13.9 lbtedTRYtr Tenrinal Fal.ib . • . . ' . . .. ' . 10-43
10.13 10 f!gl O\!!!D!Q Seguenct,... . . . . . . 1°"'
10.13.11 Ra'.od S!.wlxVol!aJ!o for C!o!nJi and Op!l!ng 0..- ... "" ...... 10-44
...... " .. 10-44
10.14 Type Tes:ts 1()..46
10 15 RQtJtjne Tests 10-47
10. 16 Dev Tests 1~7 •
10 .17 Reliability Tests 1G-47
10.18 ComrlltssicwlingTests 1 Q...48
1o.19 ShOrt CKc::l.Jlt Test Layou1 1~ •
10.19.1 Shon Oialt TMting Pllnll.. .. . .. ,. • . .. .. . 10-4$
10, 19,2L.aysUol1 $har1 Crc:y!ITesting §!!bon. t ' I I ! ' ••••••• I ••• ' 1CM9 !
lD.19,3 Sllc!!Cmll G!ne!J1Ri and Dnvt Mo!or • • • .. • . .. ,, ,, ,, ,, ... ,, .. I~
10. 19. 4 Shcwt Cl'ct.ll. Tnwmorrnets •.•.•..•.•••.•.••.••••••••••••••••••••.•.••.• 10-61
l
10.19.S Reatl<n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11).51
10.19.8 Mas:tetClfcuiC 8.-eaket , , . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . •... , ....•..... 10-SI
10.19.7 Maliln9 0.- 0 • 0 0 •••• ' .•.............•...•.
' •• 0 0 •• 0 •••• 0 • 0 • 0 I • 0 0 0 10-51
10.19.8 c-- ... 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 • ..••.•......
0 • 0 0 0 • 0 • 0 • 0 0 • ' 0 0 0 I 0 I 10.SI
10199~ . . ..... . . . . .
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ... , 1().61
10.19.10 Test CUlides I I • • 0 0 0 ' 0 • 0 • • 0 • 0 ' . 10-51
10 .19 .11 Sequence 5"""'. . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . 10-62
10.1s.12pf!pit12svnnwms. 0 ! 0 0 • 0 f • ' 0 f 0 •• I f t ' • I ' I .1M2
. ' .. . 1(>d4
10.21 Types of Synthetic Test Clrooits 10..54

10.21.1 Parallel~ ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 10-54
10.21.2SeriesQmrl~jedionMd>od 1().61;
10.21.3 B"""' Bowm Synlt>e!ic; Tesl!!g Croil. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . ., 10-51
Review OuestioQs " t I 0 I t .. .. 0 ' 10-SZ
11.1 lntrodllCtiql _ _ 11 ••• II.,,. 11 •• II 11• _ •.••••• ". _ 11 •• 11•11 ••• 11 "" 11.1
l 1.2 Ungrounded 0< Isolated Neutral System 11· 1
11.3EarthedNeutralS tam...... . _ 11·5
12 10 Requirements of Surge Oivener 12-19
12.11 Operation of a Typlcel Surge Divener (Lightning Amlste<) 12·20
12.12 Clas.safic:'atliatof Sur e Arroslers...... . 12-.21
12.13 Terms and Spedfocetlons used In Surge Aneslara 12·22
12 14 HO!D Gao Aaester ,,.,, ! ,. " ,, • • • ,, •.••
11 12-23
12 14 1 M9'!IR!I ! • t O O • ! - t, O', , t' t t', t, , t l2·2'
12 ,. 2 °""9'1t!!!A!' I! t I I 1 I
....................
12.16 MultJga.p Arrester ~ 12-27
12.17 Expulsion Type Arrester. - 12·28
12.17.1 ""'arGges. . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . 12'30
12. t7.2 ~9Ql!S....... .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .. .. • .. . . . . .. . 1210
12.18VaiveT tnr Arrestar 12·30
1. sem .........•......•....•........•.•.. 1
12.18.2 Non I.Nit Reslslort ............•.....•...•.•......••......•......•.• 12-32
12.18.3 Wo!t;ng .. .. . • .. .. .. • .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 12-32
12184AIM!aga .
1218.5 [)rslaypgm. j j ! 0 ! j ! I I! f ! ! ! t ! t If!!! j ! • IC! j I I ''' T. loll''' I I' 12..n
!2.1§,0~! l ·I· 111 •II II!!! II I II! I· I II• I
. " . . • 12:3'
12. 19 Metal Oxtdt Liahtn'na Atruters ..... ,, ,11• , ... , •• , ....... - . ···- 12~34
12.20 Local>Onot Lightning Amlstors .. 12-35
12 21 Rating of Lightning Arrestet , ,............ . , 12-36
12.22 Tests on Ligh!ning Arrester ,. ,, .. 12-37
12 ..23 Su Ab:sc)rber 12·38
1224 Summary ot Protective Devices ffiainst Lightning &ll'll!! 12-40
12-40
1
Protective Relaying
1.1 Introduction
Protective rela;ing " one of the S<'''~rol fo•tu...,. ol ~ powOT system d1'$1tl"·
E\"<'l'Y p.1rt of tlv power •yatem "' pmta:k'd The factor. .iffe<ling th<• chok• of
prOl<'CtlOn are typ<' •nd r>llng o( cqulpn11•nt, locotlon o( lho ~uopm<:nt, lypt'!I ol f•uhs,
aln><>rmal •~indlti0111o &nd a>c1t.
The protecrtve ttLl}ing 11 used to g"·e an alann or to ~- prompt "-""0' ••I o(
any dem~nt of powtt system from sen•ice wtwn that •lement behaves abnormally.
The abnormal belwvJOUr o( an element might cause damag.. or interference within
t·ffKtivc t>p~ration of ~t of the system, TI-.e proteenve reb"'-mg minimises the d.i~~
to ttu: ~'(1\upn1mt and int<.'f"ruptions 10 th<' servsce whl'1\ ctiec:trit..ilFotilutt.· (MX'.lltS. Almg
""'1th -.om•" other equ:1~ ts lh~ rel>1ys l'w.!lp to minimise datru.g~ Jind i1nprt1v"" the
service,
The relays are compoac1 and self eonrained devices '"tuch an sense the rtbnorm.31
cooditions. Whene>-e< m abnormal eondltion e'<lsts, the !'day contads get closed. This
intum closes the trip orcuit of a drcuil br.•kt>r. The cucuit bra~ are capable ol
dosconn~ctlng • faulty ele<Mnt, when thoy are oiled upon "' dn "°by In~ "''"> ..
Thu> •nlir.1 procct1 include. tll<' op<>r•tionll likf o..-curren«> ol l•ul~ optir~llon of ntl~y.
op"'t1lng or ,, dttu.it bttaker •nd r~rnovAI ttf f.,ulty elmlenl Thtlf e1\tlrc JlrtX'ft.~ ts
.,uto1t1atie and (ast_, wluch 1:s poss1bl<' due to e(ft.'Ctl\it! prolt!Ch\e relOlying scl\L·mc
TIMI protective rdaying scheme includ,., proh.""Ctive ~• transformers, voltage
transformers, p~ relays, lime delay relays, auxiliary rd;o)"S, secondary orcuit<,
tnp circuits etc. Each componcrtt plays rts 0\1.'n, role.. which is '"'ftY i1nporl;:tnt in 1hit
overall operation of 1he ~ The protective reL1ying IS lt>e ieam work uf •U lh<s-
ronlponi:nb. Ttw prot«1JV~ l"\"l•yi1lg •1MJ prov«it.'::!I the indM:'.. bOn oi loc.ttltln .. nd t)'~
ol lht' fault.
(1 ·1)
Protactlvo Relaying
1.2 Functions of Protectlvo Rel•ylng

The various func.llO<\> of protective relaying are :
t. The prompt '""'°'°"'
of lhc component which os beha\'mg abnonNll) by
clo6u1g tlw 1np orrult of drcu1t bruker ur to sound •n "'·'""
2 ru d1,...,.,,..' ru .,.,.d tbe tl•mait• or
1ntrrkn'nl\" "1lh•n "fle<:tlvr ap.•rotl11n of th•· r""t of ')'St•m
J T n P'''"''" IM >UbO<"tU<nl fault• by dl><.•onnecting IM abnotmAlly opera tong
p..1rt
4 To di.Konnf<t the foulty porl as quickly as possibk- "" u to mll\Jm~ lhe
cb.mag~ to lht- f•uliy pan Itself. For example, if then. l~ 1 winding fouh in •
maclline and 1f 11 pcni»IS for a long umc th"n IN.-., "' • !'O"•b1ht) ol the
d•mag~ of the enuee wln<lh1g A• aga1Ntl this, If 11 .. d""'-"'''""
qu1<1J1· l!wn
a1\J,· few ""'' m.11 get domag..d lnslc•d of the entire "tndmi;
5 To re>lnC1 the spre>ding of the effect of mull causing least tnterferencc to the
rest of the healthy system. Thus b)" disconnecting the foulty part. the fou!t
efiects get locali-1.
6 To smprcve the S)·stcm perfonru.ncr. system reli.ibaJ1nr. s~"St~m st.lbillt} •nd
q__tf'VKe cont1nu1tv
Tl~ iauJt:..can not be completely avolded b\~t ~tl ti..- m1nltll1ied. Tht.t!t the
pn:>!l.'oeti\.t.' rel.1) rng plays an imporU.nt role in sensing the f~ults, mi"unu..1ng
the effects of faults and miJ\iml:.ing tl~ damage due to the faults.
1.3 Protective Zones

In • tt"la)ing scheme, 1h'"· t1rcult breakers arc pl.lit~ .1t th<- i:tpp«J{"Nt"
p1ok'<11\·t-
I""""' >udl lhAt ""Y element ol the <'llltl't' power sy.tt·m <•n be tll><nnn('CIN foe
rt-p.stnng '''°'k.. ltS.WI operiltlo1' :1nd ma1ntenl\1lce t\_"qu•n..~b ilnd also undtr
.lbnorm.>I <Ondlllon. hJ..• ohort circuits. Thus a protective co,•nng 1> provid1'1 oruunJ
..,.11 <lcm.'flt of tlw •) .. l<'m.
A prol<<th·e <Ont "' the seporatc zone which ts eslabhsh.!d around each .- .. 11:m
, .....,,...,, The •ign•fl<""'-" of 1uch • pro1tcti•< tone la thot ony lault O«\lrt111g -.11h111 a
);'"'" '°"'' "ill ,.,..,.. th<: tripping ol relay• whl<h c•u- opt"n1ng ol nll tho nrrun
b"'.tl.t-r\ locat<'ni.""' an.· gencretors. tran3t.lormcn.. tr'1"s.n\isswn llftb. bt.1.ii b.ln.. ubb.
c•p.><llO" etc. No port o( the system 1$ l<lt unpron...-1od. n.... F111 I. I >ho.,., tho
, .• nous protective zones. used In a system
1 ·'
r-·-----
--~-- ,' • ,_
• •::..:::::~1.::.:.• . • •
,::.;::::~~:..:.·...i.'_~
• -
• r-----··.
--...,.
.....
• •
.. . .... ... ...
__,
I I
•
••••••••••••••J•••
.. •
'
'
.
T~
== ___, ,..,,."'"'"'j"'~••••••r·~··•
, I
.....,._ "°"'9e' ' ~ - - - .. - '

-:-:-:-:t~;7-l-{J::!D+....::-:;:-:t::7:~~-
r ! - »>» -·-,
t
I 8 f t
1
tr~ ,. 1 !. -~- J •
~
...... ---~ '
• ' e'---;'--T
• ....... -~• ...
-
pt04~ • -!'" -- - -8- - ~ - - - - - - -- - --:- -...,-,...,.-.,--
~-·
I I ' ' I ......,,,,.,,
ttgh I•••• ,. .. ,..1 ~ .... .,. •••'
,.~
IWlfd'IOW
-
--~
·----- a.
----·
Fig. 1.2 <hler11pplng zones In pnm1ry retaytng
1t can be _, from the Fig. 1.2 that the cin:ult bttabn •re located In the
connec1JonS to e...:h power sys~rn element, This provision 11\ilMs it pos>lble to
disronnoct only the f.tulty elemem from !ht- system. <JcassioNUy fo< eronomy in dv
number of circwt btta""n. • br~•kor ~..,, the two adjooent 9«tlon• moy be
ooull<d but ln that c.t5'! both the pcwcr oystmi >ec1ions •re required to be
do"""N'Ctt'd for the failutt in either of the two.
EM.it prot«:tiv" zone ha$ certain prot«tive scheme aJ>d eadl scheme has number
ol prolective •1-stmu.
1."4 Primary and Backup Protection

The prot<'C110n pro-•ldfd by the protective ... t.ylng equtpmMt can be uttgorited
into two lype; at
I Primary pl'Ot«tion
2. Bxl<up protl«tion
The primary pl'OIK'lion Is the first line ol defenai and Is ""'f'OO"lble to protK1 all
tilt• pow~., •y•t•m ck-malts from all tr.. typa of faults. ~ bado.up protection romn
mto pby onl) wlwn the primary prot«tion falls.
1 •5
~ b.Ykup prot«"tion is provided as the main protection can fail due to rnanv
ttason:s like.
I. Failure in circuit breaker
2- f•ilul\l in protecnve n?lay
3 filUUn! in tripping cin.-uil
4 f.>dure In d.c tripping voltage
S Loss of voltage or cunent supply to the relay
Thu.s if the backup protection Is absent and the main protection fails then th•re 1$
a po!Sob1hty ol severe damage to the system.

\\Ihm the primary prottttlon Is m•d• JnuJ'l!101lve for tlw malntt.'l'lance purpose, ttw,
bac'kup prot«tlon •ct!> l;U • main prott'<'11on Th~ •l'Tnngement ()( b<lckup preteeuve
~ lhould be such 111.>t tlw failure in m•ln prok..,ti"n .hould 1><11 c>ul!C the l•ilure
in l>a<k up protection as well This Is satisfied ii bnck up relJ)'ing and pnmAry
Maymg do not have anything common. Hence generally backup protectoon is locai..'CI
at dilltn'nt stations from the prlmnry protection. From the cost and economy point of
' ...... tlw backup protection a tmployed only lor the protection against short drnut
And not for any oth<T •bnonrull conditions
1 A.1 Concept of Backup Relaying

Consl<lcr the backup ttl•ylng employed for the transml .. 1on llne scctlon U: u
.t>own 1n the Fig. 1.3.
Fig. 1.s 8ackup rel•ylng

The relays C, D, G and H oro primary wlay• whil< /\, 6, I al1d J arc tho IM<~up
rfta~-s.
fl:onnally backup relays are tripped if primary relay foils. So If the primary relay E
fails to trip, then bnckup relays A and B get tripped. The backup reloys and associalt"d
backup "'l•yinit equipment$ are physiClllly apart from the faulty equipment.
I •S Prot.ctlve R~ng
The b.'<kup r<I•>•A ond ll provide backup protec11on Ioe ••uh •• st>uon K. Aho
tht b.lckup relays .i A and F provide the backup protection for th<- laulcs In line 06
The backup reiaymg often provides primary protection when the primal)' reU)-S
.>rt' out o( ~·1.,. tor rq><iirs
II I> obvio.» chat "'""""' the b•ckup "'lay op<'1alc•, th< la~ I"" ol the '>''""' .,.
dl<tt<lM«trd
The 1mporti1nt ""luircrncnt ol ~•<kup ttlaylng Is th.al 11 mu•t op.-rall! "uh
suciloent tame d<Lly to th•• the primary relaying Is glv~ ~ ch.an<" to opttol<' 1\1-
fault ocrun. both tht type ol relays storlS relaying operanoo but primary 1' ~
to tnp fil"St and b.lc~up will then ~ without having had ,._ to compW!e llS
ttbvrng opmrtaon
When ll><' II'''"" wt ''' rctoy8
provMto the bnckup protoct>On for ~·~r.rl ~jo<'mt
·~ de~b ti\<"' t~ •lvw!' wrll dttermuw tht
M<eWlV time del•} or !he given b•ckup rel•y•.
1.4.2 Methods of Backup Protection
Tbe various methods used for the b.:ickup protection are cbssilit'd as,
I. R•l•y 8.idtup Protection : In this scheme, a single breaker is \L"'L'tection but the t,vo pn>tectjve S:)'S~.S are
d.rr,,...,,.
2. Bre•k•r B•dcup Protection : ln thrs method, separste b,...,.1.t>r.; ore pro-.~ f0<
primary and baclc:up protection. Both the types of bre.iktts are at the sam<
Stltion.
J. Re.mote B•ckup Prottttiort : la\ this method, &eJX'lrAfe" bre.ak.t?N are ptoVided fot
prunary •nd l>Kk\lp protecuon. Tbe two type> o( bn:a4'1't .tre ,rt the dlfft<mt
•IAhtm• .>nd art rompl('toly l!IOloted •nd lnd•Jl<'nd~nl nl t>'kh oth"r
~ Ctntnlli• Co-ordln•t•d llntkup Prottctlon : In th1> method, pnm•ry prottt'llon
I) •• VAnou> 't>borrs There Is • rentral rontrot room ond b.>c~up P""""""' for
•II 1h<- <tallOnS is at central control room. Central control conhnuousl) "'>p«IS
the lo.>d llo" •nd frequency In tht 5)'1tcm. If an~ el.,,_t of any p.>rt ol the
<\'1tem forl< IOlld flow gc!J nffected which Is scMed b) lh<> ro.rtrol mom Tho.>
u•rtrol '"'""' "'""''" ol • digit.al ronrputer. whKh dC'Ctdl" th<• proptt
-'HtdllnM ~IM>n Tho n>r!hod i• noo called «-ntrally rontmllcd bac~up
ptUl\"Ctll't\
1.5 Nature and Causes of Faults

An\• lault m <ltttnc.il 11ppnratus is nothing but the defC'Ct m 1ts electrical omni
whl(h m•k<'S CUIT't'1't path directed from its tntended path. l\omully due to br"'1ung
tW cuinductoN or fOJ•lurt' of insul.it1on., thes4! fattU~ oeeur ~ othl•r rt".ISCWU. for
~on ind Swltchgur 1 •7 Prolectlvo Rol1ylng
occur•nc• or r~ult include mod>Ank•I r.rlure, accidents. C>;(nsl\e lnlcrNI 011d C\tcmal
JIJ\'S.W5, The Im~ of the path m the fault Is low and the f•uh currents •no
CClll\paratlvcly large. Thr ttductlon or the wuldlion Is not ainstdered as a foult unril
ib •hows some ~feet such 1s cxoesslve rurrtnt now 0< ~u<tion of imped~
bot"·een ronductors or between rond~rs and earth
When a fault <><<Un on a system, the voltllges of lhe thrt1' pho"''" become
unbalanoed. As the favlt currmts are large. lh< app.iratus ""')' &<" damaged. The flow
of power is diverted towards the fault which affects the sul'l"y to the ncighbounng
7.0IW.
A power system consbts oi generators, transformers, swib:hgear. transmission and

dlslilbution circuitl There is alway• a possibility in such a Luge network that some
fault will occur IR - part or the S)'1tcm The m.i<imum po<8iblllty or fault
occurancc ls on tt11nsmlnlon lines dut to th<'it gtt.•h'r k."1j,W •nd ~'P""""' 10
atmospheric condltlOM
The faults can not be IOtally eliminated from the system but lh<'tr occuranee can be
nunlmiscd by improving system design. quality of the equipment and maintenance,
The faults can be duoifi<d according to causes or tht>tt inOdc.-ntt. The breakdown
may occur at nonnal vollllge! due IO deterioration of insulabon. Th« bnMkd~"'n may
also O<'CUr due to damage on account of unpredictoble causes which include p('«'hil'g
ol birds, accidontal short circuiting by rn•ke5. kite &trillS" thrtt br.inchc• eec Th<'
breakdown may occur at abnormal voltages due to $\Y-itc:hmg SU:rgef or surges caused
by lighting,
The AC faults can also be classlRed ., sing~ line t<l ground faull, double line IO
gniund fault, three phase foult, thot may O<C\lr in the sysmn due to unbelanee In
(Urtnlt ond volt",;~. a>w •olt.lgc., l'(:vers.11 of powtr, power J"~ng>. und~r frequency.
le'r\ptr•ture rise and il'dt&bility.
It may be necessary IO know the frequency of the fault O«Ur>J'IC\! on vorlous parts
of the system which help m designing suitable protection oreuu, following table gh'es
us an id~ as IO how the faults are distril-ul\>d in the various parts of the system.
...
Equlprnont 'loofl .... _
.•..
1) ~ S)
21 - 15
SI ,, 12
•> ~ 10
51 ... llW
•
e> Co!td 3
7) CTt _.. PTa 2
Tablt 1.1
l'l'oCKllon and S•llchgear Protoctlvo ~laying
1 ·•
It c•n be ......, from the above table that maxhnmn numl>.>r cl t.ults ,\I'\' omtnng
an overhead bnn. In°"' of tl\rt'tl pha~ syi~1, the bl'\'al.down ol lnsuL>tion """'"""
"'"' ol lhe phasa and earth is known ., llne to ground faulL In line to line fault,
llwR' is in..ulation btt.ikdown betw<ftl tithe' ol the two pi.a-. Whllt the 1,,.ulati<'n
br•M~ck>wn bet"....., IW\> ph.t!<!9 and eartl1 forms double hrw to gTOUnd fault. The
l!R'.1kck>wn of inwlaoon b<>tWl't.i lhrt't' ph•~ I~ nothing but thrxoe ph•w 1.•ult
l'cliloWtflg table 8" t'$ (1(\'\ffAl\Ce Of lhc$cl faul!S
,.,....,, ~.. It Raiptuftltation -..occ:vnnoe

I) U..IO~(l-G as
21 u-. tu u;.. f\.-l.1 •

31 Li-. • ..._.... lo Gtoul'ld
ll."-41 '
•1 LJll'litID t.Jne to Line 2orlen
ll .......
h 1c.n Ill' _..,from !hr above IA~ th.ot mc»t of 111< faulis ""' hne to ground l•ult-
1n c•w of O\<rh<•.W h~ A l•'ll• number of 1)..,.. t•uli:. Jr<' tr•Nll"")' in n.iurt• Th<•
word .,..,.. 11\)f)' rd .... 10 the roult which 1'\'tNln' for ""°'' dur•'""' of tin•~ ,,,., f•ult
no~t v•tt<'S wtth brrW For 6ampl• if • twig !Jill ~ a hrw and "°'°"s •rm and
bums ots.!lf out or rust I.Us down tha'I the f•uh is transomt .. tl vanishes after kw
cvdes. During 6rsa one to three cycles, the fault current is ''ft}' high but later on
d~ very rapidly. Thi$ zone In whidl the current Is '"') high but d<tt<-•!>t'S very
rapodlv os called 'sub tr•nsift\t' •hit•. Alter ti- l!nt few o-cle. the r•tt of cunent
Jecre.11<' is •lower. Thl! ,.,.,., Is colk>d 'transient' state This >UI\> mnains for se••'<•l
;.·yde:s After the tr>m>rnl n•te Is over, steady state I• reacl\t,d During the steady <tote,
U... rms v.itue of short drcvlt cum"nl remains constant. The circuit breaker ope.rotes
during transient >'aw.
Thi< fault currtnt produced by line to ground fault has «lnS«ler•ble magnirude. So
U>< prot<!<lfrP •r•l<m must be properly designed so as to h.t,-. rehab!<> operation of
IX't.l\' und,•r lane to ground fault.
The Line. 1<1 lJne to Lane (l,.l.,L) f•uh l< nothing but 1ymmctnul thn>e ph.111e l•uh
whi<h norm.ill> C>n:\ltS J...., to carcl<M,_ o( operoting ~I U111<11Jy tht phos.!
lln<S .,e. tied tog.<lher with the he.Ip of • bare conductor so M to prolttt U... lln<:Tnan
wurktng on the lin<-s agains inadvmmt charging of ~ brw Sometimes a.fh..>r the
\\'t•rk. if lineman forgflS to remove the tie up between ~ Imes and if the arcull
btta.ktr lo cloe<>d Ihm ttuw pha9'1 symmetrical fault on:urs
Pvo1ect1on ands~ t ·I
The m08t serious •ffect of unclear«! fJull I. nothln3 but f1ru "hi( h .1,.,,,.,,., tho
"!"ipment, spreads up m the •)"'l<.'m and uu- coml failure The m<'81 «>mm<>n "l"'
oi fault which may pn)'~ to be dangercc > ,. short ctrcuu, 0.... to th1> t.1ult, tJw:n, ,.
groot reduction in linl' vollage over a m.1jor part of tho power system. TI>ere is
<Limage which may reult to !ht (']('ments of tf><, ~-.tMi by electric arc wluch
accompanies short citrull The oth<.'I' appar•tus in the ·~~""" •rt· d<1mag,od due t0
O\'«h<•ting and due to se!ting up o( •bnonn~l m«Nniol lo!"CC"i Tho stabihly o( th<o
f'O""" systt'm I• di>tu~ which '""Y sometimes ....suit in rompldc shut down or thlo
power systcJn. Due to reduction m voltage, curTenrs dr-.i°"-n b)' motors are abnorm.a11,~
hq;ll. This mny result into loss or !ndustri•I product•on So <Ud1 fnults are u'Oidrd
fl'Clm occurlng by d<Signlng suitable and •··113blt t>ul l'<OOOmial protcclivc scl>cnw
1.8 F•ult Cur,..nt C•lculallon using Symmetrical Components

In cue <>f three pros.. balanced •)'•lem. cutn'nts and '<>ll•ges are <qu>I m
rmg11itude and are d~ from each other by 120'. The currents and voltages are
thus Silk! to be symmetrical. The analysis of such system is easy which is done on per
phase basis. But when the lood is unbal~. the analysis using normal techniques
becomes dlrncull. Under such case, method of S)'mmmic.11 components C\ID be
odoptrd H sugg ested by ~''- According to his ll~'f'll. the unbalnnccd pha-.
an be reiK>lvtd lnco thn.'C blllan<'l.<d •Y•tem• or ph.,,,._ The b.1l•ncL'll Hlll ol
(Mlpoo<'nl can be glVftl •! (a) positive S<'<)uen<e compmenl (b) 1w~atlv• ~
component (c) zero ~ component
A system of vectors is ha''ing
positive pla«> sequence when it has
all vectors 11.i,·ing same magnitude
)o--------x
e.,
and are displ.Jccd by l:!O'. They
have Pme bme lntcrvrtl to achiie\·e
r.. ed •Iris ol rerrrenco ., '""' ol
gentt0ted voltoge, The poo:tb•..,
sequeece IS ddignatcd by W1e ol
Fig. t .4 Pooltlw phU<t Hquenc:<1 with suboc:npt P. It II shown in the
antielocllwt•• ..- of ..ctors (1·2..3) Fig. 1.4 TI... vectors come Ill X •m
In order ol I. 2 and 3.
A system ol vector is having negative phA5e sequence "'!wn it has all "-
having Ame magnitude and ore displa~ by 120". Bui arrive al the reference a>i.s ot •
rogular interval same os that of positive sequence but in reverse order i.e, in order ol
I, 3, 2. It is shown !n die F13- 1.4 suff1>< n i.• ~ to d .. ignale nogative sequeece,
•
Ptotect!on end Swltcll9Ulf 1 • 10 Proi.ctlveR~lng
e,.
c,.
Fig. 1.5 Negative plllM sequence with clcx;kwlse rotation of vectors (1-3·2)
•
A system ol \tttors is having zero phase
e,. sequence ii all the three vectos are not
displ.1<\.>d ln time from eKh eeher •nd there
will be no pha.sc seq- In such cases 1~
('Um'fll or voltage tn dw 3 phaw nmJ1t wali
vary simultaneoulsy t.n all the 3 pha«:S. Such
Flg. 1.5(1) Zero p11_. .. quence • phase sequence is shown in the Fig. 1.5(•)
sufR• 0 is used to design;tn. zero sequmre.
Con•idn • '~'"" having three vectort Md It can I><' ~l\fd Into posoti\•t,
n•·11-111• • ,.,,~ Lem ph.t<c> -iu•11<c ro1npon•:111S u thown int 1hc ~ii: I 6 II I• poulb~
"' 11•'1 3 • •<:toD by """S lolluwlng •qu•ll<WI$
£1 • l1p + E1" + E10
E, • E,p + £,,. + e,.
E, • E'P + E,., + E_,
e,.
t»
--.... e,.
£,.
0
e,. 0 e,.
e,.
Fig. 1.8
Comtder m genrral • power system network as shown In llw Fig. 1.7 suppose !h.11
loull oceurs 01 p<Jint P m this system. Due to this currents I,. i,. le now out ol the
•v•h!m while V,. V.,. "• ue the nne voltages with r.spl"<1 to ground
Procection and Swttc:hgN( 1. 12 Protective Rolayi119
1 ·"""" <om~!> hk circuit hn•okers, rdays. <'urr<1'1t transf<>nnfl'\ (C.T •I. potmllal
tr.m•tom1<'r.. (PT ,t <•l>los, trip drcuits •tc. The proper Maint""'1nce olso pl>~• .,,
unl"'rtarn role in 1mp..,.1ng th• reliable operation or t,.,.. svstem. The reliab1litv rnn
n<'t i.. <'•pres.'('(! "' 1"" mnthem1Uc1J e_.pm•ions but c•n be 1udgod from the
>t.l!~tk•I dnu Th" si.1"!lcn1 •U'""Y and t\'C<lfd< give good 1<1 .. abaut tht •1'h•b1hty
o/ th,• rn111'(lll~., """ nit· lr1her<•nt rtll3bi11ty Is b.lM-d on""' dt>1>1gn whrch "i... se-d
''l'l'"""'-"
"" t..., 11"1)1 Thi> <•n bt· •<hr<'VOO by the fD<tOB hke
11 S1mphc1n 11) Robustness
1111 High cnn ....""t pressure lv] Dust free enclosure
"I Good contac1 material vi) Good workmanship and
'ii) C.>reful mainh."lla.ne'e
t.7.2 Selectivity and Olsertmlna11on

The ,.,1ec11vi"' IS the ab1Jjty o( the protectiv< system to idenuly the faulty part
n•n>!<dy and to dba:inntc1 that part without affecting the rest ol the healthy part ol
"'"lem The dlscn11UNnon means to distinguish between The di$crimination qualit)
CJf the prot.cll• • l\'5lml " the abilily to distinguish betwttn """""' ronditioo ind
.1bnc:~I ft>tlditten and lll.40 between 1~ma.l corldition \Ill. tthan protl'<li\'t- r.onr .,n,i
el'i\·11hcre The prot«t11 • 1y.tem Ah<>uld op<'rot• only •• 1"" tome al abnorm.'ll
(\1'\dotk>n .md not At the tin1'! or normal condllion. Hct"IC<' u must clcorly dl>Cl1mu\ilte
betwffn norm•I and •bnc>nn•I eondition. Thu• tM protecto•-e sysrvn should Kl«t the
faulty part and dl5COl'U1t'Ct only the faulty part without d15Curb.ng the healthy part o(
the ~\)tern
Th<! prctecnve >)'>!en should not operate for the faults ~'On<! its protmiv• zone.
F"r •••mple, coru.dn thc portion of• typ1c.J power system~.., m the Fig 1.8.
- ----4C8,._._,
A
C. B. ~ c. 8.
8
C.B. C.8
o f2
t t4ll\1••l•
jj) 0 F,
lino
CB C B.
fig. 1.1
It " dear from 1"" fog, I 8 that if fault F2 occurs on IT•nsmwion hne then the
"""'It b,...,k~"' 2 ~ 3 llhould oponte and dbconnttt 1"" llM from the rem.uning
..., .:c-.,1 ll-.. J'r11k,!l\t" s~em "1WlUld ~ ~lecti\'(' in ie:l«ttng fault\ tr~~1t.'1nistion lint•
Protecllon and Sw1t~ 1 • 13 Pr...-JveRelaying
onl)' for th•• foult F1 and it should Isolate ii without tripping the •d)>Cd't 1ran>ml»1on
lint br<akcrs or th< translormn.
11 tht proteah~ S)"Ptm a no< selective then It operates fO< tht' faults beyond 11>
prot11<th• t.one5 and UM«'eSSO')' the l•rge p•tt of the s~stftll ~ 1JOla1<od. Th11
<•u ....... lot or lnctlf'I•...,~ to the suppllcr and users.
1. 7 .3 SPffd and Time

A protectJve system must disconnect the faulty system as fast .. possible. H the
fa,:lty sy>rem is not disconn«t"'1 for a long nme then,
I The device Qn}ing bult currents may gel damaged.
2. The failure le><H to the n.'<luction in sysecm voltage. 5udt low voltage mav
•fft'Ct the moto.s and generators running on the consunwr SI&.
). If fault penal$ f0< long time, d•cn subs<oqu<-ntly oil>« ••Ult> mav get
geneuted.
The high speed protedi~ system avoids the possibility of sud> und~rable eHec1S.
The total time miwred between the mS1ont of fault and tM tnstant ol final are
inttrruphon in tlw arant btt•ktt is rolltd I.lull clearing ri""' ll ,. th< •um 111 rel•y
tame •nd ara1lt brNl.ft rim<. The rcl•y tin•~ 1J th• time b<-tw•"'" tlle 1""1<1nt '" t•ull
ocrurn.>n<." and the lrw•nt o( cloiiure of rt'I•>' (()tlt•Cti. The dm.11 bttaker nnw 11 w
tlrn.• tal.A.'11 by tht• araut b...,,.i,.., IU ol"'r•tc to open th• <'Clnta<b anJ to •xtm11ul•h the
arc oompletely. The fault ~Aring lim~ should be es small u possible to have hlgh
speed ~tion of the pr-.:bv• system.
Though the small fault de.tring time is preforr.J, in pra<li<-r <ttt.tin time lag is
provided. Th,. ,. beuuw.
I To have d"ar discimina11C>n between prim•ry and bod<up pn>teciion
2. To prevent unrt«'t'SSU)' operation o( relays under the CCIN!itions such as
transients, starting inrush of current etc.
Thus fast protective system is an important quality which minimises th<> damage
•nd it Improves the 0\-..all subillty of the power system.
1,7,4 S.n.altlvlty
TN protective ')'$1<'m should be sufl1ciently 6'ef1Sltlve so th.st 11 <An opt',..,,.
rt'liAbly
whtti requlred. Th.- wntitlYlty of the li)ISttm I~ the ability of the rel.ly syStem lO
op<'l'•i. whh low value o( actu.ating quantity.
It lndkatn th<! .ma!le.l value or the actuating quantity •t which the protection
SI•~ op..-ating in rtlatlOn mth the minimum VJlue of the l.lult CUrtJ.'l\t in tlw
pr<>lt'Ctt'd lon<e.
Protoctlve R91aytng
The relay ..,..;11v1ty Is the lun<'tion ol the volt·am~ttS input ro rhe rri>y COii
nec:esaary to cause its operation. Smllller the value of volt ...mpen- input, moA' Rn'itive
is the relay. Thus !VA input relay Is more ..-nsltive than the SVA input rel.ty .
.
M.ilhemalblly the ~ltivlty is expreooed by a faclOc called sensiti\oty lon0< ic.
It ., the rario of mimmum shorl clrcuil current In th<! prolttttJ '°""
ro the mlntmum
op•ntlllg <Um-nt ""fWMI lor the protL'Clion to 1tor1.
K. • !i.
~
'·
• lfellSitivlty factor
1, • mini.1nuJt1 short drcult cu.rrent tn ~ zone
J. • minimum OJ>"'Allng curr<t1t for tlw pn>IL'<tion
1.7.5 Stablllty
The •;•blllty " the quallty of the prot<..:livc •y•tem due to which the sySlem
..,,.....,. moper.th•·• and stable under certain specified condJl!On> such as IRl15>ftlts.
dutwtxtnce, through faults etc. For providing the stability, certain modificotions are
requittd in the ~em design. In most of the cases ti- debys. filter circuits,
D>td>ani<AI and el<'C'lrk..t bia' an: provided to achieve stablr Of<'r>tion durillg the
da~
1.7.6 Adequatene$S
'There are variety of faults and dtsrurbaoees those may pr""1ically exists in a f'O"'er
syslenL It is impo56ible to provide prolection against each and every abnormal
condition which moy exist in practice, due to economical reosons. But the pro!tt'ti••
system must pn>\ide adequate protection lor any elenwnt ol the sy>tern The
><k'<!uoll'n<!N of w .,...,em can 1"' ~ by considering followuig factors.
I RAtlnS' ol varloui equipments
2. Cost of tM oquipments
J l.ccatlons ol the equipments
4 Probabihty o( abnormal condition due to lnl~m•I ond "'"'m&I causes
~ l>L'l<Onnnuity ol 1upply due 10 the f~Uu~ ol the equ1pm1:nt
1.7.7 Slmpllclty and Economy
In add1bon to all the importonl qualities, It Is necessary that IM rost or the •Y>"""
should be well within !Jm!ts. In practice sometimes it is not ~ry to me tdc>~I
~ scheme which is economically unjustified. In >UCh cases comp~ is
done. M a rule, the protection cost should not be more th.m 5'1. of the toul cost Bui
if tM equipments to be protected are very important, the <'<'OOOmic constramts can be
rtl.aud.
Protection ond Swltchgor 1 • 15 Prottctfvt Rtfaylng
11"' protc<:hvc •)1!'""'1 should be as slmpl• ot .,.mlble IO 1ho1 11 c.u• b,• <"•>Ill
m•iniaul<'< 1)-Slrm a.re difficult from the maintman<t' pou>I ol vfew. "In•
simplicity end reli•blllty ~ <losely related to each other. ~ sunpl~r systems are
alw•ys more reliable
1.8 Claaslficatlon of Protective Relays

All the relays consist of one or nloJ'e elements which get energtsed and ncttl.lh:.od
bv the eleetrtcat qu.antttie ol the cirruit. Mo.tt of the rela)'"S used "°"'a deys are
<-l«tn>-rnechc-1nical l)'pe which work on the principles of electrom~gnetic attraction and
cl('('tl"orrusgnetic induction.
1.8.1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays

Th• ~l«tnunogni'tlc lltrll<'tlon typo reltys Of)"r•t• oo Ille pnndpt.. of 011ract1on of
.IJ\ •rm•tvrt' by th•• rNlgt\C'CIC lottt produttd b) undc,.lrobk- <"WTt"Rl Cl4' m11v,•nw111 01
plung"' In • solenoid ti.- relays can be actu.&t\'J by a.c. 0< d.e, quanllll"". Th•
vanoes typos of these rebys are.
I Solenoid Typ<! : In tlus relay, the plunger or iron core moves mto a solenoid
and the oporotion ol the rel•y depends on 1hc movcmt'l\t of the plunger.
2.. Attracted Ann.aNtt Type : This t'f'lar o~r-•t~ on the C\ln'm.t seulng. Wllt•n
<urrenl in the rucuit exceeds beyond the limit, the •rm1tutt gors anracted by
th~ nio.gne1lc forte produced by the undesirable CUm'nL lhe current r.ting ol
the circuit in which rel•y is connected pla)'ll an imporu.nt ruk in the operatio<1
ol the relay.
3. B•l•ne<d Beam l'yp<! : In thl• rrlay, the artNll\111! as fastmed to • bnlonc«I
beam, For norm.ii currnit, the beam rermlN horiront.al but when C\Jtr,'111
•'c~'<I~. the onnotutt gets •llr.ct<'e principle of an electromagnetic indUdion, The use of
these relays ,., limited to a.c, quantities. The \•.1rious types or these relays are,
1. Induction Oi11e T~ : tn this rel.. y. o1 mt't;a1 disc is .-Jk>~·f'd to rot0>tc between
th• two elect~. The ele<:trormgnets ore ~ by •lt••=ting
cuncnts. The two l)'J'ft ol ronotrumono used lor tlus type ue •hadl'd pole
type! and watthour ~r type.
2. lnduclion Cup ~ : ln this relay, electromagnets act •• a stator and
<Mrg1sed by relay collt. The rotor is metollle cylindrkol cup typo
1 • 18
1.&.3 Dlrectlonal Type Relay•

~ n:lays "·ori. on the dlrecuon of cturent or power flow' 1n tht> orru1t Thr
'd"""" 1)-pe> of lhe-.- rela~'$ are.
L Rtvtrse Cum'ftt T) pe : The relay IS Oduated when th<' dm-.;Mn of the C'Jfl'l'l'lt
t'( R•\ t'N'd or th.! rhtl..qo of th(• C\JrTent bfacOmflS 01ar~ than rh• prf'dl'k"rmmtd
\.ll\l\'
:. Rf\ fl'>• rowtr Type : Tho "'lay " octu.rc-d wtwn tlw ph.'"' dl,piM<-mmt
t-.1'"''"' •pplot'twem instont o( t\!l•y operation and uw.mt •t which lnPJ>Ull.t
,~ ""''·"""' 1.1k,, P'"""· Of"'"""'
c•n be runtroll.J. This tlmc I• called btM s.......i m
thn ttM.• tam.: n·I~\• .,re dO).SSi(icd a•,
I ltbtanton«>u> Typ• : In thl• type no time is loot betw_, opention Ct( ma•
and tripping of <'O<lt.lCIS. No Intention.ti time delay is provided.
., Definite Time ug Type : In this type intentionally a d<fmilt time lag is
provided between op6atlon ol relay and tripping of conlACL
3 Inverse Time ug typ• : In this typt>, the oper•tmg tune b appro,..tNltly
""•""h proportional to the mal!"tlUde of the actuoting quantity.
1.8.5 Distance Type Relays

These relays wmk on the principle of measurement of volttge Ill current ratio>. In
this typr, there ere two coils. One roil is encrgis«I by CU11'<!1ll wtu~ other by '°'"'&"·
The torque produced IS proportion•I to the rolio of the two qu..nhties When the rario
nod""" Nlow • ~ ,•..iue, the relay oper•~ The vorlou! typ<.. of ~ "'lay> .,...,
I Imped•...., Type : In this type, the rAtio or voll•g• "' curR'f\t 1, nothing l>"t ...,
lmp<•tfa""" whirh i1 propor11onal to the dlll•n<"e of th<' "'~') form the bull
point.
2. ReKl•nct Type : 11w operating ti- 1$ proportional to the "'•<tance which IS
proportional 10 the distance of the rd.ly from the fault point
3 Admlttanct Type : This It alto called mho typ.! In this rvpe, llw optnllng
hme It proponlon&I to the ndmittantt.
1.8.6 Dlfferentl•I Type Rel•ys

A diffettntial l'C'uy opmttc; when the vector differer= of two or more cl«mc::&l
quiintibts in the dnvit 1n which relay is connected, exceeds a Ht value. Tbese ~
dAotlied "'·
, -17 ProlKtive Relaying
I 0."1!nt Dlfltttnlial Typ< : In this 'YI"'· the relay comp<1re:> the curttnt
entering a section ol the system and the current leaving the >«tion. Under
fault condition, th6e currents are dillen!J\t.
2. VDlbg• Oilf.,...,IUI Typ• : Jn this typt, two traMfonnen are used. The
Kalndertes of the 1n11&lormert are conn«IA!d In ..,ri•• with the relay in """" •
"''"Y that tht indlld!d <.rn.f.1 are In oppo11ltton under normal conditions Undtr
l~ult condlliool. primaries c•rry dlllcr.,,t 1."Urrcntl due to wit.di indlld!d e m.1$
no longor rrmaln In oppo&ltion •nd the reloy oper•tes.
1.8.7 Other Typea of R.elaya

Vanous other typos of rcla)" whkh •re u....t. in practice are,
I. Undu volt•ge. cutrtnt. power reS.y : This relay oix-rates w""" the voltag<'.
currrnt or power 111 • dn:vit falli below a set value
2. Ov•r voltoge. au·rcnt. power rel•y : This relay actu•kt wht'n the voltagr,
current or power In a circuit rtses above a set value.
3. Thmnal Rday : This relay actuates dee to the heat produced by the current m
the ..Uy roil.
(. Rectlfitr R•l•y : In this relay, lhe qu..ntili..,. to be seri!l<'d arc rtttift«I ond Ihm
II'''"' to the moving roll unit ol the reloy.
5. Fcmu.nenl '-fagnd Moving Coil Rel.ty : In this relay, the coil c.arrymg<."UrTe'll
is free to rotaU, in the magnetic field ol a permanent magnet. This is used loc
de. only.
6. Stati< Rel•y : This rtlay uS<'S some electronic method for sensing the actwting
quontlty. It 11'"'5 a stationnry drtuit.
7. Cot Oporated Rrtay : The g .. prusurc I$ •djustcd a«Otdtl\g lo tM variations
m the actuating quantity. This 1>••
prtSSur<• is uSC'd lo actu.>u, the r<l.iy
BucMol.t rcla)• is an example of such ~ ol rulny.
1.9 Termlnologlea used In Protective Rel1ylng

The vario<Jt t<rminologles US«! In th<> prolectt•• r<l•ylng •re.
1. P>ottttlvo Retay: It Is •n ekoetrical ,..lay, which cl°""' tt• ronl><11 wtw-n an
Kt\latlng quentlty rtKh<t • certain prtMt valuu. Our to closing ol conlll<to,
...Uy initiates a trip drtult of circuit breo.kn or Qn alum CU'tult.
1. RrLty Tim• : It if !ht time between the instant of fault O«UJ'T'enC< ind !he
insW\t of dosUD! ol rel.oy cootacts.
and °"""'
J. Brtaltrr Tlme : 11 is the time between the instant at dn:wt bn!•kN opttat>rs
the cortta<ts. to the Instant ol extinguishing the arc complewly
1. ,. Protoctf\oo Relaying
4, f•ult O•ulng Tim• : The tot>l lime rtquircd b<-t"'""" the ~•~nt of fault •nd
!hi' 1nstllnl 01 fiMl arc Interruption in tho clrcuJt broJke< ts r.tUh deanng IDTI<".
It is sum of the relay time and circuit breaker time.
S. Pickup : A relay ls said to be pkkfd up when it moves from the OFF
f""llion 10 ·o-.;· po>lllon Thu• whim rel•y optrat~ 11 " '-"d trot ~' h.a>
p1<1..td up
"- Pk~up V1l11• : It l• 1111' minimum \••lue of an OCIUJltng <tu•nhl\' JI whl<h
rd•y iuru ~r.llng. In most ol the rtl•~ actuJllng qu .. nbt1 1, cunyn1 on the
"'I•)' rod ind pa-Lup value of currtnt I• indicated ;1.l011j1 wnh the nol•y.
7.
ons•n•I 1""'11<"1 I.
Dropout or R ... , : A relay Is said to dropout or reset when It comes bad to
when relay ront•Cts open from it• c1-..i pco-otl<W\. Th.•
v•lue or an .ic:tu.11ing qu•nllty current "' voltage bt•to..· which the rein ~
,. calli• wns.sl th..- l•ult
as called nme deL.'y of relay. Some rela)'S are inst.AJ\bn~u~ \\1h1lf sn ~
relays intention311y a time delay is provided.
9, Seiling R•l1ys or Holding R•l•y. : 11>e relay c:ootacts are designed for bght
wright and ~ they are therefore vuy delicate \\'hen the prOh."C'b\i"rPb)'
ctoses 11~ ron:xts. it is relleved from other dutil'!ii sadl as ti.me Llg.. tripp..ng
~. Th{~ dutie!t- ._,,. 1>erlor1l'K-,d b)r AU'C:iliary reU)"'i "hKh are also alkd
"""hng rclay-. <.-holding relays,
10. Curront Setting: The pick up value of current can be odrJSted to the required
levt>I in the relays which is called current setting ol that rel.>)• It is achieved by
US<' ol ~1ppmg> on the relay eon, which an? brought OUI to • plug bndge as
shown 111 tlw fii;. 1.9 1 tw top ''•'""" are ••P"'""'oJ in hmns ol f>"1'<1'nlAS~ rull
lo.1d raun11 ol current "''nsformor (C.T) with which n-1•) I> ~>S<>Cioted
~·-
% cun.,. _ _,__25 50 7S 100 125 150 200
..., ..... C(Jj1
Fig. 1.9 Topplng f0< current 1ettlng

Prot.ctfve lhlaylnl}
~ n as timt---.ett1ng
mulupbtr Its dMl IS
alibrattd from 0 to I In
3ttp. o( 0 OS a. .OOW.1 In
02 oe the Fig I 11
°flw'
\ 11 I Uc.'
1 0,
hme-..tling mult1pll.r along
with lite nme obblined lrom
tunr/P.S.M. C\HYe deodes
0 1.0
lite xtu•I time of operation
Fig. 1.11 Tlme•settlng mulllpller of the reay. For eurnple if
ti-ting mulllpbi'I" "'
..tttted "" () 2 while hm• rorresponding to P.S.M. of 10 IS ~ S«Ond• then,
Actual nme of operaoon • time ln second.s x time-W"tbng mulupher
= 4 • 0.2 = 0.8 seconds
14. Trip Cimait: The opening opcnlion of circuit btt•X.-.- tS controU..'CI by •

circuil "'luch '°""""'
o( trip coll. rel•y cont>CI'>. •u•ili••I')' <watch, b•tll'ry
•uppl) C'tc whldl lo <•iled trip cln:ulL
15.. Ur1h fttt.ilt The f,,,1lt lnvolvtns '"rth It calk'd .... ,,h l.iult fhv c1ia11,r1._-.. of
t
eorth fault att SU1gle line to ground faul~ double bne '" ground foult etc,
16. Phue F•ull : lhe f.lult which does not involve emh .. called phase fault. The
example Is line to Hne fault.
17. Ptoltttivt Schtintt : The combination of variOU$ rcotect1\·e .1ys~.s CO'\·ermg a
partirular prot«tivc zone for • p•rticular equipment as called pmtrctive
sch<-me. For e.umple • general'1< m•y be pmvld"'1 walh protrctive •) <k'fl\> like
overcurrent, dilfttendal, earth lault etc. The combuwoon ol all these S)'>l<m.~ is
called gmentor protective scheme.
111. Prote<tive System : 11\e combiNtion of cirruit breakers, trip circuits, CT. and
other prt>Cedh·., rebying equipments is called proh.'Cli•·• ~)'5lt'm.
19. Unit Prot«ti(m : A protecti\'~ •)"llffn in wha<h ~ pro«'Ct•M '"""' i> clearly
dcAned by the C.T. bounct.ries Is coiled unit prol«llotl. Su<h l) .. ten>s work for
lnttmAI l•ults only.
20. R<ach : The lllnltlng dlst•nc<' In which proteenv e sy<tem r<Sponds to tlK'
foults Is called read! ol the p~tlve system. The ~tionbeyond the ..,,
dlstan<• Is called ovt'r~.Ch whlw !allure or
dlston<'r reb•• wathln O<I d1•t•n<-t
ls called~~
1 • 21 P<otectJvo Roloylng
1.10 Instrument Transformers

In hea.,•y currents and high voltage a.c. circuits, the measurement can not be done
by using the method of extension or ranges or low range meters by providing suitable
shunts. ln such condmoos. specialty roru,tructed accurate ratio rran.c;f.ormcrs called
ins.tNmenl transfonners. These can bl'! used, irrespective of the \,1lt.1ge and C\lfr(l'nt
rahnp of 1)1c a.c. dlt'Ulls Thcte trnnslormcrs not only •••ll'nd the r>ngc of the l<>w
r>n);<' 1nsirun>rnt• bul abo l$0la1,• thctn from high current •nd high volt•i;• ·' c
ctrruit.. This mn~ their handling ve<)' $o>fo. Tht•s1• MC gcner>lly classified as hl
("UlTCf'lt tran.sfonncrs and (ii) pok'ntlol trl\nsformcr'$.
1.11 Current Transformers (C.T.)

1~· J ..,tg_. Altcr11rtlU'8 ('\lrttnt, \\ hlch (".lft 1'4:)t ~· f;Cl,!ll'J <~r r•~ thJO\tgll l'IN"tNI
1
ow1nn--..-wr"' 011d current coil> of w1,ttn1"\1i"I">, ent·rgymetcrs rn11 ~Mii) I>\- mea.-un.'1 bv
UM." ttf eurre'1'1t trn1\11(ur1n(..'ft along 'viii\ 1torma) low r.1nge lnstrta1nttnb
A 1r.nslom1cr Is • dev1oe whlth COl\Sists of two winding> c.11led primary and

k<Ond•ry II tronsfl'n eneri,')' frum one ~ide to onothcr with suitoble chonge In llv.-
k-\-.1 ul currrnl or \'Olt.1gc A current trnnsformcr basic.di)' ha• • pnm.ary coil or ,,.,..
or more t\11'11~ o( lw:.") cross·S<'('t1on.il
h\ N.1n\t!, tht." Nr ,,,rryln~ h1>:h
+tr1.•.J,
curre1lt ttli1)' ;1ct "~ .1 prim.1ry. Thi'- l'
et)nnected In 'Jt'1'•'-"'=t witl\ thl"' hne
carrying high cum't>I
The secondary nf t!1'! tronsfomwr
\A mildtJ up o( a l..1~""e numbur n( turns
Ao•••lt* o( fh'l' "''in.• h..'' Ing .11n\.&ll

(l'()SS·~C'("lltll\;11 .lrt.'.11 fh13 I~ ll\iUltlJY
FltJ. 1.12 Current tran1f0<mtr rated for 51\. Th" " (l)nftCClrJ to 1tw
coil of norma] r.angt' · t'lmmt"I~
S~mboltc representabon or a current trnns(ormer ts .\S shown Jn the Fig. 1.12.
1.11.1 Working Principle

n.e,.., tran.rornl!'rs are b.'lsically step up tr.rnsformcr. t.e. >l•'PP'"ll up • •·olt•l(t'
fn.'lm prin1.1ry to ~nd.ary. Tht1S the C\tr-r\-.fll redu("(!?I (ro1n pnn'"'Y IO ~'t)nJar; ~
froin rurn-nt polnt o( view. lh1.'Sl' arl• step do\\'n transf<>rn1e..,... trpp1ng down 1~
curtYnt \.11lue co1\Sidcta.bly (rom primary 10 secondary.
Lc1 N1 = Nwnber of turns of pnm.iry
N2 2. Number of tums of secondary
J1 - Primary current
1. 22 Protective ~lay\1>11
I: • Sttondary curttnt
Fm a transformer.
11 N2
i;° e N1
As N2 Is ••')' htgh comput'd IO N1• the ro~o 11 to 11 Is •I><> very high for Nrrt"l\I
tr•ntlotmers. Such • cvrttt1t ratio Is lndlcoted for ropMlmring th<- r•ngo of Nnml
tnnSlorma. l'or ..umpl•, ronsldor • 500 . 5 rang• then II 1nd1a1t1!" that CT St<p5
down the cun-ent from prim•ry to 1<.•condary by • ratio 500 to 5
- . 500
,,'·-2
Knowing thlt <11<rmt ratio ond th• mcter roodfng on the >«ORdnry. th<> ;octwl
htgh 1o.,.. curreet flowing through the primary con be obtained
..... &ample 1.1 : A 250 : S. c·urrtnl tnmsformrr IS u$<ll •hrng u.ih an aml'INr If
ilmn1tttrrtedmg IS 2.7 A, tsti111atL lht li.n~ current.
Solution :
.!i.. 250
11 5
But as ammcter i. In ll«'Ondary, 12 • 2.7 A
1,
iJ = s250
11 ; 135 A
<;,, hne cum'l\t IS 135 A.
1.12 Conatructfon of Current Tranaformara

TM<'e are two types of constructions UHd for th• <11m:nt tr~r1Sfonner.1 1Vhich are.
I lllound type
z, B.ir 'YI'<
1.12.1 Wound l)lpa Current Tran1fonMr

In wound l)'f>* rnn•tnM:tlon, tllO prim.ry fs wound for "'°'' than one rull rum. en
the <'Ort Tbe ron.trudion Is shown in the Fig. 1.13 •
.
Protection end Swlt~or Protective Releylng
Pi•••t
.......
.,.., tr•----!
Core
Fig. 1.13 Wound cype currtnt trtnslO<mef
In • IOI\ \'olt4j\t' "'ound type current tronslormt>r, tho '<'rond•ry wmdmg is

woend on • b;ilelit.. former The heavy pn=ry winding o> d1rttth• wound nn •"'-' top
o( th(- S<'<Ondory -.1nchng wuh • sulloblr 11uuh1tion In b<-t"'ttn tho two. Otl1<•rwi-<" 1h(-
pn-l'} IJ woond romplttely ""P"'•t~I~ •nd I hen i.J'('d "'1th w11,1bk• ln.•ul.unK
m.1t<>rl•I •nd ..-mbltd with 1he ~nd•I") on llw <On'
The <U~'lll trillllfonners con be ring type or window l)]'t' Some rommonly used
sh.af)L--S for the st&mptngs or window type current translormetS are ~hcl'wn sn the
Fig I H
,---~,'
(bl Rl"I! 1<1 llldlum
Flo. 1.14 Stemplnga for cumont 1r1narorm.n
The core rNlalOI fo< wound type Is nkk«l·lron alloy or an ONttled ek.-ctri<"•I '""''
Bel0<0 lnstallmg tho o«ondary winding on core II ls lnsuloi.d with the hclp o( ~nd
co11..... and <imunr......... tW wrop• or prt'Ubo.lrd.4 Such p~ provide •ddolK•MI
u»ul•llon ond proll'CtlOI\ 10 •he winding lrom dom11gr dut'"' lht' >lurp rom<·r-
1.12.2 Bar Typo CurTent TninllfomMr
In this type ul currtnt transformer, the prunary winduig is nothing but • bor ol
•uat.ob:C size. The ronstruction is shown in the Fig. 1.15.
I •
\\"'=-'
••
•
''
'•
.•
•:
'
~
.........,
.... lyJ»
Coro
'' •
•' I
'' ''
' ''
''
''
-
I '
'' '• ec..
~ ' •
•' ''
I I
fig. 1.15 Ber type current transfonn«
The in>ulo~nn on dw bu type primary Is bftkell1ed paper tube or • r..~in dll1'dly

mouldt'd on th~ b.H Such !Nr type prlm•ry Ii the ont.gral p.>rt of the """""'
tr.mronnt:r 11\C' core ainJ ttw terc.'Ond1ry w11\ding..' are UIT\t" •n b.•r typt• tr..i1l~(ormtT
The stampings used for the laminabans m currmt tr.moformfls must have hlgh
~1onol area than the ordlnor)' tran:stormers. Due IO thl$. the reluctance of the
mterie.aved comers remainsas low as possible. Hence the corresponding magnetizang
current is also small. The windings are placed very dose lo 9ch other so as 10 ttdUC'I!
the k'ak•ge rc•~tai=. To avoid tlw corona •ffoct, In bar 'l'l"" tr•nsfotm<:r, tho ••tern.I
di.mwt.<r of thr tube •> ~ IArge.
Thr wondl11gs ""' so designed that W11hout damage, tM) can withstand ihon
ornaot for~s which 1"11) be caused due to lhon circuit In the circuit ln whdo thr
namnt transformer Is ln:lftled.
F.>t small line volt>~ the tape and varnish •R' used for lnsulntion. F<l< line
• olt.og.. above 7 kV the od immersed or compound fi!k,d current tran•fOl:ln<'n are
u......cl
1.13 Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be Open ?

It ;. very important tlwt the sccondory of C.T. should not be kept open. Ei!hor rt
should be shorted or must be ronnect<d in seri.. with • low resistnnc:e coil such as
<ul'ttnt coil' of waltmltt6, -1 of ammeter •IC. If 11 is left open. then curront thrvugl>
~ry becomes zere ho>ce the am~ tum& prodU«d by s~<vndory whdo
1 .25 P..-ctlve Relaying
ll"'lttall} opp<»e pnm•ry aml"'ft' tum• ~Jn<'Szero. As there " no rounlfr mm 1.

~ primary nun.f (ampere rums) produce high flux "' rhe <ore lluo
produces excessive core loo;ses, heatlng the core beyond limits. Simil.srly heavy e.m Is
wdl be induced on lhe pnmary and sccood>ry side. This may clamol(<' !he iruubhon
ol !hr winchng Thi• I• danger from the operator point ol ,;, •.,. u "'" It b ,.,.... 1 tu
ground lhe CT. on tlw ~d•ry stde ro .-•old a d•ngvr ol fhocl.. to dw ~r•tur
I~ never open lhr M'CQndory winding circuit of tt "'"""'' rr•n''°""''' wh1l• '"'
~I') winding i. ~
Thus most of tM CW'ft'l'lt tra1,sfonnrn have a short C'lrtU•t link or .-. switch 01t
>«CnJ.ary lenninals \\!hen the primary Is to be energised, the short circuit hnk must
I>< do..,d to that tht'rt i$ no dMger of opcn circuit 1crondary.
1.14 Potential Tr•naronnera {P.T.)

The ba»c prindpl<' ol U- transformers I• same "" current lr•nslomw~. Thr luKf\
•l-hr'4) ••olmge are reduced in a fixed proportion for the meilSUrement pwp<>st'
with !he help of potenllal transformers. The construction ol ~ trnnsformcrs is
similar to the nonnal transfo,mer. These are extremely accurate ratio step down
tronsfonnm;. The windings an- low power ••ting windlnll$. Primary winding tool"-'1--
,. ..... _...... , Pl
of IJ'l!C number of turtb whole
..- : !/ >«<>nd.>ry has less numb<tr of tums and

usually rated for 110 v. irresp«the of
•: 0-1t0 v
t the primary volLlge rating. The pnmary
is connected ACtOSS the high volt1ge liM
L.:"-<7::JL-••
while secondary is connected to !he low
rangt \ r•lt1nt-ltt ('Oil. O.W ,•11d t.ll the-
·-------·· 1
"""ond.ry i• •I"'•>.. l!l"Undl'ge r>bo ol PT is known and thc v<>ltmutcr re•dlng b ~nown l~'TI thl'
hil!h "'hagc to I><- m<'~urtd, c.n be dctermln•'<I
,,.. Eumple 1.2 : A llOOO : 110, potrntMI lr•rosform.r Is uw •kn.~ 110/h n toall_,.,
rrJldmg 87.SV. Esttmou the val"' of line ''°''•S•·
1 ·21 Pro1ecllve RelaVlnil
Solutlon : Foro1 l~T

v
.....L.
11000
11, 110
and 87.5 v
11000
liO
\'1 • 8750 v
l11ls Is the '•lue o( high volrsge to be mcasun'd
1.14.1 Construction
n\(' J>(>t(•nll.11 u-e l.'lrger eore and COC\dU('tOI' Si/CS lOO\f"'rtJ
tr.111'-tom\Cr tt>
i..:(1'\Vt!ntlor'IAI powt.'1' tn.n.;;fonntr In f"()tetit
tol trAnslormtf. t"('t111Qn\y llf m.1il'rw.l tiJ> nt'l
Mt imponnnt n at ti\~ tame of design, 1l\e J1.-c11r.1cy
oof\S.fdt"r.ttlO i~ .ln a.rnportar11
constderatit)n
The shell type or core type construction is preferred for potential tr•nsforme< The
shell type 1s used for low voltage while core type for high voltage transformers. At
!ho time or •~""11l>h "P"O•I core is required to r1.'<IU«' tht• cffoct o( •or Sill' at th<-
'°'"" rltt~ (llt.\\l.11 pf1n\oll)' ~\nd t•t.!C(.N'w;i~ry wlndl.np are '-'~

tu l't'l.l\l\.' tf'K' I,~~\•
4
rc•ct.u1cc llw l«OOd.>ry winding which " J low \'olhlg•• wlndl11g I• .ilw.-~ ""'' tu
tne core. The pnmat) winding is • single coil In low •·oltage transformers, for tugh
voltages, i11sulalion is the main problen. Hence in high •·oltage potential transformers,
pmru1ry ls divided lnlo number ot small sections of <hart coil> to reduce the need of
msulanon berween CV\I b)'l."f8.
llttt cc•lton tape And vamlshed CAmbnc olCV Uk~ a~ tht• 1n~ulttt1<'.'lnN fvt w1nJi1\~.
Heed fibt•r "''f"''°l<>n .,.. used In ~IWCC1l the co.ls. tbc '"' ltnm.:"'-'d potmtlAI
tr•n.lormer, ..,.., .-i for the voltage lr>"els •bow 7 kV
Fur oil lillt>d putrrt1o1l transformers, oll (llled buslu11g1> art' used. Two bu51\u~ ""'
required wht-n no •Q ol the line ls at Mrth porentul.
The 1J\ler.JIJ cumtntction of ~lngle p~, two winding potctltittl transf('IC"lneri'
Wwtl l1a the 1·,g l 17
1. 21
1.16 Errors In the Instrument TraMfomter

Fw an mstnunent transformers, It Is ncceosary that t~ translorma11on ratio m"'t
be <MCtly equal to turns ratio and phase of the secondary tenns (voltage and current)
m® be displ<>Cl'"'"'1<-r
which .-rr,
I Ratto ~rror
l. Phase angle error
1.15.1 Ratio Error

In pnttia- u 11 '!.ud that. cu.rr<.'tlt traru1formatton rlltlo 12 / 11 tJ tqu•I to th(- "'""
r•bO N1 I N1 But .>ctwlly It i• not llO. The cummt r•tjo I• not «iu>I to tum> ""o
I>«.>..,.. cl magnottnng and COl1' lo:<s C'C>mpocwnl'< ol the t\dbng curl'\'flt It al<o ltt'U
aff~ due to the secondary <uttent and Us power !actor. The l<>aJ <urrent ~ nol •
C"Cn>tont fraction oi the primary current. SimilMly in case ol polt'nti.tl transformers. the
voltage ratio v, IV, is also not e-:tly equal to N1 I N1 due to the faclo<5
mmtloued above. Thus the transformation ratio Is not ccoseant but depends on the
loiod CWT\'n~ "°"."' loctor of load and <xciti11g current o( !/,., tnnsfonntt. Due to lhis
t.d. latgt' error is 1ntroclu<cd In the ltl<'asurcments doee br the 1n>tnunent
~iomwn. Such sn error ii. ailed r•tlo error.
The ratio error is dt'fmed as,
nominal ratio - actual ratio x
100
actual ratio
• K. - Rx 100
R
r>tcd primary cur...,..t
... for C. T.
1111>.'<l secondary currmt
rated primary voltage
• rated secondary voltAg<i
·- lor P.T
actual primary current

R • • fl"r CT
cotmpondlng """"'1dary curn·nt
~
actual
~~~~.-'-~-'-~~
C0""5
primary voltege ~-
......
ponding S«Ondary voltage
... for PT.
The approxlmai.. form~ to cakulat<o R i• gi•en by,

P101ectlon and SWitchgew
I,
R • n~- 1,
n • turns ratio
I,. • kl5s component of e>Xclting current

11 • W!COndary curn•nt
1, • !J.n
R • n ~ ~:,. • n( I•~)
wherf! 11 • pnmary f."tlrl'Ctlt
"luk- prtd<ely 1ht> lormul• to c•lculotc R 1$.

I._ sin6•1tcos6
R = n... I
2
l., =- magnetising component of exciting cummt

& ~ angle between secondary winding induced •'Oltage
and secondary \vi1tding current

OS is possnve f0< lagging pJ. and negative for leading p.f.
1.16.2 Phase Angle Errw

In the power mr•surt'tnents, It is must th•t the phase or secondary current is eo be
dbpload by e•M'tly lllO" (mm th.ll ol pnmary current fut C. T \\'htle the pha,.. ol
....'<!ndaty volt•gr Ii to bl! dlspl-.'f primary voltogo. (0<
PT. But a<twilly II k no• 10 The error intrud1l'11-d due to this f..-t lo called phaM
angle tnor h dcnoi..d by 1ngie e by which the phase difforencr Mtwttn primary and
s«ond.lry Is dilforcnt from 180".
1lw precise exp,.,..ion 10 ailculale the angle 0 Is,
0 • -180[1.,m!6-1,sln6ld t""grt':C
• n I,
Whiko thot •pproxirn.ue lonnul• to colculato O is,
= !!!!![..1:_]!.!
1l' nx
•
1 -30 Ptotoctivo Rolayl1>9
• ll!O[l
-
• 1,
....!!!..] degree
Similar to ratio error. this error also depends on the components of exciting
cun<n1 00), load current Le. secondary current and power (odor. Thb error d<X'S not
"Hert tht> n\~af.urc.1Th."fltt of t)nly current or voltage but do affl'<"l at the time or po"H
~ t'ner~y nte1.,iUr<.'rn~nt!t
n.. phase .111glo error tur PT. i• defined as,
1~
(X1.cos5-R,,sin6]+1cX1 -l.,R1 rad
9 •
nV2
J I X -I R
II - .l (X,.,cos 6- R,. •in 61• !.CL.:!" l
v, nV,
6 • .,..,,ondary p.l. •nglc
Rlr • t..'qulvnlc1't rt"Slst11~ o( transf(>rmcr ri./.,.rr\.od to
secondary • R, + Rl • Rt + ~n·
~,. 1111 equivalent rcaet,\f\Cr <>f tr11naft>rn,t'r r~lrrttd: to
M.."CQllt.lory • x, + x; • x, .. -
xJ
X1 • reactancc ol primary winding
"'
R1 • iulstance ol primary winding
V1 • primary V<)lt,.,gc
V, • K'C'Ol\d•ry VQ(tage
I, • ~. coo +. and I., • 1,. •in +.

o(J • no ll'Xld power factor angle
x,, • eqttl\1alcnt rtA(tantt of transformer referred to primarv
• X1 + X) • X, + nl X1
R,.. • equival~nt resista~ o( triltlBformec ref.-rreJ to prinlary
• R• + Rl • R1 + n2 R)
V1 N .
n = V = .:.::l..Nfor potential transformer
' '
1. 32 Protective Relayi"il
R •
• 400, 90xsin28+40xcos28
5
~ 415.514.
Actu.ll pnm.\r\1 C'Urr1•nt • l(tu1I r1tln .c 12
~ 4JS 514 • S • 2077.5703
-. IU1t0 tm'lir • K0 - RxlOO• 400-415.514 • IOO

R 415.514
• -3.733~
~ EJ1ample 1.S : A current lr•,1eformtr M:1 l11rn1 riJIW I J99 ffti.J ,,, nrttJ _,, l<UJISA
Tht "'" """ """'"""'' i$ J-' a.d "'"$•eti:1ns n,,,,,_..,,, "
11-' un.kr full /Odd
"'1u1JUO.... find I/tr pl1J1St' 011gk' onJ '"'"' <"01'1 u1i.kT JuU 1.,.,1 <'t)llJll.,,, 1f ~.Ury
cun111 poaYT AA:tvr is 0.8 lcmlmg.
Solution : le • 3A, I., c 8A. COii o = 0.8 leading
n D
I.,sin6+1,coo6
Actual ratio = R c n +-"'-...,.-'--
I,
R.llod 1, • SA
3 • ro,o·l o. 8 • - 36.86°
>DI 6 • sin (..J6.86i • - 0.6
R 8•(-0.6)+3•0.8
• 399 + s
- 398.52
K0 - I(• IOO • ol00-398.52 IOO
R 3'18.52 •
• 0.3713"4
And 0 • 180[1,. cw6-lc sin6J

ft L- n12
~ ond Switchgear 1 -3'4 Protective Rolaying
:t DMtr'"i" ""' ttJ·uc- of o bilrl:ur ,.,.,,«,14>"

4"l...'-"
1 01 .... ,.,. ,,., ..,atn~ of ·m111bllity' of• P'"'"'":~· rrl41y111g &.\'hKlt f.>.-tl"f ..~'l't 11w "'....._ '\ '
9 0ritsc-uss f# h-lt'( l'!W NNOllS t'$.9t'rlt•J ... 6ltrk~of ptottc.tn~ m..)'Uti
let Or(i~ -"" ~., l\'fny ri1t1r, h11'/iktr ,.,.,,. 1111J ft111l1 tlfflnftg ,,._
IJ \.II/tty ''~ *4n ., rlftrni*'"llY '1fOl..JlJ 11'1 ,,,..:tit..l '""''Y' '
ll. ~ ..... 1Atii· '""'°'_.l:"tf4110n of "'fHfrllttr M¥
1I I"""'" tht /.It~,,,~ rrrm~ rtl11ttJ 10 P""tt:litv Mdyfl'l 1~ •
11Ptttt..p di °""JOMt .,.. "*"' uiJ T1'1tlf' lh!.1t1

1r1 ~IJ"t 1.-:., rJ 1'r1p ort'ud t.,) Prorn.'fl'O{" .o,r.,,..
l'f;J P,...trtnv ""'flttl# ,.;,,, C1'""' lrll111S ix) Plug..,,,.,tm.,t 11tWt.pltrr
,, r,..,....,.,.,,'tlf( -r.::•ptlw
'' '"'-' ,, •~ r" \i wl'lv 1 ''°"' , "'" t'" ..w to cbt111" '"' ~rwt .,_...,.,., .... r11M "'•
" ...- '
2
Electromagnetic Relays
2.1 Introduction
An unf)O""nt elem<nt of any protceuve rc~1ying sc:lwmc ls • rcl.n. It is ,, J<"' see
'"''hk:h deten dcrtn1mol!l"'t1C
r~I" IN Jt1• 111g tnrqu(' .. <tt.it•'il>L'<i on ~n ck'Cttk~I '" dt'<'tnlf'.. pnndpll' Wh1:('
ti-..· n.~tl.t1n1ng torqUl• as gcrwr.-ll)' provld(•J ,,111h thl" help \)I .,prm~ Ote ''''' t•~'\
31'\." f'N.'d\.J.nic::allymmp.1.ttd 4.nd tht-- rcl:,) OJX>rarl" when clriving or opent1r1g torq~ ,...
1
moee than ~ re>training to<quc. Thus.

Td: • Ori\i.ng torque or operating torque
T, _. RrslTaU\ing torque
Ta • ~ultant torq\1t: Td - T,
fht. tcl.1)' opt-Y~lt.~ wkton the rcsult.l1)l torque ·ria: i• pt~lb\-t· l..t.1 us Sb1dy tt'K" b.l~
MUOn ()(a trip circuit ,,.,th a relay.
2.1.1 Basic Trip Circuit Operatlon

Coclside: a simphfied circuit of a typi~I reloy as shown in the Fig 2.1. Usually the
n..-1.a)· cimtit is a three phase circt1it and the contact circuit of relays is very much
rompliooled. The Fig. 2.1 shews a single phase simplified circuit to expl•in the "'""
actl()n of a "'Lay Let port II is the cirrult to be protected. Tho curm>t tr.1nsfonner CT
"' conn«ted with It• P"""''Y In !k•rlcs with the line tu be prokoet.od Th4' ll<'COllda') "'
CT is ronn«ted in ><.>nn "1th th<' rel")' ('011 nw
rcl.1y ront•m ••~ the part ol a 1nr
nrcu1t (>l • arcuit bttabor. The nip circuit consists ol • trip coll and • b.ltte<). "'
.iddinon to relay ronta('tS. The lrip circuit can operate on n.e. or d.c
If th.- fault OC'CUJ'S "' shown In the F11t 2.l. then C\U'Ttnl through the hne
c:oruwc'llrd to A ln<tt•><'f to 1 very high •••lu•.
The current tran-1""""' ..,..,,.... th"
cu"""t A«Ord1ngl) It• <o«oodary current 1n""•"""
which ~ n<]()un11 but the CUrm\t
throu!lh • tt'lay coll 'Thus th(' rd•)' rontac1' get cl08foJ m..oehanlc•ll1 undlT the
in/I"""" ol >..Ch • high lault currcn1. Thus th<: trip dn:uit ol • arcu1t b"'ak<.-r !;1'1>
d<>S<'d •nd current st&m flowing from bottery. through trip coll, "' • tnp amut 'Thus
~ tnp roil of a runut breaker gets energised. This activotes the circuit btt.aker
"l""'lnS tn«hanism. making the circuit breaker open. Thi• i>0late> the faulty put
from rest of the he11lthi• cystem.
(2 • I)
Pt-""' and Swltch11Uf 2·2
•
e '
'-~~--'-~~-:~,..,.
• •
• .... ---·~
• .....
_..
-"l.4--,
•
lo
c...AIO ..
Fig. 2.1 Typ!Qf ... toy circuit

2.1.2 Auxiliary Switch
AnolheT imponanl de''ice in the trip ciJCUit is an •LLxrl1o1ry switch. ll TS •
multipotnl swileh i;....,.ally ~ point, 6 point. 12 point or 2~ point. This switdl cs
~•lly coupk'd with op<'<atlng t'Nlthanc'!m or tM <iKuit breaker Thus when
arcu•I bn'okr ~-· th<- >Wil<h nl•o i;ctot op<'nod. Tbe swilr..-h l• m th<• trip c1r<u11 ar>d
h<nc-P .. hen 1t opens, it bre•ks lht• cur=t thl'QUgh th<' trip cimJtt. Ona- the cumon1 en
llw trip C1mJit ~ Ult<'rrupted the 1';lay e<lntncts '"'"" to nonnol """'"'"· 11>P
.dl"1J'ltlge of an auxili4ry switch is that the b .... king of tnp orruit tokes place only
aooe the switch .ind hence possible arang due to current mtenuprion """"" ~
rN} oont.>rts ~cts .t\Ut<k-d. 5<ich ordng iJ harmJul (or relay <Ol'lbCts ., rel.ty ronlocts
••• ddx:aw •nd lighl Io lnt<'frupl a cu.mmt through lh<! Inductive ar<u1f hl..e mp
arruit • rob'"' mochanocal switch is n«'('liSAty. This purf'O"'" 5n'.J by·'" •••llury
aw11Ch. protecting df'hc•tc relay cont.>ctt. In addilion to thb. 1ndoc.ulon arru1i.
""°""'"'""led
111g whelhe< orcu11 brtakcr Is open or dooe und some Oih<'T coolrul ctttutls oloo
8"( or d1sconneca..d by an ouxUlary swl1.:h.
°"'
brNL<T
•uxtlLln• •witch Ill gcncnlly plb<ed In the con1rol cabinet of the CU'C\llt
2.2 Tripping Scheme• In Circuit Bruker

Two ..,,...,1\15 are '""Y populerly u1<.-d fl)r tripping In nrnot brNktrs wluch '"'·
I. ReLiy Wlth make type conW:t 2. Rclay with brok IY?" contaci
Tite relay with nukr type contact rt"JUi"'5 auxillary d.e. oupply for its openbon
"IWr tt.? ttlay with hreal typ.? contM"t u- '"" tnefgy from ~ mam supply sou~
"" its oper.alwn Let ...... 'e tlw detalls or ~ twu types "' schcmeo.
ProtKtlon •nd Swltchgffr 2·3 Electromagnetic Rell)'•
2.2.1 Relays with Make Type Contact

1'hto f<:hl'tllntic dU\gram ~ting the nrrongoment o( •Al'>OU$ ~l•llh'nts "' •
"-.iav with make type contact is sh"wn in th<' Fig. 2.2
R y
•
c T
- u -' .• . .. .. ..
,
'• •
, .. .,
•• ••
'I '':
~ ~ ~
'' • '' •
I • ' • '' •• Re&avs
' ' ' ''
' ~...L...,.
........... I -.....'....
• I -
·-' '- ' •
' ,a ...... '
-·
-
'~ ........ ' ' '
!. ...... ' ... ....
1----t-··-I i.. .... au,;ii\«)I c, e, c,
TripoOlt
F-
46)
e~....
•
aao..,
..........._, _.. """"y
Fig. 2.2 Relay with mol<t type contact
A• m••ntlon•'<l e11rtk'r, • "'fMrntr •upply I> 114'<\"'-""'Y for tt... n.-Ll> <>p<·r:11l1111 The
rt'I•>.. ~R' oonnl!Ctcd In <t>r whllc tht rein~ cnn~1c11 .,,. ronn..-cwd ut pM.1!11•!. I h~
ent1R' r•l•y cunra<t unJt IS """""'"'od in senes wllh the 0UJ1Ul.>rv '"nch, trip coll And
the b.>ti.:ry. Relay contac1S ""' open In noml.'11 J"'"hlon.
Operation : When ~ fault occurs. the <:urn!<lt through rday roils increases to a
""'Y lugh value. Due to this. the normally open relay contacts c,. cl and c, get
dosed. This activates the trip coil of a ctrcou breaker. The au'-tba.ry s"'itcll •S ii1ltiatJy
dOS<'CI •long with the circuil b"'aker. So wht•n contocu C1, C2 mJ C, arc clo><•d, the
CWTtnt flows througll trip <lOll o( dm1!t breaker ThiJ ilC!Wil~ the ITip coll which
"""'" tlw circuit l>rc•ltt. tu awdllary •witch Is mochAnically coupled with tlw clmnt
breiik.>r. it also gel!! opened. Thi!! interrup"' tlw current through trip roil. Thu• >upply
to faulty part gets intttrupnod and trip coil also gets d.....,....g>z.ed This brings 10.
rclay ('(!<\t~cts bock to nom11l position Doe to ou.,11.>ry switch. .. mn~ across '"1"'
contoct• it•ll< •voided "• nd•y conu.<:11 are n<>rm•ll)' open and d>ey make lhc corcuu
to t'l'<'t\ the drcult brNkn hm.."f C"Olled mllltc typ<• "'1•1 '""'"'ct
Prott<:tio<l 1nd Swltchge1t El..:tromagn•li• Rel¥
2.2.2 Relay with Brwak Type Contlct

llw -.clwmohc •rr.mgement o( vanous tl•ments In a rda~ "'1th bte•k type c:<>nl.><1
1.1'J !>huwn In the ftg ?..J
R Y 8
- - _J
-' - . - '' .' - - '' -•• - I -,:
cl
~ ~ ~ Roloys•
• '
• ••
'' ' ' ''
o I ' '.' '• .'
' ' '
I
. I
....
'' '' ' ' '•
''
•.. - .. _,' '
- -·
._ -c, ~ - - _,'
1-- --t----1 c, c,
,I .,....,
CifWI
"'Ped
I"J.."'
Equ.tpnWN IO
D9 Pf'(MwClld
Fig. 2.3 Relay with btNk type coniaC1 (u.tng C. T.at

rhJ, t) pc of ,..1.~ du.'1 OOI ""!Ull\• l'•l\'m.il balt\'t)' •uprl• f..>r tlW frlJ)l'"'ll Th(.
current 1rons(1>rmer. IC Ts) or potential transformers (r 1 >I ""' med to denve the
ent'!'g)' required for the relay from the malll supply sourer. The reldy using C.T.s eo
dl'ri• e oper,,ting enetg)' ftoo,, the supply i• showl\ in the Fig. 2.3.
rtoW,• roil and trip coiJ ol e..ich phase art connected tn senes-
In tl1i). scheme.. t~
11~ three phases are thtn conJ\4..-Clcd in star. Undc'f norm.it "-orki~ the n:lo)' C'.l1'nt.icb
C,. Ci nnd C, ·'"' doo<d The tlW"llY for relay cous '' <kn•..S Irom •upply """II
(. T' rhc tnp roil> of arcwt bn-akt:ril ano ~ ...,ler>;i1eJ \lndc-r l"k)fmJI ro111.litic)1l, Whm
t~· t>l\llt occurs, beavv ~'UfTeJlt flowt through r~lay coils J~ to which relay C~lntM'.'IS
c,. C! ond C1 lireak Thus CUrttnl nows through trip t'O<ls 01 <•r<Ull breaker doe IO
"'hK'h c1ret1it brc:'!Lt"f' . ,~b
open
Th<' ~•R 2.~ show> ~ btt.1k ty~ rontllct rol.ty U>lnlJ I' r w 1.knH• cnw~y rn kt'l'I'
f\'Ldy (~nl\ \'l,~t~,7~
Protecllon 1nd SwiWl~ar 2·5 El<M:ltomagnotlc Rolayo
R v 8
FuM
- - ...J
- -~ -,. -. ...... ,' -' . -.
CT
- - - '
- '
''
'
~ :'
'
''
!
' '
I I :
'
~ ....
c,
' ' - . ·''
~
c, ~ .c,-' :
· J----t--·-1
--
Ut1d.w I
~-~ "°"Oii•
vi., COii R.. I\'
Fig. 2.4 Roley with bro•~ ~ contact (Using P.T.)

In this type. in addition to normal lnp coils of circu1t breekee, an add1bonal
wldflvolt~ge trip roil is used. All 1.tw rv:J(1y contacts arr ln scti"5 with the
undervolt•gc trip coU. Through poll'flt~I transformer, for normal volrage, tht
undcn·uh•g•• trip roll I• kept energized, ~Vh<.,, the \'011'11!" b<wmc> lc'Sll than the
notm.ll value, the magnetic effect produced by undervoltage tnp coil redt1<e• whidl 1$
rnponsiblc for the ope>ing o( th¢ circuit beeaker. When fault occurs, the nomul trip
coils of circuit breaker <Orne Into the picture and are responslble for the opening or
the circuit breaker.
In both the types, rel~y contacts 'break' to cause the c:1f"CUJt breaker oper,ttlon ~
th<> R'l•y i• called b"·•k type cont•ct relay.
El..:tromogMtlc Roloys
2.3 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays

In these relays, tMre is a coil which •~ises an eltt1rum.1gnet When W.
~tll'lj; current b<c:c•n<S large, the ma!(lleti< field produced b)· an cleciroma~ "'
t<• high that 11 ottrKtS the armature or plunger, moklng ronb<t "1th the lnp arCUll
oontxl' n_. 31'<' ""'Pl('f,t rype of tCIA)'ll 'l'he variou< l\'J'<"I o( ele.:tmm.ign..'ltc
atiractl<wi 'YI"' rel>)• .....
I Attr.1cttd .tnn.\tUrl' relay
l. Solenmd an.1 ploogcr typo r<.'loy
2.3.1 Attracted Armature Type Relay

TI\it'ff .11rc two '''I""" ~)I s1ruct\1rt!!I avt.Uable fot atll'M"l•'~ ann.lturc tvpr rt'l..J\ ~hKh
11 Hongl')
To cr'P c:in::dt
{
--
N s
r .. •
-
lnlM
Vorl
(1) Hl"Oocf ...,. ...... typo .-l•y Cl>l '•l•tl•od ......... - lypt ... .,
Fifi, 2.5
bl •ttr.>c1ed umoture l)'JX'. there exists a laminated electrom.1gi>et which ames •
eotl The coil is energiud by the operating quantity wluch IS proportional to the
orcuit voltage or current, The armature or a moving Iron ts sub,ccted to the magnetic
fun."l' prodoo.'d by the oper•ting quantity. The foroe prt>dll<l'l.I is proporti<>n.l to the
oquore ol current ........, the><: l\!lays can be u<1<.<d for n.c, 1.1S wdl .. d c The '!'MS l•
Proteclioo and 8wttchgur
"'""" to prndu.v t•'jtraln1J11; lo«c!. When the current through roU 1ncre•....-• llcyon~
th<
hmu undor foul! conchrions. •l'mllture geb attract«!. Due to this It l1lillcn contact wilh
contacts of n trip circuit. wluch results in an opening of • amut bre.1kt>r.
n... minimum current at which the ann•ture gcb ollrocted to~ the trip circuit
i_4 c.tllt.V pickup current.
GmeT•lly tht nµmbu o( tapplngs M<' pnwlded on the rel.i) c:orl with which jts
tum ... can he selected as per the requirement. This is used to ttd1ust 1he set vatuo 01 ""
op<"<atmg quantity at which relay should operate
An important odvantage o( such relays is thtlr high openting speed. In modem
~lays 41n operating time as small as 0.5 msec ls posSlD~. TI-le curr~nt·lhne
charact•ri>llc• of such rt'l.lvs is hvperbolic, 4$ shown In the Fig 2 t..
fig .. 2.6 Current-time c::haracteristic:s

2.3.2 Solenoid and Plunger Type Relay
The Flfl. 2.7 show> ti... oct>ematic arrnngem<"nl of solenoid illnd plungor typ<• ...,1.1v
wluch w&k> on the prlnopk of electrom>S"etoc anroc1ion.
It ~>l•to ol o oolenoiJ which I~ nothin11 but •n •l•..:tro<Ngt>('t It •IS<l «>n•i•I• a
'"°'able in>n plunger Undtt normol worldng rondltioos, the $pnng holds the pl1111i;~r
in the position such lhal 1t annot make conloct "'ith trip dmut ronbcts.
Und"r fault conduions when current through <ela)' coil i~. the solenoid
dr.aws tM plu1,g.:r upw•~ Ouc lo lhls. it m.a~ cont-~ wtlh the trip circuit
t.oot~\Ct~. '"'hJct\ n.'!lult~ 1n 41n opmi.n:g of n rirct1it bNttM-r
Proteetlon end SWilch- 2·•
-v.,,-
lnj)UI
Electrom~-
COii-
•• •
•• ••
.-
......
-- """'90magrietk torce produced d~ to operabng qu•nhly ••hlch Is e·~·~ ""
.tnnature, moving iron or plunger is proportional to the squ.J.re of the flux m the air
~p Thus neglecting the saturation effrtt, the force is proportional to the square of the
oper•tin~ current Heoee such relays are useful for a,c, and d c, both
for d.c. ope·r111tion : In d.e OJ>l.--ration. the clectrom.a~bc fom• is constant
thl• fore.· ~\C<:\°ds ll>c l"l.'fltralnlng forre. llw rel•y opcnt<-..
F.. ""• r
F, • Electromagne11c fceee
~. = COl\5ltllll
• Opc!ratit1s cur~nt ln a roll
And F, = k:
"~ F, ; Restraining force due 10 spnng 1nclud1ng friction
K: • Const>nt
On tlw verge of ""•r opcroting. •ltctrom•gn<ll>< force 1$ just "'l""' lo tlw
h°'tr•1n1nJit (t1rfC,
Pr-ction ond Swltchgffr Electtom1gnolio Reloys
Tlus lS the current at \vh1dl relay C)pt•r.ttt.._, ht case of d.c. opt.•rntK>n

for ~<. cperatlon : In a.c. electromagnetic relays, the electrom~gnehc for"" 1>
proportion,;,l to squllre of the current but it is not constant. It •s gi\<d't by,
K 12 • iI KI~ -zI K f~et,, 26>1
I~ • ~IJ).'mum value uf th(' opt•r,\tlt1g eurreiu

K • constJut
It >llows tl\ot the el«trom.1gnetlc force c:on5151$ of two components.

1) Con,tunt, lnd~'nclmt ol time.
ti) P\11Jotlng M dooblc the lr<qu~ncy <>I •f'Pll•d v<'ltogc.
rlw mt•I lorai thu' pul ..>h~ nt do11bl(• tho lr«iucncy.
11 1"" .... 1r.ilnl11g fo~.., ~. which '' pruJu<°t'd by the spring •• ron;ton1 1h.,, 1lw
•nnJIUtt ol r.•lny w'11 be pid.cd up ot time 11 •nd ii drop1 oll •I lime ti <IS shown 1n
me Fig !8
l--+--+---+--l~-+-+---1--\------~ F,
~-' --- -- ---- -- --- -----·----·---J-K2 11m
''
'
Cu.,..n1 I
1---T---'
Fig. 2.8 Eledromagnetlc force and current CUNH
Thus relay armature puba:~::i at double frcqu(:1lcy. Thjs causes ehe relay to bum
.tnJ rrod-U(:t"" .l noise. It m.o.y ('o1use damage to the relay eontacts
Electtom1gn1tk: R.i.tyo
Ic O•ett0<1'C this d1ftkult)'. •h• air gap Rux producing an el«trOO••&""'" fore• ..
divid<d mro two flu..,. l\cting slmultanoously but differing in nme phase. Tiw. causes
tt<Ulting clect~uc force to be always positive. II this is always grt'•te< th>1l
""'!riming fon't' F, lhen ormature will not vibrnte. The phow lag between th.- two
rumpmmb "' nu\ "'" be easily produced u•ms •hnding In • R'l.o) TIM' flu\ thn"'l\h
tho• <h.iJeJ pol• "'tc' b<·htnd tho nu. through the unsho1l<tl p.tn
2.3.4 Advantages of Electromagnetlc Relays

;n... v,mou' ad•·.1nt•S"' of clcctroma&""tic relays ore,
I Can be u...t lo< both a.c, and d.e,
2- Tllev h..1\ c fih>t opu.atic>n ond (est reset
'l rht.w dre •lm06t (n~tu11t~Jll"OUt. TI1ough h\St2'1lto>JW10u~. the Clpt"r•t1n~ lJmt'
••ne> with current. With ••tr• arr•ngements like d.>sl•p<>t. <opJ>(•r nni; ~!<-
slow opct"•t<ng •nd rt'settlng times can be obtainf'd.
4. High operating speed with operating time ln few milliseconds also can be
achieved.
S. The pickup can be as high as 9(}.95% for d.c, operation and 60 to 90'I. for llw
d c. operat>on. •
6 ~1ode"' tt-t.ys are compact, simpJ{', ttlit11ble :ind robuct.
2.3.5 Disadvantages of Electromagnetic Relays

The few disadvil1llllge5 of these "'la)'S art',
l The din:'('llQn.1t feature is absent.

l 0.... to '•" o~r.tlon the working <•n be affoci<'..,nb A>
tr•nslt'llb c:un~1n d.c. as well M pululing rompon..,t, under .re.1d) ~I.lit- ••I~
INi th.•n ...-t valu<', tlw rel•y can <>J)('r4le during tr.1M1mb
2.3.6 Applications of Electromagnetic Relays

1be various applications o( t~ relays arc,
I Th" protl.'<11""of various n.e, and d c. equlpni~ni.
2. Th~ ov~r/undrr current ond over/under voltage pro<<..:tion o( vonou• a.c and
d C. l'<fUlpm... 11>
3 In the defln1~ hme Ing over current and earth fouh protection along with
definite titnr lag over current relay.
4. for the dtffl'Mltial protection
S U..d as 1uXJli.>ry reL1yo In the conbi<t ey.icms of prceeeuee rel•yang ~
Protection and Switchgur 2 • 11
2.4 Induction Type R•laya

111~ Induction tvpe reays are also called magnitude relays. 1lw-<e relays w1>rl '"'
ti>< pnnciple of the mduction motor or on energy meter. In """"°
ttl.tys a met•lhc disc
1, .1110.vcd 10 mt•te ~·ttn the two ele<.1roroogne~. The ro1b of llw el«1mnYJ(•K1>
.U\' '""'J;i'-' lwlp of altern .. i11~ cur""1t$. Tlw torq"" " rruducwl In th<.,..
r,•t.~\') tiUt.• t,, llw.• 1ntnK'UOn o( 0t1\' ••llt.'tt\f\tJng flu>. wtth edd~ cum"llb fnduccd in ,n-_.
roto11 by •nulh..'t lil••m,uang flux. Tiw l"'O fll"'"'h•\ e .. .,,.. ltt<fU•'"!''Y hut Jre
dbp!M..'\.J ln U1oe .ind ~· As tl't.' int1.?r.ict1011 ot altemo\ti.nj\ flu'-t'$ a~ tN: b~· ()f
opet'.Jtron "' these rd.I) s, these are not used for the d.c. qUitntitic'S. These are ,,·1d1-I)
used for protective rN}-ing involving ooly ac. quantities,
8.'ISt'd on the <0n>truction. the various type.• of the induction 1)1"' rel.lyi; an.',
I Sh.1ded pole type
2. \Vott hour me~ typ<'
3 Induction cup 1\1"'
6eforY studting thl'.., typeS in detail, 1~ us derive lhe torqll<' equ•non tor the
mducnon typr "'la)~ which is .. me for all the three types o( n'la) s,
2.4.1 Torque Equation for Induction TVJM Relay•

''' mc'tltloned "arb..'<, the 3ltCn>otlng currentj euppli<'d to two 1~('(0t11•m•gnt"
produce the two •lk'mlllll\g OUXL.... and .,. ·n.oc two n""'" h.t\"C .. me '~"""'
but they h.1ve a ~ doff~ ol u In bet"'ttn them such tlwt +, le•<h ••· Thu• the
two fluxes can be rN.them..1.t:ic.1lly expressed as,
+1 • +1"' $in (l.t Cl I

·=. ~·'" ("1 •0)
Tbese Illtem.1ting
121
o,.,,~
cause t.M tnduttd e.rn.Ls in the
., •. rotor. Out to the indu« produce • '""'°
whith ~on Uw rcltr•r.
1M Fig 2.9 shows bow th<-
forces an' produced 1.n a ...,ti0<1
ol rotor dUO' to the alt<'l'Nlhni;
Fig. 2.9 Torque l)<oductlon
n\1i..l.5. 1llif' inst.Int ('(Jl'b1d~nod
th• various qu.anta- Is when both thr flux<" att d11\.'Ct«I dowm••rd• .,,.,
Pr-ion and S..ttc"9Uf 2·12 EIK!romagnotic Relay•
I\~ ,,~..,~a-.1n,; 1n n\.tN'-1tudt. The 1i1duced eddy a1r~nt~ la~ °'-"hind ttw rt~J)l'\:ll\'C:
1lu\l-. by 'lO".
Assumption : n.., partS of rotor in whlcll rotor curr.-nts flow h.ne ll(•ghgtblt ..-If
1nJU<lancc •nd hencit tho rotor cum-nts ""' In phase "'th tho respective andU<'\'d
\UltJ~
,.,.. pmporrional to the "''~ ol ~~

Th,; antluu-d 'oli.a~ o{ llu><" •nJ h<-··
ti><• •.Jdy C11m'nb .al"' ..~ proportlon•I 10 tM ratt of ch.iil)t~ 0t Ou•<" I l(~l<t' .,,. '''"
v.nte.
... (3)
d•1
h• " Nl
dt
Sub.111uung +1 .lnd o1 from (I) and (2) wo get.
., x d(+IMdtSin .. t) ~ • 1,.,.cosot • (51
., . d(+1,.s1n(oll+o)J
~
di
- -· Q(
+ ,,.. C'OI" 1 tt.C • "*) 16)
flw 101'1.'-"' ·~ rrodU«d due to the U\1'11.l<tion of ..... 1h •1 •nJ ., Walh 1,.
F1 , +1 i2 . 17)
..tntl .. f8)
TllC din.'Cbono of f, me! F, can be obtAlned by Plernlngc lt.-11 hand rule. II can be
"""''\:" fro1'1' ti~ fit; 2-9 that the two ((}C'U."'Sare actjng in the Oi'f'O"'tl~ dl~1ot'b ~nJ
~"''° l~"' net f~ ~ng00 tl''C disc i:. proportion.al to tfw d1Jler'\."tlCC ~f\\·eert t}1,~
l\\O ton.~
F x: F2 - P1
F 7 +z i1 - +a ;, ... ('I)
Sub»utuhng tho proportion•! cxprcuioiu or+,. +1' i1, 12 Imm Ill. (2), (SJ •nd (6) an
tlw .-11w11011 (9) "e vi.
, i.,,. iln +
(cit• a) 1,0 cc11 l•.t - +, •• m"' .,_,<~»{oc , u)I
" +, .. +2,. (Sin (ot • u) ros (cit) - "" (u) ros (u • a) I
7 +,,. +i.. !sin (Id • a- u) I
F , ••.m +~m sln a 110)
Protocllon and Switch9ffr
Th" ~uati<.>ri llO) gives t!'lc net foree 4'cting on the disc \\fhtch is prepcrnonal to
sm C1
Substituting the r m.s. vall1es of the fluxes instead of n\a~irnum valoes wt.: get.
I f "fi +i sinu I . (Ill
°''
It 1> ir1\pc•rlnttt 10 note th.._tt tht• nt"t f(>T~ oe tor ...1ul.' nctlng th-.• dlse l<t "'1nlt' .at
~•Ny lflSffinl, 11>1' arlion Of "'lay under Sum fvr.-e is fr<:<: fron1 '°brJll()O)
It an be obseeved from the equation (10) that 1f a lS •ero lh<.'ll the net force ,.
zero and disc canrtot rotate. Hence there nluSt exist a phase diffcrenN between the
~-0 nux~. Tile torque is maximum whe-n the phase difference Q ill 9()0,
°'"dlrllCliO" of the nel furce which decid"" the dlrmmn of r<>tation ol dl5C
d.,,...,U. "''
whkh nu, b le•Jin~ th•· olh<•r In prnctlce variou• ron_•tn1ct1ons ,,,... used
to pRldlKl' pfll1M' dl>pl.l<\.'Ol\1\l h\tl-..\1\l(!n the tW(J fl\•XCS.
2.4.2 Shaded Pole Type Induction Relay
..
Th<' construction ol shaded pole induction relay is shown in tile Fig 2. I 0
,._.
I
lnpul
I
.•• ::'/ si.-..i,
...L
-o.x
I
Coll ,-"' - !
Fig. 2.10 Shaded pole type Induction relay

lt conststs of an .1tuminju1n disc \\•hic.h is free to rotatr m en air gap of en
el«tt'omagnel The por1 of pole focc ol cdch pol~ Is sh•ded W•th the h.:lp ul copp<'<
b•n<I or rrng. This I~ c•ll<'<I shading ring. Tbe toll•I Oux • produced due to tho
•ltcm.tbng currrnt •pltt into two flu•~ disploc<'<l in tim• '11\d •p•ce due to thr
sltadJ11g nng.
Due to the oltemating flux. e.m.I, gets Induced in the shading ring. This e.m.I
dnves the currents causing the flux to e'ICiSt m shaded portion. This Aux lags behind
thr flux in the unshaded portion by angel a.
~tion and Swttchgeat
!Kl
••• Rux ln shoded portion
•••
E. •
Rux in unshaded portion
E.M F. induced in the disc due IO+.
E,. • E.M I'. Induecd In the disc duo to+.
I, • lnduct'd rurn.'t'll due to e,
I,. • Induced current due to E.
E.. lags behind +. by 90" while E, lags behind +, by 90". The current I, lags E, by
suwl angle ~ while I,. lags E.. by small a11gle jl. This ang~ is generally neglecb!d and
I, and 1. are ass urned IO be in phase with E, and E,, respecth-ely, in practice. The
ph.•..it di•gr.m is she),..., in the l'ig. 2.11.
••
Fig. 2.11 Phuor diagram

As peoved in the~'°"' sectto"' neglecting j\ we get.
T -r +. +.,. sin o
T = Torque
Assoming fluxes +, md +. to be proportional to the current I in the relay <'Oil we
c:an writf~
T "' P sin u
IT•kl'i .. k. CONW\t
As sin a is tlClnlW\t for the given dHign. Thus the totq"" IS proportional to the
square ol the cum!l'lt through the roll.
E!Ktromognttlc Rtlllya
2.4.4 Induction Cup Ty~ Relay

~ CC.U\Slruct10I\ o• this type of relay is \'Cf')' similar to An tnduction motOt. Thr
.m.mg..'m<!nt is shown in the Fig. 2.13.
,.
2
-
~
fl'IOI ' r
~ '
'2'
~
~
' , .... I'>..
/. r
Flg. 2. 13
The stator consssts of ewe. four or mcee poles. Tbese are energized b)• the rd.ly
CUJb The Flg. 2.13 shows ~ pole structure and the two paiJS of roils. The coils 1 •nd 1·
are "',_,,,.., h.>d white the coils 2 and 2· .lrc C'Ol'\"4..""Ctcd to form t~·,., pairs o' cous, U.C
me<>< " h<>llc1w cyclondnc•I cup l)l"' In ••ructu"' Comp•l<.'d IO lndu<11<>n """°'
the
dm"'"""' I• 111111 in tlu> l'C'l.ly 1hr ro1or ''"" b st•tion.try •nd only rotor rondunor
pon1on is Iree 10 ro1a1< about 11S ••Iii.
Tlw currents and ~ • fluxes prodll«d by the two pairs of coils are dlSpWo<d
from ••ch ollwr by .mgJe a. Thus the result""t flux in the 111r giip is rotahng. So
NL>h"ll m•f,"1W11c h•IJ " produo.-d by n.·o pairs of coib. Due to this, eddy rurttnts
• .,, 1nducL' The inlLTKtlCJn o(
rt-.• ewo lluXPS ~>rodtle'C the torque and the rotor rot.alts in the SOln\c (lircc-tion .,, shit
ui tUlahng 1l\ngn~tic field. A control spring and the bod( SnJp cOlrricd on an Mm
Jt~ to the spmdk of the cup, are responsible to prevent rontinuous rotation.
11le5e relays are •~ryfast in opttatlon. The operabng time of the order ol 10
m11llSC.'CUnds is JX"l!tble w11h this l)'f!<'· Tl\15 •• b«auw the rotor JS littht h••'ing >cry
k~ nMlnl<·ut (J{ h'lcr•t.> 1l\C inJuction ('\JP etructutt am ~ &1t5Cd. for twt' q,-.,nbtv ot
Prowc:tlon ond Switel>gNr 2 .17 El.ctromagnetic R•lays
singlt' qu.intity
rela)'<tt A ~1ng1l' qt•J-ntit)' rt"W)
means both the coils are fed b) the same actuating
quantity with a fixed phase angle shift in t>m--...,,
them. To reduce the rotor inertia and to make tho
opcrilbon more (a~1. double i11duct1(n1 k'Op
t.lrueture is u-ed Suell .a .)tru<turc b showu tn thl"
1'19. 2.14 Ooublt Induction loop
Pig. 2.14
1tructur•
In all, the Induction reby• are widely u..xl f<1<
protective relays tnvolvlng a.c. quantities High, low ..lnd ad1ustable speeds ~
pos!ible in these tcla)"'. venous sbapes of time against operating qunntity curves can
"" <>b!ilined.
2.5 Nondlrocllonal Induction Type Ovorcurront Relay
Thi$ "''"Y " alioc> c.•llrd o<>rth lenkniw induction typo "'i•y
Tbe <w•rcurrent ....1.y opernt<f when the current In 1~ cirant exeeeos • cwuin
P"""'' value, TI>e indoction iypc nondirection•I evcrcurreor relay hos • cons<ruc:tion
>tm1LI• tu • wallhour meter, with $li11ht modiOcation The fig 2.15 show> the
n....1,tructionn1 detn11;. of ru-.ndircctlon:il lndooion type over curl"t"l'\t r~l.ay.
'•
'---
Vie C•W•
PflmJry -
~
e •
,...,,,;,.;._
-.wfndlng
=
or:~
aniodlt:
"°'"'II
oontecl
~
._
r:
- -
__ Plug
boldgo
"'""""""""
--
eu,,.,.
ll'Of'l'IC T
Fig. 2.1S Nondlrtctional lnd~n over cul'l'tnl relay
P<-ctlon and Switchgear a.ctromognotlc Relay•
It «>n>1•t< of two electromagnets. The upf"'r is E •""Jl"d

while the lower is U
stvrped The alummiurn disc is free to rotate between the "'110 magnets. The spind~ of
~ drsc carries ffiO'\Ting rontacts a.nd when the disc rotates the moving contacts come
in contact with fixed a:mtacts which are the terminals of a trip cir.:uit.
The upper rnagnt't h..s two wiJ1dir1gs. prim.uy and "''COO<l,try. Th" primary is
conn«ll.."CI to ll\C '4."COl'\Cl-lf)' o( C. T. on th(• line to bt• prot.ect-..--.J. 1hJ1 wlndil\g 16
lilpf"'l •I ont<•rvol• fh• rappln!IS arc connoct<>d to plug """'nil bndg•.
With th< help "' thi> bridge, number of turns of primary winding can be ad1US>ed.
Thus the desired cum"nt seutng for the rel.iy can be obtalned, There are usuall)' St.'\-m.
section.• of tappin!,'5 to hove the overeurrent range from 50'll. to 200'll. in steps of 25%
11-- values are J'<"l'("e<'ll>ges of the <'UrA'nl .,ting of the relay ThUll • rel•y curTml
r•tmtt m•y be IOA t~ ti can be ronnl'Cll'd to C.T. with !'t'(On(lal')' current r~ting ol
IOA but with 50'~· .emng the rcloy will start opcr.itlng .11 SA. So ad1ustmcnl ol IM
c:-urm1t •enmg is mad<' by lnl!Crtlng n pin bt'lwecn epnng lo.ld•'0<~. •t the P"'I"'' t.•p value required. Whton lhe pin Is withdr•wn for lhe purpooe
..C clunglng the semng while relay is in service then relay 1u10m•li<nlly adopts a
hti:l>cr etirrcnt sctti"l( thus secondary of C.T. is not open cualltcd. So relay remians
Of'<To\11\'C for Uw £.1111 c>«urring duri"ll the pro<ess or dlani,~ng tM &ettlng.
Tho 'k'<tmdnry winding <•n llm et•ntral limb of upp<'r m•pt I• <0nnecteJ In $C'ri~
.. uh wlndlns on th~ law,•r m•i;nc\. Thi> winding I• rnrrgl~ b)• lhc lnductiM fmm
prim.ti') 8)• this •rr.1ng•·m<'t>I ol S<.'«md•ry winding. the lrnk<tgc nu•es ol upper and
lowt< m<1gne111 are sulfl<lently dlspl•~ In space •nd tinwe IO produce • routiorW
t0<quc on lhe aluminium disc. The control torque is provided by the spiral spring.
W'h<!n current cx._is Its pn;s(!I value, dbc rotates and moving cont•<t'.I on 'f'ind~
mak.! ronne<•tion with lrip circuit termlnols. Angil• through "'hlch th<! dlse route is
bc>tw\,.,,o+ to 360'. 11\C" lrav•I of the moving con«octs can be od111>l<'<l by nd1U>trng
mgk- "' mtntion ol dl<e. Thi~ i;lv,.,. th<' r•l•y nny dr.11'\'d tim<' ""lllng wluch ,.
1ndic.red by • point~r on • ttn1e setting dial. Th• <Uol Iii uhbrilltd from O 10 I. This
does not give direct operating time bul it glvn multiplier which can be used along
with the lime-plug setting multiplier curve IO obtoin actual optnbng time ol the ...Uy.
The tune-plug setting mulliplicr CW'V~ is provided by the manufacturer.
2.5.1 Tlme-Cur,..nt CharacterlatJca

Time "''ruir\od to rotat1· tt\e di:w: dep<onds on ~ torque. Th• torque varies M curT<nl
in !No primary drc:-uil. More tho torque- lesser Is lhe ti~ required hence ...Uy h.u
Inverse time characteristics. The Fig. 2.16 (see on next page ) shows the time-curreu
characteristics for the cvercurrent relay. Such characteristics are called Inverse Definite
Minimum Type O.D.M.T.) characterl•tics. This is because. tlwe characteristics shows
mvcrse rc.l.1tion betweee tune 1\nl1 t•,trr\'t'lt for small values of currents. But as cummt
Ptowctlon ind Swltchgffr 2. t9 Electromegnotlc Rolays
0!>01•'"'9
l1mt ln11ee1
10
0 2 • G a 10 12 .. 1&
ep.re1"1Q _, (P S. M I
Ag. 2.16 Tlm•-cutnnt ch1,.ct1t1We.s

°""""ses. some definite lime is required by the relay. So the dur.1cteristics bcrom<..,,
straight line for highrr values o( currents. Such 1.0.M.T dunict<nstics can be <lbta1n«!
b• .. turMh1g the Iron on the upper mo111w1 .o th4t there cannot be lncr~asc in ti"' flu•
C)n('l' t'Urfl'llt itchk'VC°' tt11.4ln hlg,h VA1uc.
l ht• l'.S M. <an bo.o ubt.ltnt'Cl llli,
p.!>.~i ,. FuuU current in relay coll
Riied S<Cond>zy C.T. cumnt •CutttN SC'lOng
Fault current in relay roil = Line fault current x CT. rabo
2.5.2 Operation
J'hc torq11t ft.. produa?d due 10 ln,fucti-ln prtnclplt'. •'- t'\..PIAU)it'd 1n ,.,._,, ~~hon
2.•.I. Thi• torqU<' I$ ~ by fl"$tr•111ing fon:• produ«-d b~ •porol >prln~' l..nd,,,
n(lrmal conditions the nstrainlng lorco is more th.in dt1ving reeoe ht-nee dl>C' ""1'1•ins
stationary. Under fault conditions whon cunmt becomes lug!\. the di«' rotnt~• throu!(h
the ptt9et angle ao>d rnaltn conto<t with the li•ed ronl<ICtS (>( trip circuit lh.- trtp
Cln'Ull opens the cirtv<l brfflwr, l""'aling the (•11lty p.111 Imm n.'<t u( tho lw.1hh1
<\) ~t('ft'
Pn>tectlon •nd Switchgew 2. 20 Elec1tomagnetlc R~
•• E.x..,.,ple 2.1 : A11 I 0.M T. Ot\'rn1rrml rtlny luis a t11rrc111 $1"/ll11g of ISIJ'• •llJ a
""" m11l1i11lirr "llmg cf 0.6. n .. prittUJry of rrlay ts 0>•11vntcl to s.cond11ry o/ C.T.
h.1t·ins rt1lio 40"115. Cakulote tht· li.Jtrt' cf '1p'Tatio11 rf tM cr.rtl(it to.tr1i."S o fault c11rmt1
qf iOOQ A. 77...- 111nt"-<llrrc111 dannackr15t:..,.-, of I.ht• rtlay 15 sholrn 1n '''"Fix . 1.17.
. ..,.
r.,,.
·o
a
a
•
2
0 s 10 15 20 P.S.M
Fig. 2.17
Solution : Lei 11> cokul.ll>' P.S M fin.I.

fotult t-urrcnt in rri.ay m.1 • A<'twil fi1ult currmt .c CT r4'tK)
• 5000 )C s
400
= 62.5 A
Ro>t.id secondary of CT = 5A
Current i..elt1ing • JSO-. = 1.5

62 5
rsM • Sx1.s•R:UJ
From Fig. 2.17, •ppro•un.>te time for PS.M of 8.33 I! I .8 sec

Actll•I nperntlon """' ~ 1.8 x 1Jm<o ""ttJ.ng multlpti..,.
e. l.il•0.6
= 1.08 serond•
..... Ex1mple 2.2 : TN rig. 2.18 ;houo; th.- part of a typ;.:.! pow<r sys1<•111. If for tltr
dkrrimi1111th1n, lltie l1w gnrding margin brtu.'""'IN rrlqs is 0.6 sec, cotcutetr IN tnw
a( opr·rnlio11 of rd1111 I tmd limt srtllng 11111/tiptru for rrllrv 2 Reft•r to clMn>cl<'n<fl('l
(n.-n m tlw F1~ i 11 Tllf t<mr "'""·~ mult1rlrn of rr/lflf I " OJ
Protection •nd Swltchgut 2. 21 Electsom•gnetic Relays
5COI$ b00/5 Faun c"1'rent
C.T I It--..,ffi~l
CT /4000A
H . ...r--fflff,t---+--i~.e.
.__c._e -+I - ----·
,----1'7
l-r2I IR•'*>-11
150'll 115...
Fig. 2.18
Solution : For rf'lay t : Current setti1\g • 125 % • L .25
Fa u II N""'1 I • -IOOO A
C.T. rano • 500/S
F•ull curn:n1 In r.l•y roll • 4<.'00 • ~
• 40 A
rs.M 40
• S• 1.25 • 6.4
From tlw Fig. 2.17, the C:Ol'111Sp(lndlng time for 6.4 t•.S M. Is •'PPl'<><hnotely 1 "'
"'''"'I tlnw "' opcr•tlon • 3 • llrn.: kttlns mul11pll~r • J , OJ
• O.'I see
for rtl•y 2 : Current setting • 150% • 1.S
"ctu•I ttme of opera11on • tlmt of op.;r•tion of rel.,y I + time morgln
• 0.9 + 0.6 • t 5 se"
Paull """""' • 41)()(> • foo • 40 A

FauJtcurrent
P.S.~t a
C. T. secondary raung x current se11ing
From the Pig. 2.17, the corrcopondlng tlnw for 5.33 P.S.M. is opprv•lmot,•ly 38 see
Tune setting multiplitt • ~ctual time of opcrat.iou
Tune for P.S. M. obtained
!.S
• - s 0.395 ~ 0.4
3.8
Thi> is the requin.' sp<dtlc direction '-" N
>Ctuann~ quantity in Uw orcuit. The din>ction.d power relay operates when powa in
the .,,,,.,,Itflows on the spedfir dirertlon. The constmction and principle of <>perahon
,,. tht' t\~•V Is ~lm11or to the lnd11cti<M1 type wotthour mt't<r rt'lay. The d1ffo1eKf! ii
llM1 t.n w .. tthoor mc-tCT tyl"l«° rt.•l11y th~ lutq\.K" 1.i prodt.1"'-"«<>n<I•') of CT "hlle tn
doro..twn.11 po-.cr l'\'l~y tht torque Is produeed due to 1nt<r<>Ctton of tht' 011>4
prodUl'td from both \'olL1ge and currmt of the circuit. The rd.ly lw two w1ncl111g!,
coe xts .,, volt.,~ C'C'1I 'A·hite other a9 C"Urttnt coil, slrnllnr to 11 w~ttmettt. 1lK" UJ'Pf'f
m.ipwt ~rri"' • •'Oii.age: roil or potential coil whkh ls ~ from P.T while the
to..er m.ogn<t <arril"'< • rurre11t <oil 1Yhith I• 1•nergl-.·d from CT. In th<- line IO ti.,
pt"•-1\od lloc ron>trurt1on i• shown ln the Fig 2.19.
~
lloltage 1..- .....
tt.-gi•
v
""'
F
p .T""" I ~·' I
To
Currettt u -
Fig. 2.19 Olrectlonal power relay

The number oC tAppongs arc provided to the current rod wllh which daored
curmit .. tting c.1n be adllcvcd. The 1'\'Slralnlng torque Is provided by tht' Sf>1ral
•pnng Tht' liJ>indl<• ol JU.: ~•rric.. Ilic mo•lng conlllct~ whkh m.ike cont.ct woth
1npp1ng clr<ult tl'tmon.1ls wh<•n tlu. dlb< rul.tt('O. The •·olt.ag" roil provided m the
+
"rPtt magnet prod1"""' the flux 1• This U.g:s the voltage V by 90" , ...., cutn!'t\l I .,
!len§ed by th• rurrmt roil on lower magnet which produces Uw flux 2• This \S in +
phase with <'U1'1'et1l I. The current I log:s voltage V by an angle+. The angle betv<em +1
md •: "'o as shown on the ph.a$ur diagram in the Fig. 2.20.
ProtKtlon ond Swltc:h9N'
.,
I
Fig. 2..20
Tbe intcrnctlon of fluxes•• ;11nd +2 produet"l' the torque. H<!I"«" \fliot! c.an write,
T • •• ., •in"
But ,, v and ., ~' I
••
whd~ a • 90-t
T V I sin ( 90 - +)
T ..
"'
VI (Qr;+ " power in cimdt
Cnder notmat working rondition.\. the dri ...;ng torque ~ jn. thr ,,_.me direction as
tNI of 1""1ralning torque. This moves the moving <<l11tacl:i aw~y from tlw li•ed
tripping circtdt contacts. Thus relay remains lnopeeanve dS long u power flow ls in
one p.irticular direction
But when there is • rurrent reversal •nd hen« the power ~·ersol then the driving
IOt'qU<.' oc111 In Opp<)'I"' dir«tiOI\ to the rcstr.>lnlng rerque or\ •uch ~ manner thdt tlll!
"''""'II e<m~iclll close the tnpplng circuit ront•Cllf. Thi• '¥'" !ht- nrcuit brc•kcr II)
oolaie 11\c faulty P""
1lus relay is used for providing the reverse power prot«UOn to synchronous
machines. The relay can be single phase or three phase.
2.7 Dlntctlonal Induction Type Overcurrent Relay

Tbe dlrectional pow1Y ~y Is not suitable to use as • proi..'dh·e relay under sh0<t
dmut conJIH~n•. This Is beeause under •hort circuit rondi"""5 the voltoi:•· folb
drhtically •nd such • ttduced volLl&• may not be 1uflkient to produce the drh•ing
to<que «'quired for the <eLty ~lion. Hence in proctke, dnectlONOI induction type
O\'orcurnml rclny is ...ed. This ttloy operates •lmo8t lndopt'l'(l.,..,t of system voltege
and power fRCtOI'.
TI\il' 'llrt"\.'tional hlduction type ovcrcurmit rel..ay U!(."8 two ~Uy \!'tc-mcr\t.tt ttllluntt'd
on .1 a:'"1rnon case ~ tkm.ents arc.
2. 25
Dif'f'ctional elt"tn.-nt : Th~ dirl.'Ctic-,n.:il flfemetlt ts TlOtl,1ng bot a d1rt'l(':tio1\..Jl power

rel.a) whsch operates when power in the cim.iJt flows In .ii p;1rticul,1r dlrectlOI\ The
voltage coil of this element is energized by a system voltage through a potentaal
transformer. The cuf'1"el'll coil on the lower nl'1gnet is energi.tl:'d by the system rurre-nl
through • current mnsformrr Tho trip contacts of chis rcl•y (I - 1 ') are connected "'
Srt1.-s w!lh the S("\'Ond•ry wlndlt1g o( nondir<-ctlOOAI clonwnt_
Nondirtctional tltment : Tl\i;• curreru <:Otl of the dh·ect101'1•l t.'lc.•me-nt I~ rono«tl"'d

1n k'fl("t \Ytth 1tw pnmary v. inding of no1ldarectlonat ch .·met1t. Tl\e plug ~tt111g hnd~
1
;,; provided in this •lement to adjust current setting as per th;, ""!"lrement. The trip
contacts ( 1 - I') are in series with '''inding on lower magnet of nondirectl()fgl
elcm..nt So unless •nd unnl trip contacts (I - I') ore closed by th<' movement •>I the
J1>C' .,.,, d1rectlonat \'ltmt.i.nt, the 1'101\dlrectlon:ll clcmt•nt anncK ~r.1tl' 1 htlS tM
ITI0\'1nent of tho nondirl"Ction.>I clement I• CO!llrulled uy lh1• dlrttt11m.ll olcmcnt
2.7.1 Operation
Under normal ronditlons, power nows in the prop<" duectlon and henct'
d1r<1.'"!ionnl element of the relay Is tnoperanve. Thus the second•ry winding on klw<'I'
11\.ljlMt of nondirection.11 f'lemcnt ls <'lp<'n ollld hence nondir<'C1iorul element is abo
int,,erAti\•V.
\\lhl-n tht f1•11t t.\l-.t't! pl ..\l't', tl\c c11rr,•nt or powtr in tl\f (1ra.11t h.•s tu
°"" .i tendt11(')'
in "'vel't!r dtn'<'tion. The CUll'<'llt (ll)ws throu11h cu1'1'!!nt ro.l of d1NCll011AI cl~1~t
Which prodUCCll the Ow.. The <Urrcnt in the \'Olt•go C:Oll produ<cl Mother Ou• Th*
two OW<<'S interact to produce the torque due h> which th• dis<: rot•tes. As dee
rotates. the trip contacts (1 - 11 get closed. r.:ote that the detlgn o( direction.ii clt.,,.,,t
I> "teh th.lt It ;, vt•ry sensitive and though volt•!!" falls under short drcui~ th• <ul'Ntlt
cotl ,. r.-..ponslble to produce ~ufflcl<'nt torque to have dis< ">talion It Is so _.,,""
that ti can l•pcrote l'l'l'll at 2 '"' o( powor (low in l'\)VC""' Jlt<'<ljon
TI"' current al'° nows through the prim•ry winding on the> upper m•gnet ol
n<>nt.lirfCtlrn1nl ci<>mmt. Thus energizes the winding to produtt the nux. Thi> flu•
induces the e.m.f. in the se<ondory winding or the nondircctiONI element accordmg tu
induc:tion principle. As the contacts (I - I') are closed, the 5e<OJ\dary winding N» a
dosild p.1th. He:~ the induc«t e.m.I. drtvee the current 1hroug.h it. producing t.he
•noth<t Oux. The two fluxes Internet to produc• the driving torque whlrh ro~1l.,. the
dlsc, Thui the contact• o( trip circuit gee etosed and It O!)<'T\S th• circuit bttok •., to
I.ob~ th<> faulty K"Ction.
So directional element must operate first to have the operation of the
nondin!Ctioruil element.
£he rouo,... tng conditions must be satisfied to have the operation of the eenre
rcldy ·
I. Tbe d~t,._ n of cur~nt in the Clreuit must reverse to ~r.ite dttt'ction.AI
elemenL
2. The rum'nt value in the ""'""!'' direction must be pater than tht' current
~ttlng.
The hli;h ,.,.i.,.. ol curr<'f\l n1u>t J><"iJt ft>r • time ~ "'hich •• gn11ttt tlw>
tht' tin><! ~ting ol the relay.
2.7.2 Olrectlon•I Cnaracterl1tlc1
II• U' study the ph.uor dlogr&m to undttatand the dlttct1on•I charoaenslKS or
the .U\·• .
V • Relay voltage through P.T.
I • Rol•y roil current thn111gh C.T
O • Angl• botween V and I

~cne : 1he systen current is generally lagging the •-oltige but with 5Wtlble
ronntdion the relay current is made to lead the voltage by angle e.
Our to t1us, the romrt operation ol relay at all the types ol faults undtt aU
•\• '""" <OOdition is ~ .
~· cum'nt I leads ,·olt>ge V by angle 9.
t. ; Flux produced by voltage V
Thu Dux +v lags voltage V by an angle +-
+. ; Flux produced by current I
The ftux +1 Is U\ phue with the current I.
Pro .. ction and 8wftc"9Nr 2. 27
1i.... torque ls proportional I<> the nu~, and •lne "' ,,,., •nsk< belWel'I\ th•
M·1.., n,.\ e~.
T x +,. +, sln (+v " +1)
"' +. +.tin (9 + +J
+v" V ~nd +1,J
I T ~ K\'1 sin (0 + •ii
K =constant
\loxomum torque oa:ws when sin (9 + +> is I i.e.
0++•90"
fh<• <~•odltlon for •lw nw.lmum torqu~ '"shuwn doll<'<I In tlw l'lg 2 ll.
Ti.... lvr<(llC Is 1ff0 wlwn Sin (0 + • ) • (I I •
0 .... a- O< 180'
This will be satisfied when the relay current I phaser bes ..taig thc +v phasce or
in "ntiplidse with +v- Ttw <OrttSp()C1dlng line is caUed zero iorque liM and is <huwn
in the Fig. 2.22. Thi• line ls •t nghl angles to the ~•lmum totq= <Ond1tion ltnc.
Thui lh~ dlr""tioc'"'le~t operates, provided trot tho cum.-ru ph.tsor lies woU\ln
: CJ(IO o( 1he maximum rorque line. I( 11 ls dispt.ced more th.on 90' thcll the element
will restrain. Both operating u well as nonoperating regions are shown in the
Fig. 2.22.
M .. imum torque angle : Tbe ani;l~ by whidl the current 1upplled to the rel•)
lt'ads the volt1111• •upplled to the "'l•y "" •• 10 obtoin the ma<1mum torqu•• I~ c•ll•'<l
maximum torque ongle (M.TA ) II It dl'll<llcd as 1 in the ~lg 2 n
j-rom the Fl11 2.22, we an write •
• = 90°-t
Substituting In the corque equation,
T = KV I sin (8 ~ 90•-t)
l • KV l cos (0 - t)
Thi• is the torque equation lntt'tlt\i ol m•x1mum torque angle • The typlc•I value.
of the n~xlmum torque angle • re 0-, 30°, 45' ere.
-tlon •nd Switchgew Elec1rom1gnetlc Relays
2.8 Thormnl Rotaya

lherm~l r.l.l)'S w,>rl on \he
pneople of J1c;itins clfect of an electric To
CUtkt'lt in tit~ rctav coil~ lmtcad of the
~r-t·n,~rlt of tetn_J)('T'.ature.
n.W' ~ >t!n~"' the tempeeature rise
tht'!Sl'" :: =il Conllcis
rroduc..d by the cur"'"' -spnng

t1l .1 ~h1'pl\'st th...'fl1'WI relay. 11
bu~ullt< strip is u«-1 The strip is
muun1rd above a n.~.st.l~ coil
c.trn-ar1~ current ro rroJ\Ke~sary
""•tang ~"•'Ct. 111c spnng ~ used to
null' the e<>1Ult'('t1on biitf,,.,"'Ytl tonbcts
.,nd the setp. The lMUlaied lever arin
used to C3IT)' the con.QC! which ts
:."'ii
f"'ol<:<l. To have van.>bk- settings. the Fig. 2.23
"""""" in the spring an be adjusted,
The f~ ~ 2'1 shows ""' >ChemJtic diagram or tlwrm•l n-Lav.
linllt·r ttt•r11111I '"'Olldibons. t11~ hearing tiuf' tu C\lrrt't'
t I L'- not t•nough to lw.al t.tw!
''"~ ~,,J ,.{,nt.,rt8 ~m.a1n ctot,.rd "-" ~trip n•n\.1IM litralght
Wl""' tlwrc I• ovNloading. then the curm>t I lncml5<s beyond ... Ie ••lur
productflg very high l'R lcoses and co11esponding large he;it. Thus the •trip gets
he.11ed up and bends. Due to the bending of the strip. the spring opens the coo~
~ rum-nt is interrupted.
In ;cim1• C•'"'-"· the binvtaUk •tripj tlw.~v es c;ury the CVTT('11l without using •
"">!"' <Oil. Th<•o.• r..1•~..,, "'' <'Ommonly used In protttbon of low voltag1• •·•· •nd d.c.
m..--. In ,,,,... ol l•rge mot0r1, the bunculhc •trip 1> connc.'Ct<'CI throu11h cunmt
lnfbJormcr.
2.9 Universal Relay Torque Equation

MO'.{ of tho proltthon rel.tys oonsisl of '"""' •mmgemmt of elcctrom•gncls with
"""''tun• or h1dut•tion di..,. whkh e>rry conldets. The reL>ys ob<> CJrry th• dosing or
opening ol contaces control devkes like trip coils of circuu bre&kr. Th• ol<oetro~
h."e curn:111. voltage or both the types or windings. Currents through wind•np
produce magnetic fhrees .and torque is de"Veloped by the in~lion between th<> llwies
of .,.me windings or between the fluxes of both the winchngi<. In general the torque
pnidu«'d by current w1nd1ng IS proporllOMI to squ...,... or the current the toft1W
rmcJu<t'd by voh,,ge wtnJ.ng IS propor11on.1I to oqt•11'\l of tlw vouagc, nnd IM IOrqlK'
Protectl°" and Swlt~
produced by both ii,., windings is proportional to produet ol vollA~ and 1he curN'tll
M>lhtmabeally we can wntr,
Te<que produced by Curren! coil, • K1 r
T0tque produad by vol!Ag• coil • K, v>
To-quc produad by bolh the colll • K3 VI <-O. (0 - •)
w~ K1, K2 •nd K> • constonl 0 • angle bc.tw<•'n V and I
t : muimum torque anglr
To-que produced by cortlrol spring= K.
The control sprislg> .,.., used as restraining elements
If all the elements ut present in 1 relay then total 1orque produced by all th.>
(AUHS c•n be ••p!UKd by • general equation as,
T • K1P + K2V' + K1VI ms (0-t) + K.
This equation is ailed universal relay torque equation thr term K.. can be a
restnining torque dU<' to springs or gravity.
By ~igiiing po6llh't signs to certain <OnS!llnts and lets other
ind nogotive
rons1111ts to be 7.<'10 and -thnt!ll by adding •lmllar othtt tmns. theop<'nttlng
rhar~rislia equ.ohon ol Ill the tYf>C$ ~" protective relays an be obtalnl'd fmm
unlvtrNI equailon.
For ecample, for O\"cmuTent relay K2 • K, • 0 and the spring torque is n<>g•tive
so we get.
T • 1<112 - K,
Foe the dll'\~onal rt!lay K1 • K, • 0 and the •prlng torque •• nogabve •
So ... get,
T a K3 VI cos (O·T) - I<,
Review Questions
1 (..:qW11t t"*'op•wlw tl{-...C tnp t'imtit
1. fljll<I• '"' foll-t """- M.W •• '"'"" ~,..i..,.,

,, Moy ....... - .,,. '""""'
Iii RNy - - ,,,,.. ""''""
.l O..OIMmy - "!IP' I{ ~..-1~ "''"""' .,_.,. moy
4, 0..0.i.t ""'~ - - llw """'"°" of'°""""' •ltd plu1tg<I' lyp< ......,,
Electn>magnttlc R~
~ 11'"""" 1114• ro,41..,, .,,....ntt jotr """'"°"'"'.frw-t.r •'''*''°" ~ ......_ MJirJ 1'tf
1J n.r •~l'"''#t.lOll
ii) d.c. (iftfntf.,,,
l' ~•llr IJtc•dd•'li.l'ILftt'). 11,,....,,fltgrs nttJ _,,,,IOll'IOm a/ tCtct~ '""w
- O.·'lt'i' i/;4• to>1)1;U ~""far t~ r1tdttd~!ff flf1"( rt41'1'
f< 0.·~ttl•,· 1h.• , .,,..,-.,!~
111fulloaoo" rrf111,: ..... ,,. """' sJ:n<hft.
ii SJr<1tlf'J pt)k ""'° -.lw<ttoH rt4.1y
u~ 1VnttlJ0i1, .,~ 'W" W"'110t1 rrllty
111) l1tdJtft""' ""~ tTftry
o £1,l/au1 ""'" riv lttf11 -f • l'W' J1111n1•, llV °""1tn.ctw •"' Wfir'f,t of n non.11rm...-
'"'""''tu111 l!iV-.' OCV'l'W'll',,.,., ttVy Otww 11ml ''fl#'" ii_. ,,,,.,......"'"'' "**"1n1!.li1c..
''°' "' 11 IUAi T•..,,_1.t"r'nl.C. of• n.·LJ~1
It C'pJnlri lf1l• 1111i>rLttf l"incrpl~of d.1f'tti1onol ~ rtMty.
J!. IV}mt 1~tJw f"'OC"lu'" -{ Sdl1ng 1-D.Ai.T tridy l W1Mt uctllfll 4.r!:.I n rtq1t1n'll '! llWF tf ..
dir«tla,,al 1ti;:y ~ I'- simplt1 J.D.M.T TM; ?
ll £,·p/.(fffl tin th IN lttdp of IMll d:rfdr, titr ~lrv(fa)ft tnttl ll'OfL"J of 4ir«tio""' indt.i<t;.,. fJW'
PfYl'('U rrrn I r1"'1y
14 "''"'t tli.• co•1rl1t~ N N lllfn.f#N toy tl1mt"1MJ rtt.y IJrt/(lf'r ,,,. ...,.._.,.
1
11 011fll+ 1111• (tif'l'ft...., u\,*'*'"'"'"'- ""' t1plaii1 t.'Mf W ,._,4••• ,....._ •'tfft
11· ~\lhttt jl ;nllA.,,.., NUy ""'ofW t!JlllffiO'll ' t\.,.,I # If~ tl1C' I
J7 An.l.D M.T «'t'fl'llnntf .n.y Mi• c.,-rrml Nltm1 gf I.SOS,-' a.• llMI' 1'111ltiplJtr ..,,_, tt(
OS . n,e n-1..ty f) (l;tJJt«kd In tht C'f!'(IUI ... ,,. dtt lltlp of c.T. ~ r:riM) 500 : 5 A ~
ti..- tsmc of "f" 1wt..-=•: II( llti: nllr,11 if arc.ti twlT'W! • }IMlt amt'Jlt of $lJOO A. 1lr rdly
drora(ttrfs.fict a..-r .(m"N elf IN Fig 2.14..
10 -r*"-~·'
s
• . ..'
2 ''
''• .
0 5 10 15 20
P. s, M.
F'9- 2.24 ftoloy chon1Ctoriotlcs
2. 31
200l1
-1--ij c.a.j 1- ---+--fl
-ffl~ 1 c.a. l :lll0t1
ffi
~
7 1---
1 F.... 2000A
I Rolly 21
.....
126%
~
Fig. 2..25
·-
........
[ R4loy 1 I
For Jl«rl"''""''°""
t1tt hllWl'*l"I ...,.,.,. ., O.S Ht.
Dtfnml"' lh< ow <( ..... - of lit< l•w ,,..,_ -•M"'l( llwl - llto- ......,, i..v. tlw-
•lfllllt;,tiltr
"°"""' fl/ rNty 1
I• dtt F. US. 'lltt ttl#y I -.., """ lf!l11tf ••II ... <( O~ Find 11., ,;.,. ...,...,
(AN. : G.56 tff, 1.06 MC, o..J1'4)
11 Wnte " Mtt °" llttnwl ~
aoa
(2 • 321
3
Differential Protection
3.1 Introduction
l1' tbe overcurrent relays.., a current is sensed but such reLlt'"S arr not very sensitive
•S th0$l' rel•ys cannot distingubh between heavy loads and minor fauh conditions. In
sue~\ cases, differentW. ~l&ysGU1 be used.
A dlffottntlal relay ;. dcfin<'<>r
d1fft•n!'tlCe of two or more similar electrical quantittes exceeds • pred~nnined value.·
Thus a CUl'Tt'nt d1fft'rmtial retay operates on the result of compari><ln between ti..
phase ang~ and magrutucles of the CUl'Tt'nts entering and le.tving the system to be
protrclod. Und<r nomwl conditions. the two currents arc equal In phas.! •nd
1114ftmtud< h•nct' "'"'Y ,. inopt'r•~"•· Out under fault cond1bon$, this rond1tlon no
lo"l(11t ~xlsno. The "'"'>' It <"Mncct<-d in 1uch • m•nner th-'! the dilft'rtne;: ~we<>n
current mtoring ond ru1n•nt "'•wing flow• through tlw tlf"'r.iting cod. II thb d!lfl'l'('ll<'I'
currt'f\t n~ • p~ value th<-n the rday <'I"'""-"' and 0~'11• the arcuh breaker.
Almost any type of rd.ly wlu!1i connected in a certain way an be made to operate
as a dilfermtial relay
3.2 Types of Differential Relays
n..- '•"""" ty~ of chfltttnti<ll "'L>ys are.
I Current dlffcrenliol rrlay
2. Biased beam relay oP percentage differential relay
3. Voltage bal~ differential relay
3.2.1 Current Dlfferentbtl Relay

Most o( the dilfertntt.al relays are of current diflcn'11tl.d IYI"' Conoid.,. •11 over
fl!rr"\I rel•y con11«i..-d 111 th.- drwlt to a• 1<1 orer.to •S the C\lll\'<lt dlffe,....nrial r~IA)
This Is shown in w Fig 3 1
'I we current translom>en are uM.'<I """"S some rotlo are ~ on the eilh(ot
s1d~ of th~ S<.'Ct\On to be protected. The !e<ondarlcs of CUl'Tt'nl tnnsforrn~rs •re
connected in seril'S. oo they arry Induced currenl$ in the some d11<CtlO<l. Let CUITL'nt I
(3 • 1)
..-ion and Swllc"9N1' 3·2 Ditmenllal Protection
~Winding to
E-
CT. /""- C.T.
""*
-.
- •
OdfMnt.el,.,
Fig. 3.1 Cutrtnt .. dl"'lle<-,.~ntlol
roloy
15 llcMing 1hroui;h the p<lmary ol "'"""' translonnoro tow;mls the e•h.'nwl lauh All
the rum.'l\t trJn>lonnttt are lcl•ntkal. the 11CC:ondar1,.. of curttnl tr•nslor_,.. w.U
Clltl') oqu.al currents Due to lhe cmu.....:tion of relay, no curt••" will now througl> lhr
~•ttng roll for the ttlay. HcnQe relay will remain inoperatlv•. So relay e&nno1
operate ii~ is an °""'"'"I fault
Consim now that an internal fault occurs at point A, as shown in the Fig. 3.2.
nw current
oides. TI~ two ••roncbry

no~
through the fault from both
cum.-nis through C.T.s are

1, C T.
v --
°"""''""
..;. I'
/' c
v
1 h
not equal. The current

flowing through the relay '• .. ""'
coil is M\Y 11 • I,_ This
high current cau...... the
..Uy to opt.'fal~.
IN- nol<'d that
It sho\l Id
-
Ag. 3.2 Action of dlff... nllal "'toy
cm......._
the fault current nttd not alway• now to the l•ult from both Md<$. A Oow on ~
f1icle only or even ><>me rurttnt Oowlng out of one side whil4' a larg<' current entenng
the oU....r side """ <aUH differential relay to operate. Th~ the amount of rurTent
flowing lhn>ui;h • relay roll dep<!ndo upon the way the foult Is ~g led.
Thlf ,.lay >uflm from the following dlhdva.nt•grt,
I The cum.'llt tnin.donntl'S ore oonnecttd through .oabln <•I~ pilot cabW. tho
Impedance of such pllot c.blet gconerally causes o .light dil~ betw""" the
currents at the ends of U>e ~ to be proh!<oted A sensitive ~)' an
operate to a •·tty small difference in the two currents. though there is no bult
msting.
2. iM relay •> W<cly to oper.te INccunte!y with heavy Uuough cum'.'Ot flows.
lhl! lS berc.iu._~ the assumed ld\-'1'\1i<'al t'Urrcnt lrjiNfonncn nlay not bl\-e
3·3 Oithlt9ntf1I Protection
identic>l S«:Oodory currents due to the constructionol errors and pilot cabte
impedances.
3. Under severe through fault condinons, the current transformers may satura"'
.. nd cause unequal secondary currents. The difference between the rurrents
may approech the pick value to cause lhir- inaeeurate c.>per.itit'lf'l for Ille rcla,•.
.. Under heOV)' C'UrTent nows, pilot cablr cap.1t•lt.lnct•"' Ola) C.lUSl' lna('('llr.-ttt-
Clpfflllion of the R'lay.
All ti..... disadvantag.,. ue overcome in biased beam relay.
3.2.2 BlaHd Beam Ret;ry or Percentage Diff«entlal Relay
As thr n.unc •ugguts, thb relay Is designed to operate to the differential current
In 1ttmS ol Its fractional rela~on with tht octu•I cur...,nt Oowing through dw pr<1h"1<d
clradr.
Tht Fig. 3.3 shows tM •rrangen1cn1 or• b~ beam relay.
IJIWnll(Ot wlnclhg:
C. T to b9 pt"CC•ewd C. T.
v v
..L
""'"""°""" I I f
...... .-...
r I
I•uno co1
00.r
Fig. 3.3 Bl11ed beam relay
The ilmple drcuit C0M«1ion ol lhl$ type of rcl•y Is shewn in the Fig. ).4.
Altemetor ~
I
CT.
-
v
IObe-
-
C. T.
v '
Op11t*"'O
""''
·------ ..
' '• ,;0 •• '•
~ 1,-11J ••
'
'• •' R I 11
.... • - - ... -...:.._ Ptttc;entaigt1 lill'ler...., te~
~coll
Fig. 3.4 Simpl• circuit of bllaed bffm r.i1y
The op<m•tmg roJ 0 of thee !'<'lay c;1rr1., • diffettntUll cunent (11 - 11) whtl• ti"'
IWlntimng roil R am.5 the cu.rrent proportional to ( 11 ; 11 .,, the operntln)t coll is
ronn«Wd 01 !he mtdpmnt of 1hc rc:stralning coil This con be "'pLuncd as,
N • rotal numb<T of turn• ol restr.1rung rod
So a1rrent 11 Bcn.'> through Nl tums while current 11 0""'> thruujlh '

2
. !NIN fl+I,'
1
2-+-'-
2 • N
Eifective ampere tums e -1 •
• l 2 j
11 12
Thus ii can be asswned that the curm>t ( ; ) flow" tluough the entire I\ turns
"' the restraining C<>tl

Under nonnol and through load OOl1dit:kms, the bi.'ls for..- produc<d due to the
restraining ml is greater than the operating force produced by operating coil hence
rcl•y Is inopttath e, IVht'O internal fault
- c.. ........ occurs, the opnatmg force~ more

°'*•• than the bw fortt Due 10 thi•. b<-.1m
u,-•~,J moves •nd N tnp ront"""' •r• <lu><'tics of thi•
type of relay IS sho\m in the rog. 3.S.
II can tie Sttn that except at low
currents, ttw d'"1ractcristlcsi.\ a slraight
(~) Oii '• --· line.
Thus the r.aho of the dilfrrcntidl
Fig. 3.5 ()p«atlng c!Mlract.rlatics ope:roting rorTent to the average
restraining curM\t is • fixed pen::en1<1ge.
()pe<-
ct..,.. .•• Hence the relay name is percentage
dlfforcntial trl.>y.
The tt-Ll\'- with slope
('(Jn~ldnt
char~ctcrhtic. •rt' <•llt'<l <-On\t.>nt •l<>f"'
percentage d111i'«'ntldl rcl•y•
In somt rtb)·· the •IOI"' "' the
ch4rncterisba incruses as the short
circuit ru,,..,,t oncrca_..,,.. Such
choracten•tio b shown In th~ Fig 3.6.
Fig. 3.e lnc'9a.. In alOjM characmlstlc

Dlll1rontl1I Protldlon
~och relays Grt• c~lled incre~>1ng ~lopo1 ~mml.\fl" dllf<r<'lltl.ll ''"~"JS.

lhc important fact about mcn'asing >lope type n'l•ys as 1.i,.,1 thdr cost is more but
requ.tt Jess accuraC)' m ~ performance of their current tr.msformers. Co1'5bn1 slope
I) I"' n'L>yS r.qu!re good .occurncy in the performance of the curm>t transformers
3.2.3 Voltago Salano:. Differential Rolay

Th" ,. also <•ll\'ott.ll\" method. In this type, the
-c r c. r
O\tt curren! relay is connected
. -
an <ftlb with lhc S<.'O.>nd•~ or
the current tronslonners Thas Is
.....,..n In the Hg. 3.7.
-
v
R-
.:t
~
t..nder normnl cond11ions. the
current •I the two <'fld. o( the
~""hon ro be protected is same. "
Hence then• is 00 voltage drop Fig. 3.7 Voltage balance differential relay
.-:nM the relay to cause the CUJTent to flow.
UnJer f\1ult etlndittc.""6# t~ tUJTt"Mtio' ln tht• tv.·o M'C'Ontlant"S t,f ('\1rr\. t't trntl!lff>l nllti""
1
..... dolf•n•nt. '!'hi• <·•UM.') .. l•rgf voli.gc drop OCT<~ IM IYIAy rhuK lhc \fOlt~g<>
b.tl.tn<\• ol tlw clrcuu 1(<1S dlsturb.'teo to open tlw <irrun breokt-r.
3.3 Busbar Protection
The busbar plays an important role tn the supply sys<em Tbe busbar faults are
rar<' but if occurs lh<'r<' can be intcrruptjon ol ~uppl)'• ronsidcr~bl• d.unagt· •nd loso.
~ b«~b.1r protL'C1.k"' " must and 11 mu.I be fast, sl<lblc and rtliobl•. The busb.tr
ptoe.'<'.tlon nro'ds IO pt()t('d not only th• bu'b." l>ut tlw appar.itu' •s.'IOl:l"tl'd wtth •I
.uch •• cir<·ult breakers,aso!Atang •wit(h.,., Instrument tratbfonMni etc
3.3. t Busbar Faults

Tho various busb.lr faults can be dassohcd .u,
) ro1ilurt o( ir\SuL"ltiun d~ to m.tt~tiol det~r•oration.
2. fil1lurc o( circuit breo1ker
3. Earth fault due to f.ulure ol support insulator.
.t. Hashover due to sustamed excessive over voltages,
5. Errors in the opention •nd mointenance ol. swuchgear,
b brthqun kc •nd m«honoc.ild•m~g<.
7 A•-.:•d•nts d"" to folYlgn lx><ha foiling •crow< the l>u>l-.•D
"' ..1.,..,1,,,,,cr due 10 lweviJ\• pollu11..-d 1mul1,tor.
Pn1Qc11on Ind Swltchge«
3.4 FrameLea~
,
Protection of Busbar
.
All busbar pro1«tion schemes are moJlly designed for earth f•ulis Each conductor
1s surrounded by the earthed melll Nrrier. All the metal fra.JMWorks Me bonded
1<>g1tllwr and insulated from earth. ~ 1wtlehgeu framework b .WO Insulated from
feMl cobk •h••th•
Th<' amngemt'nl of frame leaka!l* prol«'tlOn to a sing~ busb.lr substalion with a
switchg>i'lr unit tS shown in the Pig. 3-lt
,-- - -- ----- ---- ----- --- ----------.
:
i I~
,. 8
- ·· 1·,.·+·.,·r·-··: ·,..·+·..,·
-:,.·. . -!-·.,-:-
: Ii
·::._
''
:
c
Ii
·-: Butbar
SMtcl 91•·
I
:
•---
I
!'
I
I' ---
t
!•
f
• "-+~
L ••
I
frMM~
..-- ...
••
••
••
••
. . ........
-.2CT
' -
L.==J't-t-' .....::-
•
F"og. 3.8 Freme'-*- protection of busb.-
Md.al supporting frame work known as fault bus is earthed through a CT. W),.,,
It.: fauh is thctt, a contact betwttn oondoctor and earth ttsullS. This driv .. current
through this CT. Thb <-ncrgiza the frame '"kage ttlay.
The CT energizing the check ttlay is mounted In neutr.t eatlh of t~ lranaformtt.
The conlllds of ~k relay and frame leabge ~•Y are in 6"ries.
Thus before lnPJ>lllg circuit gets ~ both the relays musl operalle. Once
b<>lh the relays oper•"' due to earth fault. all lhe bttalcas will trip conntttlng ttw
tqu1pment to ~ bu.bar. Due to chtdt rdoy. acxldmlOI operatJOn of ting),, rd<ly to
trlp IM Circuit gets avoided.
Pr-.;tlon 1nd SWllchgur 3.7 Olllerenllal ProtKtlon
3.5 Clrcul•tlng Current Protection of Busb1r

This is notlung but the dilferentUI KJ........ of the prol«tlOn of busbar. n..
circulating current principle states that under normal working conditions or e.iemal
foul! conditions. sum of the currents entenng the bus equals sum of the currents
lc.lvmg the bw;. Under any abnormal ccnditions in the proted<'d I e. short c•rcwt "°""
or phase to phH<> laults, the current rond1hon gee. disturbed And sensing this the
m•)' c•n be openi!N
The Fig, 3.9 shows the principle of arcul•tmg eurrent protection of busbar.
0 0
.,,
· '
I, 1,
~
Fig. 3.9 Circulating euJftllt protection of busbar
11, 12 1. are the currents in the cirnrilS connected to the busbar.
Under normal cond1h0n. LI a 0
'c i, .. i2 + i1 • 1,. • i\ • i41 • 0 (vtttOf' sum)
Nil current flo"'s thro\lgh the relay and htn<e remalns lnoptntlve
Under fuult cond1tJOM.
I, ... 12 -+ I, ....... i•• i,
where i, • Fault rurttn t - l&nbaLl.nced C\IJTU1t.
The unba.la~ curnrnt nows througlt the relay and the rel.>y ~tes.
Undor norrnol cond1tioM, currents in the se<ondori<'8 of CT b.>IAn«> each oth<-r •nd
no current nows througlt the relay. Thus relay is inoper•hve. Under any faull
conditions, the t.ult current nows through <Ny roil to activate it.
Tu obtain exact bal.t..nceof currents• .ill cunent transformeB mlel h,.,ve same rat10
But 111 practk~ thl!re ~·si. n dlflerttlC>t 1n the mng1w11c conditions of iron ror~
C\lffl'T1t tra1u(omwrt At•d t~1l&e op<1r11tlon <ti lht: r~l•y I& J)4")!.)1bl~. at ttw t.irtlt• <tf l'>-l('n\41
l·• Olff1,.nll1I Prottcllon
f,1ult.s fc.•r IJrtse r.1t1lt currents there is a pc».Sibility ol ol tht· 01rc~ llf cur~nt
i.."tt1r.Jtt0n
1r.1nsfmnwr. To O\<'m>me such diff1CUlties. 1 special type ol CT h.'vmg no ir<>n rott
l:io ux-d ft is edited line.tr coupler.
Tht Hnear coupler h.-.s • property lh•t it>
St.."COC'ld.l.ryvoltage es proport>onoll to tllt' pr1Jnary
curMlt and the second.Irv "'"dongs ol all IJw
li.nnr coupl('rS are connn:tcd i1l $1.•ri'-"'8 to the
rPby This is shown 1n 1t.,, Fig. 3.10.
Tht sum ol It.A! voluge outputs of line•r
courm is l'(IUO) to tlw \ e<1or sum o( tlw
-
Fig. 3.10
\'olbgtiS in the rirc\uts ronnt'('
iti '""
mopttan\·e. Under fault conditions, there
lfd It) thi- bw;bar&
Her.er under 11urrnal tondtttonJ c.1\'(•r1,lt \·c.>l1ase
S<.'("t)ndory cin.'U1t is zero and rd•)' "'
ts
resultant voltage in the secondary and the relay operates.
A high Impcdaece relay can differentiate properly the m"'"'"1 and external faults
comp•n."1 10 norm•l low Impedance n.-bly Hence in d"'ul•ling current prote<:tioo,
h1,_;h hl1fll'<l.1~ n-La~' are used, A. h.igh l'ftil§tl.ncc l!'i C\>nnmifd in s..•rll~ \Vi!h n.•lay
op.:•r.illn(I coll 10 1t<·I high in>ped•ntt rd.ay Thlt ""'lsMntt ,. <~lied •l•bllltlng
rt"!iol•tanc~
3.6 High Impedance Differential Protection of Busbar

Another mt'thod to provide diffettntial protection to busbar is ""5<-d on '1<'n.;ng •
n>lt.ige drop oceoss a high impedance, under &ult conditions. The scheme is shown m
the Fig. 3.11.
A
• c D-
------- ------- ------ --------------------------·--- '

''
..........1 I C8 (EJ
er
11 II 11 I
Fig. 3.11 High lml)ldlnc. butbor p<OI~

Pr-Ion 1nd Switchgear Differontlol Proi.ction
Thr h.1-;:l<' ~'rlndple ren\ltfb a;,;anle .1.\ d1(icr"•n11.,1 ~l,r1»t'" Lnck•r ,,,_.,n,,il (<)nd11~
\c.'Ctl'.r 31\1111 f1( the a1rn..-.nt:s m 1~ llnes "' zero Hence 1, iA.'. cum..,,t (lowing throu$th
h:sh Impedance Z11 as seeo. And the rcla)' is u-operauve.
Ounng (,,,tit conditi(lf\S, unbalanced oarrl'r\l c'lei:.ts. Such an out t:~f balance n1rrent
I, flo\\) tllrough z.,
c.lU.sutg a high "olt.igt• drop V, ~ u, lt ls gt\'L"ft to 1i
tf.llbfurmt.'r 1\ n1c:.i~unng unit b ronrt(._"Clt,o(l to the sccoodary of thl5 tr~11i;iror111er °""hdt
,,..••...,...,. thi• drop •nd tnrs the rcby acrordingly. ~fain .dv~nt•gt' 1< thot as •·olL'S"
dror ~ sensed. s,\turcttion cl core of one c_,f t~ (."Urr,>J\t ltA~ h;\~ r\tl '-'ffl"\'1 ('lr1
tlw pn>k'Clion scheme.
3.7 Olfficultles In Busbar Protection

lh(- V.)r1dUS dif,:ntlt~ 1n tht-. bll'§b,\t J'f~)ll'\"llOO •'r\•,
I Curret1t lc.>\'l'l!I tor d1!ftrc1'1t circuit' .1,c d1ifercnt.
., Large number ot oro1its eo bc rrott;."Ctcd.
3 Saturation or oores o( current transformers due to d.c. component in short
circt1it current ~ possibk- which produces ratio error
.. 0\.1e tr• va1 i(-.u.~ bu" &eetl()m., the Khcn1<• bt'COfnt'5 cumplk.at'-'1.
5 W11h l11r11~ l""d ch.lnl!"'I. n'i>)' M"lh"!,"1 n<~·d tn be rN<lj;od
Review Questions
J "-1'..ll arr d1f!l"tmtJal~ ' How rtuy 4r~ ,"Lbsl,{14--J 1
2 £rpla1n tile lP1.l.rt1.1t ,,I ;'r<liJ!ftll! diffr"r.t:::J rd11ys
,; Current drf(m·rttMI rdly
11> A·,.._.,..,,,,,,..:<' ,11(;~ •"'1 ttLiw
u11 V'11tlljff' f111l11"tt J,~/"" rrl!fy
t l:T/ f,u11 IJir

1 """of,....., rvt•«llmt •lffl J;(f1Rltll"" llf l•t1J lwr f'(efAtrMt
4 Upt..un /r11,n1' tl'S~ of~,

J"'Clltf'fWfl
~ f:xptJ111 tllt'l\'tlt ttrt..Wti\( ff'O't'ttlOll If tiuJwr
O' c..,,.tn1u l1isl1 rrrrrn"""" 4 $-metW rr«ntl(Jft rtJ I 11~1w.
OO:J
,, • 10)
4
Distance Protection
4.1 Distance Relays

In th• relnys d~ uptll now, the oper3lion of the relays is dependent on the
magnitud• or the current or volt•J!I) or the orcull to be prol<'Cttd In dista1tce rda)-s.
the operation Is dtpmd"11t on the rotio of the •·olt•ge and currmt, which ls expressed
intt>nns of Jn 1mpe<Un«. Hence bo•ic•lly d- relay• •re oa!Wd impedance rel•)~
1l>e imp<.'J•nee is nothing but 011 ek-ctriul mc><ur• e>f disumre •1""8 a transmi••ion
hne, The retoy operates when the ratio V /I 1.e smpedance is less th.>n o prcd.etennined
value. As the ratio V/I affects the perionna11« of these rcla)'.S, the relays are also
allt>d ratio relays. o.p..nc!ent on the ratio of V and I there are three types ol distanoe
relays which are,
I lrnpedan«' "'"I' whicl\ I• ba"' or Mho Nl•y whidt is boscd on measurement ol romporwnt of
admittance Y.
In short, a distance reb.y is one whose perforroance is based on the measurement
ol iJnpedar\Ce, - or admittance of line between the !oration of rel-y and the
potot where (1uJt OC'C'UCS
4.2 lmpedonce Rel1y

The Impedance relay "'orlcs corttSp<>nWng co the rotio o( volwge V and ourrt'l'lt I
of the arruit to be protertl'd. There are two demttlts ln this relay, !he one pl'Oducc. •
to"!"" pmportional to current while t!w OIMr produ= a torque proportional to
voltage. The torque produced by the cunmt dcment is bolal'l<'l!d agllin..t torq""
prudu.ed by the •"Olbgt> ~le.,,..,..t. Thu§ the ~t element proJUCft "P"f•ling tO"JUC'.
pickup t0<qu• which c•n be sold to be posih•~ torque. The voltagt dement produces
ttStta1ning torque.. tt'Sif't rorque which can be sald to be negative torque So this eelav
lS voltage restrained overeurrent relay.
(' - I)
Protection ond Switcflgtor Ol1t1nc1 Prottctlon
,. B
•
•
CB
C.T
_, I
Foult
CB ~-----
PT
tmPt(llf'G
,.i..y
=v
Fig. 4.1 Baalc Q9ent1on of lmped1ne11 relay
nw <urC<'flt el~I Is cn,•rgf7,ed by CWT\'nt through CT whi"1 'l'll.1gc ekment b

"'~'"~"'" by ''lh'1g• throui;h l'.T ~ S«IJOf\ All of the hoe b protect<'d •.Or\C
Under normal mndihons, the r.itio ol voltage V ai•d curm>t I is deuotod as 4.
whkh is Impedaoee oi line. The tclay is inoperative under this condition.
\\'h<'ll the to.ult occurs al point F in thr protected z.on. t""'1 the volto~e drops
\"hll~ f~1rrt•nt ir\C'n"a~. TI1t1~ the rl\tio V/l 1 e the lmp«la~ reduces drasncally. Tht5
" th" 1rnp<'<l•ll('(' <>I luw 11\>twt't'n t~ pomt •t which relay b a>nn«'t.'<l llnd th•• potnt F
·" whld1 foult llC<UI" "'' Wh<ln the •mped•nce n.'<luc.-. than It> rr•od••lrrmln(od ,.11 ...
4 , 11 t ri P• nnJ nu i....,, ttw d rcu It bre•ktt op.<n
4.2.1 Torque Equation
The posith e torque produced by the current element is proportional to fl white
the negative torque produced by the voltage element is propomonal to V2.
L~;t Ct)1\trol -.pnn)t -.•ti v'C't produces a ronstant torque o( - K.,
H1."1\CX' tht.? t~ue e"'lul1tion becomes.
I • K1 fl - K1 V2 - K, ... (I)
where K1• K2 arr thtt constants.. while V and J are r.m.s ,-~lu.h.
At thl· belaoce pomt, when the rmy Is an Uic verge of operabng. the net torque "
:.tl"f\) ltt."1\« we CJn "'" t,...
0 • K1 c' - K1 V' - K,
K, "' • K, 11- K1 ... (2)
Dividing both sid<'S by K2 r.

V' K K,
- ;;!. - .,.,.--,..
Jl Kl K, 12
•
ProteC11on •nd Swltchgeor Ol•tance Proteciion
{3)
'"'' \""'·'''>' ~
'P"1'8 elft"Ct i:,. fll"glecttd ~ 11.:S ~((t ct i" domma.nt .-1 l<.'W <i.1rr'"onb
1
"'htcll gt·n~rally do not OC'C\Jr in prnctkc So ~sth K1 • 0,
z • JlK:1>C<' relay Is on the
'erg• of operaung •I a given constant vahlt' of the ratio V /I, which an be expressed
as an impedance.
Por a particular fault position. the ratio V /I i.c. impedance "' CQnStanL It chon!I"""
11 tlw IJult P<>!'ihOn ch.•n11rs. If fouh ts """"" to n:lny, this ratio will be low ond a>
l~ult pci&ltlon 11\<Wl" •w•y frllrn thr n:l.•1 1h;> .. till brcom<"i hljlht'< •nd hlgh,•r !'.> ot
<Jn lk• ln't•lllt'C'I to Of"'flltr ft>r tht.• M.'\'.'tk>C'I tc.l be 1lrol\ 1.tc.'<.I dl\d '~
1 lot11~1ll! •.,1 ••fwl
.•d1u•lt'd for • partK'Ubr>«tton, 1t 1$ lnoptt•ll• • bt•yun1I tl"t "-"'hOn
Ihc opernting dut~t.:rlstks of the ttlay is shown in the Fig. ~1
C>Qert1tin9
cnar.ctent11C
I
t
__
-
,
ttonoo1t11Ung
)
v---
Fig. 4.2 Ope<allng characterlstlca
Ao the cfle<:t of spring is dominating lor the lower values of currents. the
clwrJctcri•tics """- • noticiable bend at IO'>tt CUrTCI\~•·
,.,
But for oll practical pu~, the dOltfd llM, which repr<Sl'lllll a con.lant 'alue of
Z may be con.ad<~ •> an operating ~cs.
n.. impedantt Z wh1d\ is pred~nnined aet value is gh'm by.
7 • I
slope of charactenstJcs
n., "'~'Y will pickup for a11y combination of V and I ,~,_,,led by •ny point
above lhe hne m th<- positive torque repon. In other words for o.ny value ol :£ i....
than ~constant valoe represented by the U- the relay will opera!e-
By adjustments, th<' slope of the <hancterislics can be changed so that the relay
wtll respond 10 all th.- v•lues of impedance Int than any deslTed upper limit.
4.2.3 Operating Chl11'1cterfstlc1 on R·X Dl1gram

n.. Of'<'"'hngchar.1crerlstlcs of an impedance relay can be more •aslly rtprne>led
by • dr.agram called R-X diagram. Thoe diagram Is shown In a plane having X·•xi• u R
(res1$tmce) while the Y ·••Is
as X (reac13nce). This plane Is called R-X plane. The
imped.Ince Z can be expressed as,
Z•R+jX
JZJ = JR1 +X2
z1 z R2 ,. x1 . (I)
Mathem.ibcaUy "' • yl = r2 represents an equation ol circle where • and y are
vm1al and horizon"'! co-ordtnates while r Is the radius. Similarly the equation (I)
ttp.-nc. circle whcrt R and X are \'\'l'tlcal •nd horizontal ro-ordina"'5 and
magrutude of lmp<'tl•na• J Z I Is lhc radius of the elrele. The centtt of this clrdlt is at
pornt wh<'fe R •nd X ,,..., lnlcrsect ~ochothtt I e. origin.
From <quation (I) we can wrltt,
x
R
_, x
Ian - .. (2)
R
The numerical '"'lUtc"Sof ratio V ond I ddermlnc tht lc:ngt.h of IM rndlus veetoe Z
whll~ tlw p~ >ng~ + berween V and I determines the n..:t P""ihon o( tM voctor
z,
If I Is In phase with V then the Z V«tor lies along R·a•is. 111 lags vector V then X
Is ntg;ative while if I leads vector V Ihm X ii positive.
P.-ction and Swhc"-1 •·S Distance PtOtectlon
Ow ~ro1lon o( tht r\'lay Is indtpmd<onl of ph•"' angle • and ht-nee th<!

op<'rotmg characteristic is a drcle with radius equal to rnagiutude of l. which Is
pred<1tt1nined set value
At •ny value o( Z ~ thon the radius of the drclc, the rcLty opmitts H~ the
<'1'1til'C portion in>id• the circle Is poslti•• torqu• region 1.t> opttahng regton o( the
"'l•y white the portion exterior to the an:le ls negative torque ~Ion I e
nonope,.d,c "'8lon. u shown In the F1g ~.l
•X
I
--
l
-X
Fig. •.3 Cherectenatlc on R·X dfegr•m

If /1 • lmp..><flln(I' betw"""' n'lay and fault point
l. • Set value for un~nce • Radius of orete
Then for. z., < z reloy oper;ites
Z, > Z relay is ~tivc

Such a R'lay Is nond1rectional and can opmiir for foults on either side of • point
"here rcl.ty t. IRSQll<d
4.2.4 Olsadv•ntagea of Plain lmped•nce Relay

nw pl.11n Im~ rcllly suffers from following dlsodvanbge>.
1 It b nondir«tlON.1 ond con operate for f•ul!S on both sides of • point where
rcl,1) " ronn<~l'e arc l\.'illot•nct' o( hne fault nffC<'t$ ti.,,
<K'C\I~,
pt'rform.lncr ol thlS relay,
3. As a large area is covered by the orck on each side on R·X plane, the power
>wing' •bo c.an affect the perfomwxe or this relay.
Tlw nond1~I pt'rformnn<e an be mode dll'(oetlonal bv .odd111g • dlrtttional
'"'''"""'' in the pl.ain 1mp~lonce relay
4.2.5 Directional Impedance Relay

The directional unped•nce relay an be oblll1ned by addlllg a d1rection•I element
1n the bd•lc 1mpedanct' relny. The elemmt an ~nse the dirtttion o( power or current
°"" .md rcla) ""' <>f"'"le only Ir the dttt<tlon or power now Is ln on• partlcul.ar
dir<'<hOO with rnp«i to the point wherr reLly b ln$1'1lled.
The ch;tracterishcs o( a
---
direction.JI element IS a ttlted
straight line passing through
origin, which can be shown in
R·X dLlgnm as represented in
the Ag 4 ~ The dott<d line
..
'°"I""
, .
''" ll)f'I lndlc•te> the hn<! or mnximum
torque \Vhli.. the <lott<od poruon
shown abo\·l' the line lndiGlta
--Nan
the openng region of the
directiOl\ill element.
Now such a pure d1rl"CtionaJ
clement IS added to thto
hnpedanoo rel•)· we g<1 tlw
l\'!iultAnt ch.>r.><:t<ristlc. wl\Jch Is
• romb1nabOl'I or a •tr•lght hne
Fig. 4.4 DlrKllonat ch1racttri1tlcs and • clttk ol radius I Z I Thus
the resuf~nt ch.lr\\C'tc.nsio
ol>t.iln•-.J b) •Upenmposlng the straight hnr characteristic-. ol chrecbonal elC10C'1t on
th•• tlrcle ol the 1mpedonoo relay ii ohown m the Flg. 4.5. ll>e ttlo.y tnps for the points
"hich arc within tho,o cu·clc ond •tio.•
thto dircctionnl ch.uxtenstJCS. 111c op<'<Attng
n'g11>n l'I ju>t • s<micird<. 111e shadt'd portion ohown in the Fig. ~.5 is J posltln•
torque r.-gion i e. the operating region of thr relay.
Modified Ch.irKltrislics : fly su·pp!ying addltionol volt•&" IO the voltage coils of
an lmp<'d.,ncc rel.lv. the torque cqu•hon ol thr relay can be modJfi<d The addltioNI
•olt.1gc ;upplled I> proportional to the 1.,,., current ond IJ ailed current bi•> Thl'
""1<hf1Lod tnrc1uc "'!""~ I•,
""*<:tlon and Swltch!IN' 4.7
•X
-
t..wol
Fig. 4.5 Olrectlonal Impedance .. 11y eharactaristlca
T ~ K1 11 - K2 (V ... K, 1)1
(V + K, I) • voltage supplied 10 voltage coil

0.... to this add1110NI curren1 blos, the drde rqi.--nung lm~
~t>C'l('t\stlcs on R·X dlopm ahi!IS The radius or drde mNllRS $.lmC •• v /I bul ilS
M\ltt gets shifted horn ongln. Thlt is 6hown in the ~ig 4 6. By con1rolllng cumn1
buis, shl!i or the drde can be adjusted as per the requlremmt. (See Fig. 4.6 on ,_,
~)
4.2..6 U1e of Impedance Relay for Tran1mls1lon Une Protection

Ll't us see how "" impedance relay can be used for lhe transmission luw
proltttion. The sche....,.. is called distance protection !or the tnnsmlsslon line. The
...... ~ coil or the reby IS r..l from P.T. while ilS rumnt roil is fed from C.T...
si-,, in the Fig. 4.7.
Prot.oC'tlon and Swltchgtlr ••• Olatlnet Proc.cdon
•X
I
,•'
,.· •
,• ' '
,,,
'
'
0:
•
Fig. •.a Modllltd dlNctlonal lmptdanco relay ehancttfittlca
~.---------•r.--------x :•
c~._,-~~·---~~~~C~T~~..,.. ~~· ~-j~
PT F~F ... F1
v, II v,
..... ---- -- -- -.
~----'
...............
,
- -- To llip ,
I pa..- cWwk j
• - :D '
c: '
~""' 4-.t-+-'
Fig. 4.7 UM of lmptdanct Nlay

,_, Olttanc• P.-
Ip • Urie current when f•ult occurs at point X

Vr • Supply volt~ when fault occurs at point X
Ip • Current supplwd to current coil when f•ult occurs
v, • Volt•ge 1upplled IO •·ol111gc coil when foult otcurs
v • Normol •uwlv •'OlUg~
I • Normnl 111'14' cumont
Z.. = f= impe<Wxr of healthy section
Z, • ~: • impe<Wxr when foult occurs

The relay Is conn«tcd at point A The C.ult occurs a1 point X. The voltage rod of
rel&y nettlves voltage v, and current <'Oil ._.ves current 1,. when fault oa:un. The
5l?lbng ot the relay is sel«ted, such that 11 protrcts the iransmbslon h"'' upto potnt a
Thus for any fault between A·B simiLlr to lh.:it shown at point X. the Impedance under
f.tull rondition will be less than the predelmnincd value of tmp<odan.ce Zt. and tho
rrl&) w(ll opcr31e
_..,.
...........
Fl!J. 4..1
Protectlon •nd Switd>gear '· 10
If th• unpedantt "'"'> U><d 16 nondir«tlonal. h cnn protect the lint: from faults tor
•II fot~t positions .....1h111 the section AC too. So nondu«tionAI relay provtd.s
rrvte.:tion on either Side of the point "1tert relay is located. But ti the portion of line
All only is to be protected, then the ~1 impedance reby can be used. As
d1rt'<non.ll unit ~rmits ttippin11 only In one dlnc:tion, the S<di<>n AB will be pmte<Wd
but rel.1y will not operate for any fault pooitJons between K•cbon AC.
Wh~ther th" relay Ii dlrectlonal ee nondirectionol, ii •ts wnng is surh that for
impedance less thlln Z1 defined uplo point B, the rclny should opente then for any
fault positions to the nght of point 8 liu point Y the relay will not operate.
The choroe1enshc5 o( the dlrcctlOnAI ditCARCe scheme du.u...d above an be
'"°''n un R·X d"'IV""' II is •hown In the Ag. 4.8 (See Ag on previous pege), The
, "''""" ...,.11011• ofwline are rcpttsen~ by suolghl Un,,. on the R·X dl.1grnm
F<1r fault ot X. Z. c z,
hence point X 15 "' the operating reg><>n and relay will tnp.
So for any fault pos<tion along llne AB. relay will trip as the mtire section AB is in
the protected zoee, For fault al Y, it c:an be seen that the impedance Z, > Z,. haler
point lies outside the circle hence in the rwgiitive torque ttgion and relay remams
ioopcr.:ativc.
•.3 Reactance Relay

11l thl'I! "''"Y the uprr,\llng l'orqut b obtalnt.-d by C'•Jm_""t wht.lc tile n:...,•rhini:ng
torque due to a currenl·\oltogc dlrect>oNI relly. The ovcrcurrmt dement develops lhr
pt>slli'e torque .ind duert1onal unit prod.ucrs negative torque.
Thus the reactanc'e relay is an overrunmt relay with the directional restraint.
The drrectienal element is so designed INt !he maximum torque angle is 9(1°.
4.3.1 Construction
-
---i .... 1
-P.......,. ...
-
ft
r
2
/
' ' '
\. )
v v
' •
.
I
, v
Fig. '-' Sch•m•tlc •rnngen>en1 of re•cblnce ret.iry
l'Totectlon ond Switchgear Dlstonc• Protectlofl
The atructun: used lur th'-! rcact.11ice N'la)' an bu of inJuctaon nip type Ii '" ,, IUtJr
pole structure. It ha~ operalJng coll, pol.m.tlng coil and • re5ln11nmg coil The
schem.11ic arrangement ol coils for the """"1nce relay is sho"' n ui the Fig. 4.9.
The current I flows from pole I, through iron core stackmg :o lower pcle J. The
•vmd•ni; on pole ~ is feJ from \'Oltage V The <>J)<•r•ting lto<que is produced by
mterecricn of flu>..es due to tl'c windi1lgs <aJT}ing current coils 1 e 1ntcrM:t101' o( OL1'~
produced by poles I, 2 •nd 3. \Vhile the re<lr.1lnlng h1rque is developed duo m
1nte'"clton or fluxes due to the polC'$ I, 3 and 4. Hcnct the operJtlng torque 1>
proJ><Jrlional IO the "'luare of the cu"""I (l') while th. O!Straining torqu~ ,.
proportional IO the product of V and I (VO The desired 11\JJUmum torque ani1tt b
obi.med wllh the hdp of RC drcuil, <!10Wn m the Fig. 4.9.
4.3.2 Torque Equation

ll1e driving torque IS proportional IO the square of the current while the
restraining torque i.s proportional to the product o( V and I.
Hence the net torque negtccrtng the elf<oct of spring Is given b}.
T • K1 Jl - K2 V I ros (I)-<)
At tt1c baldrW.-.• ptMnt rwt torque i~ zero ..
0 • K111-K1Vl...,.(l)-t)
K2 VI cos(O-•J
.• K2 T
v cos (6-t)
K1 - K1 Z cos (0 - •I
Adding c.,poator, the torque nngle 1> .td1U$1"'1 •s 90°,
K, • K, z cos (0 - Cj()')
K, • K2 Z sin 0
K1
ZslnO •
i<,
Coc!!!d<r an ·~ trfonglc >hown
iJ\ 1hc Fig. 4.10.
z sin e t=' x ~ reactance
Z «IS u • R • rcslstantt
x • ~~ • consunt ~
Fig. •.10
Olai.nce "-Von
Thu> lhc tt-l1y t'f)tratn 011 the ttM'tl~ onl)'· Tl'lc <"ln5tant X me.ins • •tr1iKht Jine:
por•lk'I to )(.,..d$ on R·X dlagrom. Foe the operorion ol tlw rtl~y. the tti>t11>- ""'" by
the relay should~ smaller than tM ~ for which the relay is designtd.
4.3.3 Operating Characteristics
---
Jhe oper.>llng ch.n.1eteristlcs
-
•X
of $\id\ t\'lay Is • straight line ~
•·••15
p;ua!Jel to the
oo R-X diagram. All
i.e R-•xis
the I
---
impedance vectors have their
hps lying on the Slr.>lght line
z/ ZM'8•X•-
K,
n..-p~nttnK const.,nt reactanee.

1l>ot r<':llJt•nc\' et•mponcnt nl the -II
I 1• K,
•A
imptoJ.im-.· ""' no ell•-<• r>n the
•'Pffl'IJOn nl the refoy. It
l'l'>ponds only to the reactance -X
romponent of the impedance.
The charactenstics is shown in
the Fis. 4.11.
~ reby wJJ Of"'r•tc for •II the Impedances whose heads he b..low the <>perlting
<Nr3Cteristi<l', whether below or •l>ove in. R...axis.
4.3.4 Disadvantages
•
Thi' t'\'lay n .-.>n be seen lrom the characteristic:$ is • nonclirecnonal rel•y. Tilis
will not be .1blt d1>C1minate whon uwd on transmission lnw, whdher the fault has
Lll«'n pl.lee In the St'<tl()n where re!Ay ls loc.ltcd or It hat tiUn pl- in thfo adJOlnlnis
S«tton It ,. not possible tu uw a dln!C'lional nlliy ol the l)pt' us.'d with b<lsk
impe<bnc\' re!Ay because in that u... the reLly will operate ~.., under nonnal load
rorul1bons if ~ system Is operating at 0< near unity p.f. conditions. Tbe reactance
relay with directional feature is called mho relay or admittance relay.
4.4 Mho R.elay or Admittance Relay

b1 th<' imped•<><• rtl.ty • toeparate unit is required to nub 1t d1r«lional wh1l~ the
"'1M<' unit Clln not be used tu make • rtldance relay with directional le•ture. 1he mho
reldy I> made inherently directional by adding • voltage winding all«! polarl.zJng
wtndmg This relay works on the measurement of odmiti.nce Y ~ 9. This relay is oi.o
c•ll~ angle impecl•nce relay.
~and Swltc"OUt
4.4.1 Construction
This relay al.so .- an Induction <up ty'f"' sllUcture. It alto has an operallng coll.
polArwng roll and rtstrainlng coll. n.. ~•Ile orrongcmmt of all the co.is is
•hown in the Fig. 4.12.
I
....
Opor.ang ----
2 •
,_
R......._coll
In thU relAy the operating torque ~ obtained by V and I ekmcnt wlll~ the
restraining torque IJ obt•incd by • \•oltagt <'il.,,,.nt 111111 on admittance relAy 1$ •
voltap !'\'Strained dl.re(llcmal relay.
Th<' C>p<'1'•tlng torque Is produced by lnt<roctlon ol the flu>t.'9 due to the
1t..,
wind111g:s carried by the pole! 1, 2 and 3. Wlult tht restraining torque is prod\Xl'd by
the intuaction of the fluxes due to the wmding:s carried by the poles I, 3 and 4.
Thus the restraining torque is proportional to the square of the ~tage (V2} while
the operab.ng torque is proportioMI to the product of vottoge •nd current (VJ). Tho
IO<'f\'<' angle is adjusted using senes tuning circuit.
4.4.2 Torqu• Equation

Tlw operating lol'qut is proportional to VI while restraining IOOjUC is proportion.ti
to \f1 Hence net torque Is givt'n by,
T • K1 V I"°' (0-t) - K, vi : K,
K1 • control spri113 df«I
P<ollcllon end 8wltd19ffr 4·14 Dl.atanc. P1a•cdon
Generally control spring ell«! Is,..~ (K1 • 0).

And al bolAnc:e net torque Is also zero.
0 • K1Vl<011(8-t)-K,Vl
K1 VI cos (9-t) • K2 \fl
vi
K1 CC>8 (0 - t) • K2 VT
K1 <OS (0-t) •
K
z ; - 1 cos {8-t)
Ki
This Is the equation of a circle having diameter K,!K1 pas&ng through ongL"'- And
tlus constant K,IK: .. th<' ohmk 9ettlng oi this relay.
4.4.3 Operating Cherecterlttles

As seen from the torque equation. the characteristics or this relay is • dU
possil>g through origin with diameter as K,Jx,.
Let ~: • z. •ohmic setting of relay• ~tcr

The drcle Is shown In the Fig. 6.13.
•
',
-. ''
''
' ',
''
' ' ', e '
Flil. 4.13 Operet1119 cti.nct.t111lc1 of mho relay

Pr-.:tlon and Swftchgu< '· 15
The rel•y opereres when the lmpo!donot _,, by the rela)' falls within lhi• circle
Considtt two lines AB and AC with mho !'day located a1 the pomt A. The may will
optnlt for the faults <>tturring an the S«bon AB only ond not for the foults oo:urri11g
an tlw tectlon AC Thlt &hows that tlus rtl•) as Inherently dln.'<'tlonal without any
.-ld1tional dlrl'ctlon•1 unit required.
The anglt ' can ~ adjust•'CI to ~ 45", 60', 75• •nd so on. Thlt •nglc It ma•lrnum
tOrqu<' •ngle. The setting of 0' Is u~ for high volt-g~ (33 or 11 kV) d15tribudon
Imes, the setting of 60' 15 used for 66 or 132 kV lines whJlc the setting of 75• ls used
for 27S and 400 kV lines.
'• E.umple 4.1 : On• R-X di4gram slwM a line haoing an i"'P''llil11c. of 3 + j 4 n On
IM "'"" dillgr•m Jh<1fo tire optrating ~ of,
I /1nprdanc. rellly
2. RLat'tnnc. rrlay
J Mho relay
A>s"•mr lhllt tlttst 11'/ays arr adjusttd to Jwsl opa•tc for • :<'TO imptd.1nc. slll>rl am.ti
Id tilt rnd of tht lint wion.
If •11 ardns short circuit fault lunnng .,, ar rmptdnnc. of I + ,0 0 ""'"' •nywlttrc on
llv lmr, firtd for nirlt l!IJI'' of dut•nct rtt.y, tilt max1m11m portion of tltt lmr ""'' an
bt protr<trd.
SoMl<i<I : The lint' OA IS th~ imP<'Cl•n«' \"<CIOr with Imped~ 3 • I~0
08. 3
BA= 4
The drde with 0 as a c;:ntre and OA ~ radius represents tlw chara<terlsllcs ol an
im~relay.
The llne parallel to the ,..,.lstance axis at a distance ol 4, pa.<;.>ing through poin1 A.
corrtSpOndlng to reactance of the tmpedaree g;vrn, represents the charactenstic:s ol a
reaaanc:e relay.
Draw the circle with OA as the diamder, passing through 0 and A repments
chor-mtics ol mho rel•y.
The ch.traclerlslltf are shown ln IN Fig 4 14 ~ on next pa),'e)
The imped•ncc of arcing lauh ls l + j O. as ~resented by 00.
The line por•llet to tlw: OA ls drawn from poin1 0, cu1tlng the mho drcle at po1n1
F and cutting the Impedance circle at pont E.
Dnw line FN parallel to R·aJCls to cut OA al N and draw EM parallel to R·aw IO
cut OA at M.
Then the ratio ON/OA n.'Prt'$Cnl> the lltt prot..:11'<1 by mho rel•)'·
Protection and Swl~hgMt Olatance Prot«tlon
•X
Sca1e: 1. 1 V\tl
-R
Characielistics ol
an impedanot t*1
-x
Fig. 4.14
ON• 100 • % of line p~ by mho "''"Y

OA
• 80%
While th~ ratio OM/OA rep,_.,b the line protected by Impedance relay.
OM
OA• 100 • 'Iii of line p~ by Impedance relay
4 .25 100
• -s-•
• 85%
Now reac:tance relay is unoffec~ by IM pracnee ol the arr resistance .tnd hencT
even with the arc present the % of lint prollOdtd by the .-nee rtlay la IOO"ll..
P.- 1nd Swttchgeot • • 11 Distance PrC>lKtlon
4.5 Cla11lflcatlon of Distance Relays

\II• have_, that the distonCt' rebly bu.ally m•asuros ohmic \ahJ<S and operate<
when lhe impedan<:• Is below the p~ \'.alue. Thi? distance relays are cblssifled as.
1. Ot!finit• dbllln<e rrl1ya : ~ aan be of lmpedanc. typo!. reactan<e typt' or
mho IYl"' This Op<.>ratcs i~W>Wl«)uSly for th• faults upto tt'rtain
predetcnnlned dlsioncc from the ttbly.
2. Oi<t•nce time ~Joy.: These can be •lso of impedance type, eeaeeaoee type or
mho type. In th<se relays the lim<! ol cpeeation is proporuonal to the distance
ol lhe fault from the point where rel.&y is installed. Tiit fault nearer to the
relay operaees it faster than for lhe f•ults further away from the relay
IA"I us d...:uss thr COMtru~ti<>n and Of)<'r•hon of lhcs1• two typ<ll of di8t.lnee "''"Y"-
4.5.1 Oeflnlto Ol1tanc:e Type lmpe<lanc.e Relay
Thi? COl\$rructlonof this rvloy can be bol.tnced beam type O< lnduct10n do..: type.
n.., b.>Janced beam type constructlon of defini"' distance impedance relay is 5hown in
the Fig. 4.15.
:::= To tllP CllM
- - -
•I I
•
~-'
PT Y
• •1
Fig . .C.15 Oeflnite distance type !mp1dinc41 relay

It consbb of • bala~ beam pivoted •t the central point C. "the beam carrie!t the
amuturn ol the two rlectromogn•ts. ~ two electrom~gnets are energlud by a
rurm>t from C.T. and voltoge from PT., whlch are located 1n the circuit to br
p....-..d ll1'! voltage roil act• .. ....,training coll while tht current roil llCI$ as
~•ting coil. ~ be..m •lllO carries the moving contacts which can bridge tho two
fixed ronttcts of a trip o'n:uit when the reby ~tes.
Opft1illon : The torque produced by volt.1ge coU la propo<tlonal to squa"' ol the
voltage (K1 V') whO• the torque prodU«d by current coll is propot'llONI to the oqua"'
of tho aim.'llt (K2 12). Undor n<>rmal openring condition$, the torque produttd by
~on ond Swltct>v-.,
volc.gc coll os more th.In the torque prod-.! by the current cull !'hut ttStr.il.nll\g
torqu.> " more than the opernting torque and hence the relay is ~r•ti"•· On the
occurrence or any fault, the votrage ol 1)'5tml decreases and cumnt increases. Thus
the r1110 V /I which u impedance aJoo decttasa. It (aUs below its preset vat .... Tlw
torque prudua.'<1 by current coil bttom<S gttatcr than the torque producod by w
\olto&"" roil. Hontt beam exp~rii!n<ln1 pu.11 on the current roil Side. As tN- bnm lilts,
tht moving cuntacts or beam bridges the 6xed conmces of the mp orculL Thia
operates the trip cirruit and opens the nrcuit bre1ker.
Torque Equation : The torque by ,•olta.geroil is proportional to V' while lhat by
current coil is r.
The rel•y w.11 O!"""•«< when torque produced by volt11ge coil i• less than that
proJu«'d by cum.oil coll. So we can wn~
K1 V' < Kl 12 ••• relay Of)"••tcs
K1, K1 • constants
v• ~
J' < K,
-~ < ~
z < ~
So (or impe<W>ce value less than .JK,fK1 , the relay Of'<"•les

°"' coru.t.mts K1 and K, are d•pendmt on the •mpc'rc tunu of the two
el0<tromagnet1 B)• providing
i.ppmgs 011 the cods. K1 and K, can
be ch.•ngfd and hence ony preset
vJlue for the impedance can be
.>dtusted as per the requirement.
Chancterutia : The Fig. 4.16
show<J the charoctcristics of the'
I
dofinltt distance type Impedance
relay ~ Y-axis teprtli<lnts time for
"I"""''°" while the X·axls represents
8 s
d.. ro~ which is measured lnterm5 A
ol impc'dance between fault position Diltara --
and the point whero n?lay ls Fig. 4,18 CharKlerlallee of deflnlt. di.tMIC<t
•n>Ylled l~rwl1y
ProtKtion and Swttc"9Hr 4·11 Dlstanc. Pr..udlotl
For the entire '"1\g1h AD or the lirw, the time ol ~•tion ronu11ns COl\6~n1,
ll"re'p«ti•e o( d~. But IC Inuit o«utS In the teetion of line which is not protected,
the opttatlng time b«orn .. suddenly Ullirute as shown In the Fig. 4.16. Towards end
of the protec1ed ZOl>I', the curve rises gtadually.
1'3 lOdv•ntn~ ....,,
I. Superior to the tlme graded over CU""'1t ft'l•y
2. Numbf-r o( fttders In serles whidl con be protected is unlimited as the n•lay
time is constant.
The one limihltion o( these relays is the a~ of back up protrction.
4.5.2 Distance Tun. lmped1nce Relay

This rol•y adjusts •ulomatic•lly, Its tune or oper•lioo conuponding to the
d..unce oJ the l1ult from the relay.
Oper•ttng t!IN! « Z "' distance
The Fig. 4.17 shew.'$ lhe schematic arrangement o( dtstence time hnpedance ..,lay.
_J
.n
I
. ..__ __
.......,,
,_I v
Pl
I
--
-
,
I
~
--
cu}
- /.
........
.,.,..,...,. ---
-
CT
rt
'-1 ..tt • r
--T
- y -- ---....
Fig. 4.17 Dlttanc. time ...,pedance relay

Pr~etlon and Swltdlilfft
It ro11si>IS o( an induction type Ott< C\ltrent rcloy urut wluch I• a current dtivm
element. ~ spindle which Is carrying the disc or the ~ltment Is connected to a
second spindle with the help of spiral spring coupling. This second spindle aeries
moving contacts whldl is nothing but a bridging piece whtd> can bridge the tnp
contacts "'hen ttlay operates. The trip C'Ol\tadS arc normally open and spindle is held
in thi$ pogltion by an armature ~ apwt the pole face o( on eltttrom•gMt. This
.,1c"lromagnet is .......gized by the volllllS" of the circuit to be pn>t«ted.
Oper•tlon : Under normal ronchtlons, the force t:Xeru!d by voltage restraining
m•gnet is more than that produced by an O\"ttCUrrent induction dement. Thus the trip
oont.,cts remain open and the relay is inoperative.
When the fault occurs, the lndudion diK sllllrts rotating. t1ie speed of the ditc: "
proporrlon.ll 10 the operating curm>1. iwglecting the sprmg ~feet. Hence the time
which the disc requ1"'" to tum 11\rough the given angle varin invUS<!ly with curttnl
As the disc mates. spiral $prlng is wound. This exer15 a fO<tt on armature so as to
puU it away from the voltage restnined magnet. The dioc: CDl\tinues to rotate lill the
le'\Sion of the spring is sufficient to oven:ome the restnining force produced by
voltage restraining magnet on the annature. lmmediatcly the moving contacts bridS"
the fixed contK1s ol tripping drcuit. This opnis tho cin:uit bttakn to i10late the faulty
11«1i11n.
The angle 1hmuJlll whlrh the dltc: m..., route to clc8e the tnp contacta d•pmd• on
th<: pull «'<!u•rtd by armature wtud\ is retr&ined by voltaS" ralT•ining magnet. This
puU is thus proportioNI to the voltage ol system. Grealer this pull. greater will be
travel o( the dJSC So travel for the disc is proportional to the voltage V. But the time
which disc takes to rotate through certain required angle ''alies inversely with rurrent
(I/I). Thus effe<:ti,·ely.
Time o4 ope:ration o( r•lay « T" Z " dl&tonce
In nctu•I pr~ the pull on

arm.1twe is pfO!'Ol'liOnal to the V'
while the torqu<' on disc 11
proportional to the 11• Hence the r...
rune d•st•n« dwr.c:terislks of this
relay Is nonlinear in nature, u
I ·-- .......... . ...
shown in the Fig. t.18. The exact
curve is shown dotted while the ..-ic- - .
Minimum
assumed line is shown thick. The _.,ing-
rnlnlmum operating time for IM
relay ls gentrally 0.2 S«Ol'lds. ~
(1-J
Fig. ,,11 Tl..,..df•- chantclerl1tlcll ot
dl1tanc• tlnw lmpeden"" reley
Pro41tction and Swftdlll""' 4. 21 Dlatanc• Prcx.ctlon
4.5.3 Appllc1tlon1 and Adv1nt1ges of Distance Relaya

ll>e various advantages of the dlslance reb\'S are.
I. Gives faster opention
2 S.mpl<r lo co-ordln•t•
' Lot clfl'C'I of foull l<v•I• •nd f•ult rul'\""1\1 n•ognilud<'1
-l l'•rrnlls high 1111<' h»dlng,
5 With the need al readjustments, f>"'T'il""'\I settings can be done.
Thus the distance relays are used for pro•idlng the primary i.e. main protectioa
and l>Kkup protection for e,c, transmission and distribution lines against the lon-ing
favlts.
I Three phase fouli.
2. l'hali<' lo J'hasc foull'
3. Phase 10 ••rth faults.
4.6 Frequency Relay

fht' lr<'qurnry of th• lndueed e.m f d rel.lttd to lh<' ~1"""1 of 11\t •)'ndvtinou..
~t°"' hy the n•latlon,
f • N, r
120
f ~ frequency
N, • S)'t'chronow; sJ"!"(I ol generator
I' • number uf pok>
If the load l• reduced, the speed of the synchronous g<'ne<ator incrt'ases .tnd
fff'C!U<"CY increases. \\.'hile if load incttaSOS. lhe speed dccre•ses and the fttqu<ncy
dtttta!es. Hence frequmcy relays are required if frequency changes from its nomuJ
v.tlue and are used in the generator prorection and for load frequency control.
The frequency relay~ ci\n be t'IL"Ct.rom..lgneticor alntic relays T'hc3e can be undtt
frtqu<ncy or over f,..,qucncy relays.
COll>tnw:Honally It coostsl>! of iwo pairs ol rotli and o cup I)'!"! rotor ;u shown in
tho Ag 4 19.
Prolectlon ind Swftct>gear Olttanc. PtOCectlon
Fi9. 4.19
II uses a Ferraris measuring S)'Slem. 'The frequency relays are connttted w the
seconcbry of voltage transformer, 'The two pairs of coils are connected in parallel lo
!hr supply voltag• rhrough the impt'<Ltnca.
Now lmpt'da"""' ere functions of frcqueYy At normal freq~ tbe impod.&n«oi
are tuned b•l•ncinK 1·.wh oth<or. 1'hll! no eorque i.t ciperlcn«d by the rup 1)1>(' roto< •t
nonNI rMt'd ll'l'qUCllC)'
U f...quency nwreaees th<'" there " Ullblllance in rl>e lmptditn«'Oi and torque.- .ay
dockwise In nature Is exerted on the nxcw. Tha operates th<? relay if lrtqueney
incrHSeS beyond Ille setnng. This is 0>-er lrequmcy relay.
U frequency decreases then again ~ IS unbalance m the impedances. Bui now
lrJtque exerted on the rotor I; antldocl<wise. This operates ~ relay if f"'!umcy
cl<ctt;t5CS beyond th<! ..,!ting. This is undtt frcquency relay.
By varying the po>ition or sliding resi.<ror the frequency setting can be adpJsr.,.i.
'The pickup sensitivity can be controlled by adjusting the restraining spring.
Review Questions
1 LJpllliit fgJl1i1 -~ .,,, '"'P'Jiltta ttWy it --' fer dU14ttCt ,,,-,;.,,. obt'lt' th ._.,,,.,.,.,,.,
tMt"11'tl•llif DTit:t' lb ,,,..mrutg r.-...rwl\1wto Oft «·X tlfl.~rwnt
1 St.tit tlk' JtWtw"l..1$H ft{ NJN- ·~ nfily
l (\pM111 ''JI' """"'""' ., d1rt'Ch0nill ' IQ ••t ,..,.v. Dr•w jff '"-""-frr#jtra °" lt·X ...,.,...,
H"Ut the~ "'6rMln1tl1t1 ron bt ~ ....,,,, to 11M1 cf mhtt May 1
4 Dr-tl'1 0114 txpl#1" tlv fitll ~ afpotft'twJ• tnMm1111Sion ''"" .,,,.,,.., M 1mptr/Jlncr rdq
~ r\fil.J1tt 1N OM:Nrtiiftot. u'OrJ.ins. ror.,w llf'M' ... ;aNI clttJr#(li'''"o l!f"""""""' flttil4tncr r.•IJVf
ti ~IMUrt/4y
W Ml» nVy
b F..tp"11n thr QlltftrwtO'I 1111t.d U'()rking cf.
tJ Orft'111t h..oUMO "". ll'lpt~ld1UY m.y
u) D1f.t4'llkY ,,_,, ••f"''4lnrt ri-l1ty
1. Stiftt •hf Mun~ ....S f21'Pli',arJottJ a( J,.NilM" ''~""
' A J,;,t l«fliM ltib 1n 1tytdo111r.· cf !.I • / 5 n S-. t}u1 on R·X d~ as 'lflq'f\'.f"t1tt• r:«llW IJ
llw rrlily II ~ to o,1i1ro1·1· jot 11 ~ '~ r.'eort tirtutt ~ tb\t t"44 tf tht ""4' 'll'thOn,
""""°" lltt -
,,,.,,.,_ .....
11-X 4_,,nim Iii<• <M""'"""' of,
l Rt.41-Jt« tl'Vw
J Ml» ..,i,-1
J\ssU.irte tltllr crntrt ef lithe ,,./dy dttmt....,tftiOLS /Jt'S e11 .111 trnpi!dtma :;w111f'. if tN ordt11t,f fatdr
Cl.'C.tfJ trirll n ~ of J _1) + jO Q ~ tidong tlw l1M, {1* 1W twit typ.- of diSllUtCt
may ,,,,. ~~portion of tilt''"~ tlwl ca lot- rro1«:ttd. t.Aas. : Sl%, 100% md 85%)
DDO
,, • 2')
5
Generator Protection
5.1 Introduction
Tbe generators used in the power S}-sttm arc the altenutors which prodoce \"')
higt. a.c voltages. The protection ol gmentors is very much complex due m the
rou....ing reasons.
I. The generators •re ver> large l'N<h1n<.'> producin)\ ··~ry h1gh \'Oltoge< .lnd •~
conn<.-ct«I to bu.'obors.
~ Various other equipments are •!ways •ssociat<'d with the generators. Such
equipments are prime movers. to<OLthon systems, voltage regulators, cooling
systems etc. Thus protection of gmt't'•lors must con_•ld.r the presence ol 0-
otlwr equlpnwni- alJO .
.l Tiw gcn<•r.\lC)n; t.al'C \1~ry OOStl)·* (').~\.'('
.t.nJ VC.•f")' 1mport~1,t fo.\C'tllt 1n A J)O"•rt
sy.tcm. TI>t' protection tch<me must be Mtch that II should not 1h\lt alt the
gmcr1lc)ra> .i> f11r a~ ~lble The ~hut ofl gt•iicrdtt113 rt-")11lt 1ri ,. f')"Vet
short'1ge.
AU these factors make the d<'Slgn o( protrction scheme for the generajee. •et)·
much complex.
fldnre 1Jt,ld)·tng tt\c v,irh,,ll\ prot«tion )('~ tor the S{'t\it:r-.1tor1~ 1(1 ~ d(!("U.»
'1"1.r\OU'.!!> tlults whicl1 ,-._,,\ OC'CUr aMOdoltNI 'A,th t~ gf'rwr.i'o~.
5.2 Generator Faults

The various fattlts which can occur HSOCbted with a generator can be classified ~
I Sbitor fault$ : ii... foults osoocUit<d with tho •talor of th• generator
2. Rotor foull!! 1'hc l•ults ..ssoc1•tt"J '""' the rotor of thr lll'""''"or.
l Abt,orrnnl nrnn1ng tt)nditior'- Thrs 11'ft;lud,-..it ''t1n,b4.•r <>I .1bnotrrn\l cond1boM
which may oox1ar 111 pr~ctlc.., from "'hkh the 11enerator mu>t be prot«ted
Ltt us discuss those foults on dl1ail
(5 • I)
5.2.1 Stetor Feults
The st.1tor foults mo~ns faults MSOO.ted with the three phase armature windings
ol the ~erator. Tbese f•ults ore mainly d~ IO the insulation failure of the •nnatUtt
-.~ndi.ng< The main types o( st•tor faults Ott,
I l'h.uc to t••rth fault'
?. l'hJS<' to phAse l•ults
.). Inter-tum faults uwol•'ing turns ol ....,.., phase winding.
The most important and common fauh ,. phase to earth fault. The other two are
not v-et}· common while inter-tum fault ts ""'el'Ydifficult to detect.
Sl.1.1 PlllH to Earth Faull$

Tht-<e foults momly occur in th< annalutt slots. The faults ire d•ngerous ind en
"°'uv W\-ef'(l damage+ to the c:>.pentive machine. Th~ fault cureeus lcn tha1\ 20 A ca\l.Je
negligible burning of cote if machin< is lri~ quickly. But if the fault cumnts Ott
high. severe burning of 5tator core can iaU place. This may lead to the requirement ol
~acing the la.mlnations which is vuy CQStly and time consuming. So to avoid the
d.uNp;e due to phase to e•rth faults. • oepar•te. tenSitive earth lault proted>on is
~ry for the gnwrAtonl .llongwlth th< e.rthing rc;l•tanc.'\'.
Ul..Z l'Mtt to Pl\au F1•

The phase to phase faults means short on:uit between two phise windings. Such
faults are unrommon because the in5ubtion used between th< coils of different pi-
"' a slat is large. But ooce phase to e.rth filult occurs, due to the over heating ph.ue
IO ~ fault also may occur. Thi• fowl is Ukcly to occur at the end ronnectlOllS of
the •nnature windings which are ovt'Yhnting parts outside the slots. Such a bull
ca....,. severe arcing with very high tcmpontumo. This may lcMl to melting ol ropper
~ fire ii the insulation is not fire resistant.
5.2.1.3S!Ator lnter·Tum Faults

1l>e coils used in the altematon are grnonlly multitum roils. So short circuit
betl<<'t'n the turns of one coil may OCC\lr whidl Is called an lnrer·tu.m fault. lbJS fwh
~due to rurrent turg•'S with high value ol (L dl/Jt) v.>1t11gc •c•OH the turm 8ut
1( ""' rod• used are •Ingle tum then thb fault can no1 occur, Hence for the large
INICh1nciol the order of 50 MVA ond mutt, It is • normal pnictlcc to use alngle rum
COlls But in llORW eountnes, multltum coals are very rommon.ly used where protecllon
~instmter-turn £au1ts is must.
ProteC11on and Swtlch~ar s.s
5.2.2 Rotor Faultll
Tbe rutor of an alt.>mator is generally > field wlndil1i; as rn()§I of the •lteni.itors
are of rotating field rvpe The field "uldini; is made "P of number of tu~ So th<!
<•:inductor to earth faults and short circu.t ~a.n the turns of the f101d winding. are
the <t'mn><M>I)' c«umng f•ults with n'>p«1 to ,, rutrlr. 'I hcee l•ult> •re <"llui.<'CI due 10
1he ~"'ere mC'ChllNa1 and thcrmnl stn..--ssa., M"11ng on II'<' field "tndang 1-nsul"t1on..
The field winding is s~ncr:dly not grounded •11d hence ~•ngk lone to ground fault
does noe give any fault current. A second fault 10 earth will short arcuit lhe part of
!he field winding and may there by product' an unsymmetrical fie!d system. Such an
UOS\-mmetrical system gives rise to the unbalanced forces on the rotoc and results in
e~ p1"'>ure on the i,.,arlng.• ,1nd the '<halt dlstortion, if such d fault is not clc~r.'d
\.t'lf) e.1rl\.1. So it h ''-''Y tl\u~h r'ece~~· to MMlw the (·~•~ttf'Ki..• '" tl\lC r.1-..t \'IC("ltr
n.1l(.,•
ol llw earth fault <;<) thllt correcuve me.. um can be lak1•n below «'<'•ln<l tault 1KTUl1'
1lw unb•la~ IOA1llng on th~ genentor 1s responsible to produce the n..g.>hH•
><!qlk'n<'e currents. Thew currents produce • roiating magn<nc field which rotat<5 in
opposii.. din.~ion to th>t of rotor magnetic field. Due to thi• field, there is induc.>d
e m f an lhe rotor wandmg. This causes O\'~lmg of the rotor.
Rotor earth fault ~'t(>ll"<'lh.1n itnd rotN tt.-mperaturc iJ'dic3ton arc the t-s.._~t:ial ar'd
art provid~'d to 1.irge r,111ng generatoNi.
5.2.3 Abnormal Running Conditions

In practice there are number of situ•bons m which g<mcrator is subjec11.'d10 """"
•bnormal running rondittons. The protecnon must be provtded again.st tllc aboomtal
rondihOM 111<"'1' obnorrnol condition.• uid1>cl~.
I O\'trloodlng
2 Ovmp..-..'<1111g
3. Unbalanced looding
4. 0--ervoltage
5. Failure of prime mover
6. 1"""' of e.i.citation (Field failure)
;, Cooling •ystem hlilurt>
5.2.3.1 Oltrto.dlng
Due to the rontinuoll.! overlooding, tilt' 0\-erl\ealing of the statoc results. This ml)'
it"'"'- tht winding temperature. I( this tempcroturc rtse "'<CCeds certain hm1~ the
inaul.itlon ol the winding mny i;ot ~magtd The dc11r<'I' of 1J\·moad1ng dcdd.,. the
""''"' •nd tempcrotul't' ,;...,, The ovett'UrRnl proteelloii " grMr•ll) "'' to "'""' hcgh
O.nw1tor Protectlof1
'.1t\1C hence C{)f\t1nuc.iutt overloads ol lt.""Wo \ alue thor\ lhl' M.'1tlng c.an.nnt be ..,...n~oJ by
O\Cn:urn:!nt prOtectlOn
5.2.l.2 CMrspeedlng
In C.L'C of h\-dr.ulic generators a suddm la.. of load resules in ovcrs~'Cding of
rlw gencr.otor. 1his " because the water flow IQ the turbi"" cannot be slt>pped or
eedueed lnst<mlly. C.-.lt'roUy • turi)ogo\'ttnOI' IS provided to pre.mt the ovespeedtng,
llut if thett is Any fault In the turbiM SO\'ftnO< then the dangerous O\'Crs~ing may
Lt~e plaee. H('ntt 11 " necessnry to SUJl<'l"'iR the workl11g ol wri>me governor and
••k• some corrective measures if there is 50IM f•ult in the governor
5.2.3.3 Unbll1nced loldinsl

rho 11nb.1i•r>«<l looding ur th• generator rt'•ult& in IN amii..11011 of "''g.ltive
St'lm'nn• turrcnb °"'""'
c\lrr<'lllli prodece thto rot•ting m.tgnetic h<'ld. 111is rot•ling
milgru'tic field robtes at the synchronous speed with respect tu rotor. The di"-"Ction of
rotation of this magnetic Beld is opposite !O that of rotor. H~ effeclively tile relative
speed between the two is double the •)'-nduonous speed,
Thus the e.m ( i;<1• induced, having double the norntal fttqu.."'flC)'.In the rotor
\\o1nJing 111~ ,,,_"Ul•tang currents due to the induced e.m.I, ·~ 11'>p<"'>lble to m·~rlwil
th~ wtt>r winding •• w1~I os rotor ll•mping:o. ConUnuous unb.t!Anced luod more than
JO''• of th~ rat«! lood c•uscs tn-1nendous hto>ting which b dorn1n•nt inc•s.. of
C\lt1tdr1.:.•I rotor of trubo.lltt'mators..
The reasons for the unbalanced load condilions are,
I Occurrence of unsymmetrical faults near the generating station.
2 Ihe r•ilure of rut'Uil breaker near the gfnerotlng 5t,1tion in dc!>ring ,tll th<: tlm'\!
p..,.,'W)
Ncganvc S<'<)Ucn<e prottttlon la lmporunt to prevent dangerous sltuotlon• due 10
rwi;•li\'e SE")Uen« CUM'<'flts which ore bea- of unbalanced 11*1 conditions.
5.2.l.4 c>ttrvoltagt
TI1c oveevoltages •~ basicall)• due IO the overspeedlng ol ga>l!rilors. /\nothu
re•>0n tor the o\ Cf' olt.tgcs i• the foulty opttotion of voltage ttgubtors. Not onl)' tlw
1ntc·nl.•I overvouages .t.f\' d~1t\gt~rou.s but atrnospht:rlc surge v-olts.ges can also reach to
the generarcrs. 5"ch atmospheric surge voltages arc gt~Wd by dirt'('! lighting
strokes to the aeriAI b.ne5 of high voltilge systm>. Inductively and capacitively. these
surges can get tran5fcrred to the genentor. To protect the ga.mitors from su~
vouages, the surge arratt>rs and surge capacitors ere often used
At the ti""' of tt<tnk1ng .icr():;IJ the cont>CU of circuit brealcen. the tran,1cnt O\'tr
'""•'S'"' get gc•,.,r.tl'uch »urg<'lt are ailed 1wl11·hing >Ufgt'> .ind c.>n be limltc'Ci by
ti... ..- of modem circuit breakers R.C wrge supprr~sors abo help in ~uetng
SWttdung surges. Anotll<'r situation, whm tht- uansient overvolteges are gerw.ontl"d, b
...twn !ht' arcs are groundl'rt' thnn the normal line tC\ R<'UlrJI p<••k •mplltudt- •rw
gmcr.it<.'d Such tr~n>l!'nt volrages •re d.ang•rou.• uud c.111 bt• reduced b)• U<lf111
r<St>Lln<• c•rthlng.
5.U.$ Flikn of Prime Mo¥8f

lhe failure of prime mover results in motoring cperatioo or synchron<-us
gcnuator. The generator draws active power from the network and continues to run
•• synduonous speed as • synchronous motor This may te•d to dangerous meclwuc;ol
oondibOnS if allowed to per.;ist for more th.in twenty ~c'«>nds. The serious ov<'Tllc•nns
o( tlw \l<'UI\ turblr1<· bl>dell may result. To pm.erit this the rrve™' power protfCtt<ln
ocho"'od by d1rectlon.'1 power relays is used,
5.2.l.6 Loss of Exc!tatlon

lhe lo.s of r•C'itatta>n or reduced excibtion Is possible doe to the field ratlure •~
"f""'•ng o( llcld winding or due to sho<t circuit in field or due t<> some f•ult 1n
t.."'\t)tl'f >f'l,•m.
Such loot n( ('Xtlt.Jtion n·~ultl> In ~ ol •>""hronl•m wlthln ~ :l«OM and tho
e>ll>t'S th<> lncre"-"" in spe«t of th~ gm••r.tor Stnt-e power Input to the m.>d>IM
remains some, the generator starts wonang as an Induction generator, draWlng !ht>
reeceve power from the bus. The machinr start< drawing an exciting current from the
S}~ which is equal to the luU load r•trt.ltor winding •nd the rotor body due to induced currents The 1005 of e."'l:.tbOO
mJy •l<o lead to the pole •lipping condition whocll results in the voltage 11.'ductinn for
the ootput ebovc half riv: rated load
Loss o( excitation should not pecs&St for long and corrective measures like
dtsronnection of alternator should be taken immediately. For U.is a tripping scheme
can be used which can trip the generator cirru11 breaker Immediately when t~ is a
Mid failure.
S.ll7 Coollng Sylttm Failure

n...
l•llure of roc1llng 5ysttm •l.o e&U>CS severe ovorh"'ting to tlM' the
k'mpttoture above safe limit. This may le.Ml to ln.ulotion f•llure, causing sonw other
bulb to occur. The th<rmcxouples or ~ thermometers arc used an brge
m.adlints to sense the temperature. The coutthve measures an.- taken w~er !ht>
tt"mptt•lllre exct!ed• the limit
Af'lrt from the o\xwe dominant ~bnonnal rondlllw». wine <011<htl11n> ""'' ~
whk"'h are TJl"C 111 J-iractice. Stich cond1ll0nft are, Wn)1tg ~)'-nfhronl,at1on. w...i
Protection 1nd Swildlg.ar 5.9 O.ntrolorP~
"'"'h"'''"'ll· le•lui&' 1n hydroge11 c1rcw1. moutuni in the ll"""'"tOr wll'ldlng, oxygl'fl in

P''"' water clreun, vibrations, bearing CW'ttrlts. excessive beanng temperature ere,
5.3 Basic Differentlal Protection Scheme for Generators
A b,t>i< dilferen~I protection ~ used for the gener-.tors is •hown in lhe
Fi~ 5 l h is known th.ii the dlff•renMI l'l'J.y opcrotes whm ~ phosor diflorefla ol
'"'" or more a:isrular d«tt·tc:-al qu~tltities e&eeeds a prcdctenTU.f\ied value,
0.-MCW
C T. ~ CT
.......
•
~ -- -
fig. 5.1
.
Supp<,.... the (\11Tt•111 l nows lhtougll the prlmnr)' of CT, I» llw cxtcrnol faull If
tht• t\vt> CT' bave ...,_"'-"' ro1tl,,, them no CUrft.'1\t will 041w throutth the r('1A)' 11 ' ""1
rt"m.1in> ll'IOp<>ratiH•
But now if .. n internal fault OCt'\JJ'S at point X as shown in !M Fig. 5.2. the current
nows through !he fault from both tlw si<la. The primary currents are 1, and 1, wtw..
the secondary currents an> i1 and >i· So tht cucrent flowing through the relay will be
11 -+ 1z E1. en some <WTt->nl nowing out ol one mde while a Large current mte:ring th~
other •uie will c• ...., 1he di(foronli•I current Such A current b r<Sporu1iblc to op..>t~tc
I)\"-• ,,.JI').'
1,
-u IX
,/
u
- ••
F-
1, -- --.
'
.
• --
1,
• - - -· 1 ....
.
• .,..., •
•
•.
'*'tnlial
.... y
------ - -- --- --' ...
Fig. S.l
Protection ond Swltc!IONt o.n.... 'lor Protoct1on
Thu• the rel•y currC'lll I• Pl'l'f'OfbOnol tu ti"' ph•- d1(1- betwcee in..
currents entering and WA\ ing the pTOl\'ci<d circuit and 11 the d1fferentiol current
exceeds the pickup value, the relay oper.ite
This basic differential scheme has foll<»-ing dls.tdvantages ·
l This ~in"wtoperates ln<1ccurately ,..,th he.tvy exteruel fault>-
2 The CT.. m.lY saturate and ,...,,.. wwqu•I s<•"Ond><y currents ond the
d;fforcnce of ..._,ondory current> !N) •pprooch the p\Ckup value to op<'r•tc the
relay unnecessarily.
These dis.tdvant~ are overcome in the percentage difrel\..,WI reLly.
5.4 Basic Percentage Dlfforenllal ProlKtlon Schein. for Genoratora

This protection ~me is •IS<> catl<'<I btaS<d dlfforenti•I proctttion scheme. ~
Fig. 53 shows the <.'Dllnt'ctions of the percen~g• dlfforct11Lol rob)·· in such o protL•'tion
scheme.
1, CT,
~--
_.....,,
'• , .... -----··-- ..

I • lz
--..- Operating
I coil
'
Aetttt~lng(IOll
Fig. 5.3 Pereentage dl,,.,.,,tlal protection sclMme
The fault occurs at poutl X and the pnma1y currents in the om1it are 11 and 11.
The C.T. secondary cummts are 11 and 1,. ~ current Oowlng lhfou3h the operating
root of the ml•)' Is 11 - I,_ Whill1 tlw currenl Row111g through the rfSIJ;JJning roll ol the
rel•y ls ( ;, ; ;, ) . Th" it because the <>ptt<tling roil i• ronnedt'd to the midpoint of
the restraining roil.
Thus if the nwnbtt of turns of the restroinlng coil is N then i1 flows through ~
nowe , I N '"-~ I 11 N I, N
"" d I1 th rough mnain 1111 2. • '"" IOt> ampere IU~ ""' T •7- I.~. N
Pn>ttcllon and Swi1c1>u-ar 5.9 0.n.,.lor Proc.ctlon
\ ' .. •1 )
2
n us is &> --•
g,..., os the now .,..., currtflt ( ., . .
2
':)th ..._ .
rough ""' entire rt"Slr11mng
t'O>l
The operahng ch.lractetistics
'" ou<h a b~ d1ffcrenLial
r<>l•y IS shewn U\ the Fig. 5 4.
Tt1(1 ch.,r;,~ten,,lic"-t ...ha\.\'S tllltt
.. _
t\t..-.:pr low C\ltTt"nb~ ratio of
11t
I
J11(e-rmtidl opera:1.ng current to
·'' t-mJtc rcstrainmg Nm•nt is .1
_
h\l'\I percentage H~'nl'e the
n-1•) ;, c.111..-d th<' f"'n'entoge
dtfrt•f\•ntMI rein)'
Thb percentage
di({crcnt1aL
basac
proi:ect:iotl scheme
-n
2
forms the NslS or the
Fig. 5.4
practically very rommonly used
J)<'r<••nt.>ge d11ferff\NI protcclion ~ for alternator st.1t0< w1nJing•. 'l'hls popubt
-.h.:nw l< known"> &1><-d uirlcrent~I prl>l<C'tlon or t.kr1·1'ritt prot•'ct"•n
l..i "' Ji,......, the d,•1.1ll• of M•tt·I"""' prut..:llon """"'""" lor th•• 1lir1'<' ph-
.Jlternator st.itOr '1\'lnd1ngs
5.5 Merz-Price Protection of Alternator Stator Windings
This most commonly used protecban scheme for the altl'mata< stator windrngs.
is
11,c .cheme is •l«> called biased dilfamNl protection and pereentage dlffct\'r\ti.ol
pro l«·tion.
111 lhi• 1n<>tl\t'd, !"-' curn•nlli M tho two mdo of the pn!l«led
k'<'lion ""' ~......i
usmg eurrem tronsl~. The wires CON>tttln.g relny rolls to IM current tr~lomwr
><'<OOd.irles "'" all<d pilot wires.
Under noniW rond1tions, when thar is no foult in the wmd1J1gs, the currents in
tho pilot wi~ fed from c:r. ~rl .. are eq ... 1. The diffennhol current 1, - 1,
throughthe Of'<'"IU1S coils of the ""-Y is uro. H<'nC\: thr reby t. lnol"'r~tin' and
system ls ..,;d to be· bal ..need.
\\'hen fault oeeurs lnstde the p!Ol!OCted section of tM sli>tur windings, the
differential cunmt 11 - 12 flows through lhe operating coils oi the ecley. Due 10 this
curtt'Ot, the r<>lay operates. This trips the gmerator circuit btYOb.r lo isolate the nulty
section. The field ,. •LI<'
dlsconnected •nd IS ditcharged through a suitable impcdantt.
The Fig. S.S <how< • schemaue """ngt'mC'nl of Mcr7·Pri« prot«tion scheme for a
.>tlr connected alwrrwror
Prowetlon 1nd SwltchgNr S·I
~-
-- ~·- s: .. --·---·
' •
.•
..~-
--s
.
-,.,......,,,.,,.
»
.
•
-·-- '
'• •
•
'" -·-- y
•
-
-~
..J y '-
''
'
•- - - ... - - _,
-------------------
• oc
OC- B oc.:
•
•
•
..J v L
"c
e-~o:i.1
c-~a1111
··- ~t:MML-
• RC •I
' RC
____.,.,' ...... - - - .... - - .. - .. -MC- - .. _,

.•.. .,...,,...,
~
Fig. 5 5 Men-l'rlct protacuon for 1Lar connactod llltemalor

The d1ffenmttal l"f"Lly gives prot<'Cl>On agomst short nmiat fault in the •L1tor
windmg of a generator. The C.T.s are coonrcted in slur and are P"" sded on both, the
outgoing side and machine ~·u,diJig ~ to earth sld e. 1lte reslr.lining eotls .1re
'"");'zed from the .«'Condary connection of CT .s in each phase. through pilot wires.
The "!"'"'ting roils are •n('fgl.(.<.x! b)" the t>ppuig:. from •~'>tm+mng co.ls and the C T.
neutr.tl ~Jtthing ('()flO«t•OI'
Thi;- '1milar tlrT.,,ng&-*fll(•llt I~ US\.-d for thr d, .. ~ CC)t\1lt'Ctl'<.i •llt"nutor Sl41tor wmdmg.
-- -
a!' \hown tn the Fig. c;.6.
o.acao•llflCleOttt~ CT
/-
.---
-·
r r r r r » r »
• -
C T
•• •• ,.......J v
• •
I •
••
•
•
•• rr·- "" en
-·- '"""' •
•'•
I ••
'-------· ,..J
-
y '- ,_J
-y '- •
~
--- - ~
••
•
- - - - .. - - - .. - - - - - - - - .. ,
oc •
I
• oc oc•
oe-~•
RC-
ce
- .........
- CofQl t•--
•
I
•
'
llC
RC
•
I
'·------------------·•C
--
---
I
Fig. S.6 Moa-l'rica protaclio<I IO< ci.tta connected att.mator

Prot•cllon 1nd Switc:hgNr S·10 Gtnetator Protedlon
Ille C. r.s on tl'tt' delta connected maduM wi11dlng •Id• are ronr1<.<cl.d 1n d~lu
whole the C.T.s ot outg<iong ends are ~ In star. The l'f'Slralrung roils are p~
an each phase, ~.<d by the secondary connections of C.T.s while the operating
rotb are energized from the restraining coil tappings and the C.T. neutral earthing,
Jr there i.s a f•ult due to a short orcuit in the protected zone of the winding.5, it
produc<> a d1tfe"""-"" between the cum.'l\l:f in the primary windings of C.T.> on both
, ..1,.,, of the generator winding of th• Ame r"""" This ""'ults in a diffcrcnce b.twttn
th<' ~·rondnr) currmts of the two current iransforrne;s, Thus. unda fault condmoos.
• d1fferenHal curttnt flows through tlw opttating coils which IS responstble to nip thr
"'I')' and open the attuit breaker. Th<' d1ffenmtial relay opmition depends (In the
n•l,1tion 1'.!tw«'n th<' current In the opa~bng coll and that in the mtnining coil.
In .ulultlon to t""• tripping of clrcun brNka, th~ prrcrnt.16(' dilfffl.'11hal r<'lay tnp •
hJn<t re"<'t OlUltl(onlllct •u•illary rollly This au>lliory relay <omulUneously inltiot .. tlw
rollc•\1o•u1g operabOC'b»
l. Tripping of the main circuit breaker oi generator
2 Tripping of the field circuit bruktt
J Tripping of the neutral cin:ult brukrr II it is present
~ Sh111 do"n of the prime mover
~. 'r.. rn on ol CO, Ill'> II pr<>vldo:d foe ..ic.,y ol i;u•i<'1"•t0< unJor l•ulty rondlt11""'
6. Op•·rnhon ol mnn and /or annundAror hl indicate th<! occurrence of the fault
and the oper•tion of the relay !he f\eld must be opened unmediately oth.-rwbe
it starts feeding the fault.
Wht>n diffen.-n~ relaying is uS«I foc the protectlcn, CT ... at both the 111\ds of
j:t1~1-.1tur must bi~ o( rq\1.JI ratlo and ~I ~rtlC)' otherwise al ttw- error is CXC'l'S$1ve.
"mng Ot"'r•tlon ~,( the relay may r<Suh l1li! causes of uneqwl currents on both the
>Id<'> of C.T ..> without any faull ore ratio <rrors, unequ•I k'11gth• of th.: lc•d•, unoquol
""""'d"')' burdens esc
This scheme provides very fost prot«tion to the stator wind1J1g against phas. to
ph.tsc foult• and pha~ to ground faulls. U 1"" neutral is no( grounded or grounded
lhruujth r.-sl•t.1""' then additional ~II\~ urth fault rol.1y ollould be pl'(Jvid<-d.
~ie 11dv1nt1gn o( 1h1s sc_l,cm~ a~,
t. V•ry high speed opeeetton with op<nting time of about IS msee,
2 It allows low fault setting which ensures maximum protooion ol 1Nclune
windings,
3 It ensures romple1e stabillty undtt the most severe through and cxtrrnol fault>.
$. 11 0.Ml'lllor Protection
4 II do<.-t nor n.'\juire current tun.lormtt!> with air t:·•P• or special b.llonang
rearures.
5.6 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Generator

~'nl'f•ll\' MC'l'1·l'rice pruhoetion b.15C'd on orrul1t111g c11rn.>nt prln.:1plc pro' ..fe... !ht
prutt.~tivn o~:ttn"IC intt·nwl e.1rtll (olul~. But I« l.irge gcnl'rntors, 11~ lh(~<' Jrt.• (O'!.tl\ M1
odcLbONl pml<'("tlon Kll<>me CJlitod r<'Stn..·wd •>tth fault rn:>t<'Ctton I! provldtd
i\"hen the neutral ts .oUdly grounded then Ute generator gets completely protected
against earth faults. But when neutral is grounded through earth "1Sisbmc:e. then the
stitor windings get partly pn:>tOICtcd against earth faults. The pt>reentagc or wu>ding
P"""'b.'CI depends on the v•lue of eMthing n.'Sistana. and the rel•)' setting.
In this scheme. the "alue of earth re>JStanre, refoy s;,1ting, current mting of c.irth
~nre must I><! cordully ""k"<"tcd. The earth lault.> are r•N' n(-.ir the neutrol p<.itnl •>
th<- •\lltage or neutral po.lint with respect 10 e•nh 1s very lcs.. But when eanh fault
oc:<ur> nt•ar the neutral point then the 1nsulfooen.1 voltage across the fault drives very
W.. fault current than th.! pick up current ol ttli>y roU. H<mrl' the reli>y coll remains
1nopenn~ Thus 15 to 20"· winding from the tlt'Ulul side rem.tins unprotected 1n lhiS
~ Hen<'<' ti ts coll<'<! n... trlct<'n. It I• "'""' pra«itt to
prot«t 8S'>oo of the wtl\dtng
The re.trlctcd corth fouh protection .cht-me .. •h<>wn in tlw Fiji. 5.7.
*--·-------,
-
C. T
~ • ' n<"\
__JV I • 'v •
•
N
-· n<"\
~
•
• v,.
•0 - •
.''
'''
n<"\
,...., . ~
y
_JVL
-'· • ~
4:"" £1tih fa;lf 'I
•_• ..........
- . ............ '
~coll
_J v 8
. I llo
;· - -...:- '•
.........
'-
•••nee -
t,
~.·~ •
' RAl_ ...,,_,..oy
Fig. 5.7 Reatrlcted .- tault protection
Consldtt thnt tarth fault occurs on pha>e 8 due to b"'akdown of its IMulabOn to
unh. .. lihown In the Fig S.7. The fault C\ml'lll 1, will now throuj\h the Cott. "'"""'
Prottctlon and Swltch~ar 5·12 G.n1rator Proc.ctlon
'" ""'4h1n1• to ••nh •nd ro1npl.'I~ w p.11h through 11\e tarthin11 ~· .. •IA-. The C.T.
-d•ry currm1 I, flows tnrouiJ> ~ o~rating coll and the '"'tnet.od •>rth fouh
rcla~ cod of the diffe~'f11i•I prol«'twn. The setting ol mtric:ted earth fault relay and
....rung o( overcurrent rol.1y are ~ent or each otho!r Under this se<ondary
4."Urr'\.:nl I., th(> ~l.ly operate" to t:np the arcuit breaker The volt.Jg\.' Vt-, " 5\1(fK"'lent to
dnvl' lht• m,>ugh f.,ult current 11 when the feult potnl ). 1;. ~''")' IR"Mn dw n_~,1tr1.1I
p.>ml
If the fault point ' is nearer ro the neurral point then the voltage v•• is small and
not sulficient ro drive enough fault current I,. And for this I~ relay cannot operate.
Thus part ol the ....~nding from the neutral point remains unprotectt'd. To overcome
this, 1( rel.•y semng i• chosen very low to make it sensitive to low fault currents, then
"""'l'I <>1><"1'•t1m ol rclJy ""'Y ~uh T1'(o relay cnn Of'('f•"'
under the conditions o(
he•• y throu)\h fault~. lun,'Cur.>14> CT$, .. 1urahon ol C.T > t1c Hl't\C\l prkllc•lly IS'" of
wtnJm11 Imm th< 11eutr.1I p<ilnt t> ~t unp1<1tCl°l<'I, pmt«ling tilt! rerruiuung ll~'r. of
the -.1nd1ng 11&•11\>t phose to e•rth lo11lb
5.6.1 Etfeet of Earth Resistance on % of Winding Unprotected

Let u'\ ~-e tlw cfft:ct of earth tt515b:nce on the w" o( tlw winding \111 hic"h rt"mair\$
urtprotl'('t{"Ci
R Con!Jidef' 1N- (•,trth

l'l'SIStanct' R used to limn earth
(.ault curttnt as 5ho"' n in ttw
Pig. 5.$.
:------}.-~~~cttd TI>e value oJ th<> re>bt•n«
..... ~~~.. . .,,,..~------- ------· R hmhs the earth l1ult cum:nt
I~
11 1M "'51iuince K I~ vory
>D\311 I e. the neutral l• •lmo.t
R ,___ B solidly grounded, then the fault
current is very high. But high
hlult currents an" llOt desm1ble
lwnce small R is not preferred
Fig. 5.8 lor the large machines.
!'or low rt"1>tance K, tho valllC! of R Is ;;electro such tl\.lt foll lo.'ld cun'tnt p.1sses
through th<- neutral, for • lull line to neu1rol voltage V.
In medium resrsrance R, the e•rth l•ult current Is limited to about lOOA for lull
bnc to neutr•I voleagc V, for a 60 ~{W machine.
In high r<>.stari<\! R, the earth fault curttnt I• Umilled to about 10 A. Tim b uffd
for di!trlbution tron<formcrs l\nd tl"""Btor•translorrncr umi..
Gene,..tor Protoct1on
No" higher tilt •·•lue ol eMth rr'Sl'i•n<'I' R. k>1 iR tht• •••rth l•uh rum•nt •nd 1,~
pcl'C\'nt.>g< ol wuidmg gets protected, Large p<!r<entag~ ol wmdil\ll ren>om•
unprotected.
Let V = Full line to neutral vollilge
= Full load current of largest cop~city ~tor
R • Earth rl.,.i5tan<'e
Tht..on the value o( the resistance R is.
R • -I
v
Anu th., JX'l'l:n>tag~ of winding unp~'<W\I is given by,
RI
.." o( \\'1nd1og unpmlc."<ted • \'• "100
I,, 4 !\.1Jnimum operating current in the primary of C.T.

If rela)' setting "5<'d is 15% Ihm 1. is IS"'• of the full lood current ol the largett
n1.achine and so on
Gr.•,Hcr pcm-nt>~ ol windlni;• llf """11 up.1dty n•.•chln..~ ru11ning por.\llc1 i;•t
prot..-.:t'°'I
...,. Eumple 5.1 : A gn>nator " prolt<ltJ '1f mtrzrt•d ,.,11~ ftliJI prot«ho11 Tht
gmemtor ,.ting> arr 13.2 kV, 10 MVA. Tiit l"''""tag• of a.•r.dmg prouctod •s••rtSt
rl:ase to grouml fttvlt is 85%. TN r'13Y S<ttnog is s11dr lh.11 il trips for 20% out o•
balauct C11lc11hut' 1111' rt:slSltuicR to IJt' tJJJetl tn tlw ututra/ to grvur.J C01t1t«tion
Solution : the j(lVen '•IU('S.
v, • 13.1 ~v lt\ttng • 10 ~tVA
~rorn r•ttng, r.dculate the lull load cumnt,
Rlitin¥ in VA 10• 10•
I •
J3 vl ... 'j ~ 13.2w 10>
2 4J7.JR6 A
R<l.1y setting IS 20"~out of balance i e :!)"',of th~ roted rurn-nt ..:tivah:'S the relay
I,, • 4337.386x I:• 81.477 A

\ • Linc to neutral volt.igt • ~
• 13.~lOJ • 7621.112 V
*"of wmdlng u11protectcd • 15,_ as 85% ts proteceed

15 : Rlu •100
I/
Rx87.4n
15 .. 100
7621.02 "
R • t3.068 n
.... Ex...,,plt S.2: A '"'' <"Ollll<"Cltd J ~. 12 MVA, II lV •lltrr1410r h>f • ph;lk

l'tll<11111et of 10"". /I I> protn;ttd by Mtn·Pna clrc11lntl11g ,,,,,..,., ><htmt •·ludo 11 ,..,
I• oprmlt /"1 /•11/t (1irrrn1 1104 Im °"'11 200 A. Cnlculalt tltt tvlut cf e>tr/Jung
"'"'""" to bt I""''fd<'xlL
12•10•
1'
• J:i. l l • 10•
6 62\l.l!J66 A • l • r11fod curn.-nl

v • ~J3 • llxlo' ,..,.8529
J3 • ....,.,, V
: IX•IOO
v
). a rc,1ctanre per phut
... 1 I • rated current
IO • 629.8366X • IOO
6350.8529
). . 1.008.'.l n
5 • 15 Ge...r1tor Prot.alon
• ('r. or unproc...-t...i winding) ' (Xl

15
• 100 • l. 0063
• o.1s12 n
v • voltoge ind\K\'d m unprotected winding
~ i':i • V • 0.15•6350.8S29
; 952.6279 v
l • Fault t\lrl"(.T!t
• 200 A
Z • tmpcdanee o(ftft'd to the foult
.-. v
i
952 6279
200
; 4.7631 n .. (I}
Now Z • r • i (n:acuoce of unprotcctc'<Iwinding)
z • r-e J (0.15121 Cl
121 = Jr' +(0 15121! .. (l)
Equ.iting (I) and {2),

4 7631 • Jr1 • (0. 15121'
221>875 • r2 • 0.02281>
,.: • ll.6646
r ; 4.76070
Tlus is the eM!hing resistance required.
5.7 Unrestricted Earth Fault Protection

'The unrntrictod ••rth fa"lt prot..'COOnuso • ,.,.1d.,ally connttl>'d e•tth fault relay.
It an<~• ol th,.... C.T .. , one In e.ich phu<- n... seeondary "'indings of U.- CT.a ar~
cMR«ted In pllralkl. TI>e c.rth fault relay is connected """"" t™" secondaries which
conies a residual current. The scheme ~ shown In the Fig. S.9.
V.'hcn there IJ no foult, under nomW conditions, vector sum of the thrtt lbw
rorl\'llts is zero. HMice the vector sum of the thrtt 1'<'<.,lndory currents I! obo 1ero
P.-cllon and Swltchgea< s . ,.
'--------- ' -C.T

IV I
R
'' •• -•,,
' •'
N
'. ~
y
' Iv I
'' •' -i,.
'
'... ________ '' ~
e
.- - -..- - - - ....
•R 'v '
' • -•
-
-..:
' ·-
Fig. S.9 Unrestlf<:t9d - faull prouc!lon
So if t.,, 1,., and i., are C.T. serondary currents then under normal conditions we
an write,
i,, ' t, • ·- • 0
Th\• ~um 01 tht- thn'C ct1rr\'T\ts it l'Uldu.al currt>nt IK. whkh is rtto und(•r normal
a."1<11uun:i.
Tbe earth fault rdoy is connected In sud'I • way that the reidual current ~
through the relay operating coil. Undtt ,_,,,..1 condition, residual current is zero so
relay does not any .-iny current and is mopeiative. However in presence of earth fault
rondition. the bollance gcts disturbed and !hr residunl current I., is no more 7et'D. 11
llus current is mott tN.n the pickup value of th.> earth loult rd.ay, thr r(')ay ~all.'S
a11d opens ttu. drcu1t bN••kcr thmugh tripj>Ulg of th• trip drcuiL
In the scheme iho<•'n In the Fig. 5.9, lhr ~rthfault at any loCllhon near or aw1y
from the location of CT"' con cauire the l'fSidual current. Henao the protected :ione is
not definite. Such a scheme is hence called unrestrkted earth l•ult protection.
5.8 Balanced EarUI Feult Protection

tn practlee for ..... 11 r•ting altemotcn. the neutral rndJ ol the th= p"""'5 are
Cl.>IUlCCted to a single pomt. Hence it is not po.w'ble to intmduct' C.T. in each phase on
neutral side as required in Merz-Prior pro<e<tion. In such cases. the balanced earth
fault protection ..,, be used.
Pr-..don and Swltcll\Jear 5 .17 Generator Protection
The balanced earth lault protection it shown in the Fig 5.10.
•
••
•
• Iv -
CT
I
•
CT
-
...J ., L.
N
•
•• ••
•
••
-
r v '
v
•
R •• ••
. ,..; ,.,...... 4 B
' •.......... - ..... -• f1
' v • I
F,
-.:
I .. .. ,
:• ..I . .'' R&i1ty
'
Fig. 5.10 Balan~ed aortll l1ult protKllon
At th<' outgoing •Id~. the three C.T 5 ... ronn('(.'tl'<I In r•r•ll<:I ~' •re ~ in
unretrkted earth '3uh pretectlon. A single CT. is connected on the neutral side in the
ptlo! wile ronn<'<'tlng neutral of altema.tor to e•rth. The neutral earthing is acme.~
~ ~ earthing ..,,.i,tance. A relay •S ronn«t<'<Iacross the C.T. ~econda~
Under nt.1nnal ron.Jit1on:t, the <tltcnwtor l:M cun-cnts a(li..1 to zero Henee the ~«tor
sum of the currents thro~h the St.~ntS of C.T. i.! alw 1t•ro. Tt'u' no currmt ~"°,
through the reL.')' .1nd .\~ neutral C.l~ l:tte'I current hence no a1rtent is supplM!d to
rela) from neutral •id• So relay Is inopenbH•
If the fault ap~"' at F,, at a poslnoe oots><!e the protected zone tht'fl the sum o(
thr al!emator line currents is exactly equ.il IO the current m the neutral. Thus uro
C\UTftll nows through th(." "-!lay i.s inapttat-1\ «'
But ff the f~ult 1x-.:u..- at F1 -.-hich ~ the protl'<~<·d zone then vector •um of
oltttnator luw cum'l111! is dlflcn.'flt !Nn the current through n~utr.11 side Cllrmu
tr•Nf~r. I lcrltl<? a n..,,ldu.11 rurnmt flow> through the rd••). If thi• b II'""" th.ln
It.. pid<up v•lue of thr "'l•y, the Ma) cper•tes This trip> the- trlpplnl! circuit.
openil\g tlw circuit b""'""'
By thi5 schemt, the protectlon •g.>ll>SI eorth faults is restnctl'<1"
~ttn the neutral a1lJ the ~J8ltion \\'Mtt line CUm't\l tr.11'\~0nn(.I" Jrc ln.sta1k'd
ProtKllon and Swllchge1r s .1a 0.neralor P~
5.9 100% Earth Fault Protection

A• S<\.>n upnl! now. no protection scheme is In n position to give <Omplde
rroli'<'tlot\ to Ill<' <talor of generator against earth faults. The ma~imum prot«l•M
"'"'~«I '' "Pl(I 85 to 'lO". from the tclwnl<$d~ uptill now
But tn moc'km d>1y• It I• Jl<1M1blr to p<OYld~ l<Xl'l'. ,•Mth foult prot«iion to t~
':a"" of thr grncrntor It us.-s a coupling cnnslormrr and tht• coded signal C\lrT\'flL
lhr .diem• •• shown m the Flg. 5.11
r - •
- - - - - - >- - - - - - ,_ -,
•
'.___ Stator Of th9
""""'-
R
II
•
Fig. 5.11 100% utth hlult protection
o\ coupling trolJ'l~ft):rmcr is ro1lnected between the eartll .1nd the ,•.1rthi~ rt""~
R 1 e 1n neutr.'\I 10 g:to11tt1;.l rircuit. The primary o( the roupling traJ\Sforn1er 1s e-Acitf."d
t-~ ceded signal current source. Thi. coded >ignal current has a fn,;iuency o( llS HL
This current is connnuously injected into thr generator Stator Winding through ~
sn--ondary of the coupling transformer.
Ounng the nonn•I condition the sigl\al current in;ccted Into the staior flows
through stray npadt.ln<'\' of the g<-ne<ator and dir<octly connecll'<l sy>tcm But """'
H<th f•ult OC<'Ur>, th~ ttr.•y cop<idt•nce ts b~. 'l'hl1 lnc:ttAS<l• the morutonng
<Urr<"1t Thi• lncrc>ll<' Is m<•,.ured by • mrHurlni; dcviee. O.l'('M<.llnll upon thl1
mebUrtm.mt on lmm,-di.>tc cerreenve ect>on lJI ~ken.
Tlus scheme gi'''"' the protection o( IS to 20% or •••tor
winding from the neutr~I
<.id<'. th<- portion wluch I• unprot~ by Mert·Prlce prot«tion. The retnall\"'&
p<><llOl'I u proteeted by Mcrt·Pri<t' p.-.. Overal) 100''1> of stJtor windlfll! gru
~<'.'Cl •i;nhtsl .:<lrlh l.>ult<,
s ·It G4tMrator Protection
5.10 Stator Protection Against lntertum Faults

Tht Mcn·Pno: pn)tNt1ol, system Sl'ts proreeuon a~ai1'5t ph..1'4! to ph..~ f~l11b
and earth faults. It dOC'S not give prole<'tioo •ptnsl interturn foults. Tiie intertum foult
ls a .ho<t cittult bern een the turns ol the same phase w1nd111g Thus the cumm1
proJucrddue co !loud\ fAult Is a local otn.1it cutT'e1't and it dOL~ not otffect th~ NrtL-nt'
ontmnit ond leaving the winding at the two ends, wh<•re CT.s are loesred H...,,._-.,
Mt..-1.·rn..'e prolt'Cti<ln einnot give protection ago11'5t mterruen faults.
In single tum gmerator, there is no question of interturn faults but m mulntum
S""""'tors, the intertum lault protection is necessary. So such interrum protection is
provided for multitum generators such as hydroelectric genera!O<'S These generat<>rs
hd• e double wmding an'Nltutes. This moans, eM!I ph.lse wi11ding is dlVldC'd Into two
h.il•~. du" to tl>t- 'tt>' hc~vy currents which they han• ro cArrt Thlt •pli111111l or
•Ingle ph.i.e winding lntu two I• otlvanQi;t'<)U' In providing inlt'rtum foult protectim
tu .uct. hydroelectric ttencrJh>l'f,
The fig, 5.12 "'°"'5 the intcrrurn fault protection scheme uS<d for lilt' genoutor
with double winding armatures.
C.T. s.
lwo peralaitl 1>1tt•1t----

dame phase
""""'R
,.;oding
C.T.
CT s,
t----PtoaNV
C.T. s,
CT, s,
t-----8
Cl S,
Fig. 5.12 lntenum l•ult prottc:llon

Prot.ction end Swttch~lr 5·20 Generetor Proc.ction
The scheme u.,.., ""'» differenli41 pnnciple. Eilch ph•..., of the gmerotor !Ji doubly
"°"nJ and split into two ports 51 and S, as shown in the Fig. 5.12. The eurrent
tnnslormcrs are ronn<-<ted in the two paralld p.1ths of the ••~h phase winding. The
....."tOnd.ln\."Soi t1'14.~ rurf\.•1'' ttans(ormttS •re n'Ol9 connttttd. The currmt trAMfN"me""
""'~ on drcul,111n11 <ur,.,nt pnndplt- The relay Is conntetl'd ~..,.,,.. the <TOM
c, .......... ..i r.<'('(JOd•rl<.•s or the curn.'tlt 1r..... 1onn, .....
Under 1\or1nal 01x·r.1nng ~-on"iJtion.s. when the t\~·o pat}l$ 11in• W>l111d tht."11 turmlts
on the two parallel paths S1 and S, are equal Hmce curnmto in the second•ries ol U..-
current transformers are also equal. The S«Ondary current flows round the loop and
,. ~ at oil the points Hence no current Oows through the relay and the rrioy is
IOOf'<"'llJVe.
II lh<' short Nrcult b developed betwem the adjacent turns <)( th< part 51 ol the
wmchni; say then '°'""'"•
through S. and S, no longer rt•moin "''"'• Thus uno.-qual
rurwnb \ v 111 be irlducM ln the S('~ of tht- Ct1rr<!nt tramfom1ti"" Ttw- difh!n-1'Ce
ol the;e currents flows through the relay R. Relay then doses its contacts to tnp tlw
circwt breaker which isolates the generator from the system.
'lloch on interturn foult protection J\~lt'm " extreme!)' sensitive bu1 it can be
«rplo.-J to th,• i:•:nc,.tono h,,.·ing doubly wound armoh11'1'$
5.11 Rotor Eanh Fault Protoctlon

Tht' rotor circuit ,,f the 01lterootor ~ not e1&rttwd and d.c, \loltag~ is Imposed an it.
And hence single ground fault in rotor does not cause drcul•ting current to flow
through the rot<>r cirt·uiL Hence •ingle ground fault in rotor does not ca\15't any
dam.li:e to it. 6ut •inglc ground fault caWi<S an Increase in the stress to ground at
\lthl'r p.>u>t~ in the tt<'ld winding whm vol~ are indu«-d in the rotor du" ID
tr.tlbJ<111>. Thus the probob1lit)' of S«'Ond ground foult inceeases
If the second ground t..ult occurs lh<n pan of the rotor winding is bypassed and
lhe currents in tht remaining portion Iner- abruptly. This causes the unbalima- ol
rottt circuit and hence the mechanical and thermal stresses on the rotor. Due to <his.
rotor m.l)' get damaged. Sometimes <lama~ of bearings and bending of rotor Wit
ttkcs pL>ce due to the vlbratiOfU, I~ the rotor must be protected •!?inst earth
fAult
Mtthod 1 : In thl• method • high rrs151...,.... I• ronn«k'ected to 1~ ground
through a sensltlve .-arth foult rol•y u ohown in the Fig. 5.lJ.
Protection and Swhch~ar 5. 21 a.......tor Prolactlon
High ro1lt\ll"<a
_..
Ceor. >-----~
- --..
• • Nloy
-
-"'
Fig. 5.13 Rot°' ·- fault protectlon

F.xcept the centre point, the earth fault Ma)' detects the e.inh faull:'J for most of I~
rotor citClJit Thus most ol the rotor winding i»rt is pml\•<ttod ag.a1n1tthe earth raultt
M<thod 2 : The modcn• method ol pf\Wtdong earth t.uH prot«toonlnclutl~ d4
onJ('('lion or a,c 1nj«tl0rl The scheme l!l •h<n•-n in the Fig. 5.14
A small d.c. power
supply is connected to
the field cimoit. A fault
det<.'<1in11
rrlov and the ~l•t•n«'
smstth'P
1n.• .11""4.1 ro1l1lt"C1t-d an

t.cotr-
..., _ __,,.,
.... rie. with th<• CU'<Ull
Thi> high 1\'SIStAn«'
Umits the current
through the circuit.
point
dm1it
A fault
on
"Ill
at
the
p.uo
ony
fidd
•
·-
•
:-
romnt tuf~1
of
nlAgnltud~ through the
relll)' to cause its
operation. The
d e,
•urriy is preferred and
'''"Pl~ to use ~nd 1t
M• no problem of the
leakage curren~ In
"'""" of a .c. injection. Ff9. 5..14 Rotor e1r1h fault protection
!hoe high resislanc:e is
<Pplan>d by a capacitor
5. 22 O.nerator ProtKl!on
Ihe cJrlh (.1uh rd~yt are liutant.tMC<lS in Opt'Mlic>n and are "'""'"'h.'<I to an
•l•rm <ircuit for 1nJ1C•tion ond to take thr proper action This ls because. • single
ground f,1ult does no1 require an immedia~ a<tion of isolating thr generator.
5.12 Protection Against Loss of Excltlltlon

The los~ e>f emt.itaon of the ~!OrIT\.\Y result in the las!> o( synchront>m .ind
:i.ltHt,tl) lt,C't'\t<t~ 1n 1he gt·ner.th1r Sp(.'C!d The machint- start:. tJt.Nvtng 41' a1' anduct!on
gt>t·\er,,tvr. It 1.JrJwn re.ictivf" power from the system which ts: undesirable. 'The 1065 of
.-c11.,1ion mav lad 10 the pole sllppbig condltion. Hence proll!Ctlon agoinst lou of
exntotion nlUSI be P""' ided.
Ihe prot,'<ti<ln <• pro,1dcd usJng dim:tloNI dblant'I! type m.y with the gt'!Vrotor
"'"1\lnals
\Vht.'11 there t> """- of e•dtalion, thr equiv•lent gmerotor ~"tlpedant'I! varit'f •nd
tr•ces a curve as shown in the Fig. 5.15. This Fig. 5.15 - !hr loss of exobalian
characteristics al""S"';th the relay open.ting characteristics, on R·X diagram.
•X
......... _...
o-i•--· ,..unot
4'l'Wie ... Ol ._'Clt..tOol\
...
-- - -lC
Fig. 5.15 l.,.• of udlatlon charac~
!he cqui\•ak'n1 gt'nt"r.ltor lmpedeece locus traC<" • path lrom first quadrant of R·X
d1agmnl to tbe fourth quadrant. The diSWlco relay ls used wrudl t'O\'ers the portion of
the fourth quadrant where impedance locus path exists. Thus when the impedance
.,kes value m the ~ covered by the ttLly characteristics, tl>P relay operates Tiw
relay operates whm generator first start! to sUp poles. Then relay trlpt the fitld circuit
breaker And it dtoC'<lN\C"<t< thq gt>l'W11110r from the 8)'t'lem, too """"' the c,cJt•hon is
"-'t!•"'"-<l '"'" ~ norm~I. the g<"ntt•tor can thco be returTl<'d to ..,rvl<X! h1>tondy
"-tion ond Sw1tchv-ar 5. 23 Gentrllor Prot.ction
5.13 Negative Sequence Relay•

The negative relays .UU ,1lso called p"""" unb.ll<ll1"' IYlay> because th<'SC rcby•
provide protection o~iiut negative seq~ component ol unbolanced <"Um'flts
•~lStini; due to unbalanced loads or phasf..plw"' rouln.. Th1• unbaL>~ currcn~ •re
d:..n~~ fro1n senero1ton ,lnli motors poll"ll (')f view ,15 tt'K......- C\lrrel'lb C"..o.ln c.,US(•
O\'erllc•tmg N"l13tfre ><'<jUC'1<e relays .," i;encrally u><...t to give prooc<ctkll'I ro
gl"l\('rators and motors 3g;1in)t u.nbalJnced curri"f'll'J
.
A neit•tive sequmce relay has a filter amnt which ts operative ooly for neganve
5<1<1uence romponents. Low order of over current also can cause dangerous situations
heJ1Ct' a neg01tive sequenro relay has low rorrent settings. TM earth relay provides
protect100 for pha!'<' to •.wlh fault but not for phase to p~ fault. A ~live
"-'<lU<'nal <\'lay pmvidc"i protection •g•in.t ~ to pht1>< Inuit• whi<h ar\' rt5pons1ble
to proJ~ nq;•tlv~ S<"<llltnce c'Ompon..>ttt>
fhto fig 5 16 ..,.,,.., ti"' 11ehematlc arr.mg•m•.-nt ol 1w~,1th•e phMc.- "'-"!'"''""' r~i.y
CT
R
CT
y
.. 8
C.T
ly
•
8
'•
.' - - - - -.
A Retoy
1 •• :•
• c
. -- -- .
&skally It OOC»l•ts of a res.ttancr brldi;c network. The m•gmtudQ ol t~
imp•<fances of all the branches o( the network arc equal. The unpedanoes Z1 and z,
•re purcly resisth'e while the imped.tn<es Z, and z, are the combmalions of r.. lstance
and react•nn>. n... ~urft'ntS in the braN:lv!s Z, and Z. lag by fl)> lrom thc. CUITt'T\1$ In
the br•nches Z1 and Z,. The v~rtlcal br&neh B-0 C\>1151Jts of in•~ tune cha.rxt>eristk•
r<l•y. The- ttlay h.>• ntgliglblc imp<d.ontt.
The current 1. geto divided
1, ---·-·-''A into two equal parts 11 and 12• And
•• 12 lags 11 by The phasor
fl)>.
,''
,' diagram is shown in the Fig. S.17.
' i;+i; • i;
'' '
' ' ~ 11 • 11 • I
' '' Th" pttpmdicubr •• drawn
'
'' '''' from point A on the dl.t.gooal
'' rneering It at point 6. u ~,, ln
0 A 12 the Fig. 5.17. This b"""'ls the
Fig. 5.17 diagonal
06 ~ !.!!.
2
ow in triangle OAB,
cos 30 • 06
DA
.• -,/32 . (t)
.-
• Is ••.• 12 ... (I)
Now 11 leads la by 30' while 12 bp It by 30".

Similar!)• the currcot 16 gets divided Into two equal parls 1, and 4. The current 1,
bgs 4 by W. l'rom equation (I) we an writ<:,
1,
Jj • I>• 1, ••. (2)
The current i. le•ds 18 by 30" while current 13 tags 19 by JO'.

The ruMnt ml11Tinjs the relay at the jW>ctkm point 8 tn the fig. 5.16 Is rhe vector
sum oi 11• 1, and 1,
~ ind Swlt""9<>1< 5. 25 Gen"'11tor Protection
llw 'ector sum b shown In the Fig S 18 when the lood Is bolan~ •nd no
""1!•11\ e '<'qUcntt currents C•ISt.
~ '•
'''
''
''
(1) C. T. --lty CUffOfltl
FJo. 5.18
It OlJI bt' seen from 1he Fog. 5.18 that,

i;" +r; • -Jy
i;+i; +i; • 0
Th~ tht current entcnng the ttloly .at point 8 is zero Slmil11rly tl\C t'("IRJlta.nt
rurrtnt •t juN:tion D ,. also zero. Thu• tho rel.>y is ln<>p('r•h,·c lor ,, b;.ilana.-d 5)'•1(11\.
N~· consider 1Mt there is unbalanced load on gener..1tor or motor due to which
ncgoli\"e sequence <:urrl•nts exist. The pluse sequence of C.T. secondary currents is as
shown m the Pig. 5.l'l (a). The vector diagram of 11, 1, and 1, is shown in the
Fis- 5 19 (b) under th1s condition.
Tiie cemponents 11 and 1, an• 1oqu.J me! opposit< to '"'ch utl\er ft! the juncoon
point 8 Hence 11 •nd 1, can<el e•ch other P.:ow 1hc rel•y roll carr1,., the curr<nt Iv
•nd whtn this current Is more th~n a p""'c~muntd valU4•, th<- n•l•y trlpt clo.lng tlw
ronQ<1S of rrlp l'ircult which upt:n• t~ ora.o11 brea~r.
Promctlon ind Swilc~u
••
•1 ------.It
(•) C.T. •-"'Y currtnll (b)Vect«....,,
Fig, 5.18 NtiJa!lw uquonco cu<Rntl
Ztro Stqurnce Currenls : The u-n> ~ romp<>~b ol ~•ry<Urrenb

'"' >hown in the F1.g S.20 (a). We know thot.
1,•1,•ly
..
'•
'• '• '•
r, ,
'
''
''
'
.'. 'i
'
(a) (b) {c) (d)

Fig. 5.20 ZM-o sequence currents
1. ~ r, +i;
r;.1~·('°;"
fho."" .um' are •h<>wn m the Fig 5.20 {b) and (c). II an b<' ......,. from th.:
~1g. 5 20 (d) lhal,
r, • r, • r; in pn.- with 1,
Th<' IOtal current through rel•y Is r, .r, •i;°. Thus undrr ztt0 o<.'qutnee CUl'rt'nll
the tM.11 <'Utttl'\t of""''''' the zero aeqUCllC'f'curn!nt n0Yt tti: through the rt"lay. Ht.-ncit tliti
1
reL" OfWrAl•'f to open lh<' clrcull brtaur

Protection 1nd Swlt~ 5. 27
I To nlak"· the n.-t.ty M--ru.111\il' to on1)•

y
C T nrg•u•e sequenc• cvnmts by m1klng ii
u>op<"mtive undtt the 111fluencc ol zero
~ sequence cu rren~ i5 poi;~ible bv
y
cl conntttins th(' cum.."f\t trnns(l,rm('r-. '"
d<olia •~ shown "' tlw F1g 5 21. Cnd,.,.
nf" deltl connecuon of current tra:n.ifc)m\('f"I
- C. T no ~n::> sequence current can 00\'' in W
net><ork.
1
Fig. 5.21 0.111 connection of C.T.s
~.13.1 Induction T~ Negative Sequence Relay

Atvlllwr n>mmonl\ u.....t n~g.1tlv~ ""'!""""" rel>y I~ lnduclion tVJ"' It. ron>tru<11on
I> >umbr to that ol 1nduct1on type over C\lfTI'nt ll'lay. The schem.>b< diagram of thi.
l)'P" ol rclay I> shown m th<! J'ig. 5.22.
• T
•
..· -_,
- .. - ... I-
I-
I-
,
1~
... -.-.:.:.--r 1
I-
I-
I-
i::
I I : , -'
-
I
~-_.......
I-
I-
u -
~ ....
,__
,__ -- "'-'---
Wl-ilt
-
F1g. 5.22 Induction type nev-tlv• sequ1nc1 l'llay
The <l'fltr•I limb ol upp<•r mognct Cilmd IM primary which h.>s • """'"' t•p L>ue
to this, the prirnAry winding has lhrt'e lttminal I, 2, and J. The section 1·2 IS
rotrglud from the k'C'Ond•ry o( an ou.-Jli.uy tr•nslormcr lo R·phase n... S«tlon 2·3
•S dir«tl} energized from the v-phase currml
The ou•illory tr•Mlamier ls a spooal device having an air g.ap 111 its m.tllJ'dte
cm:uJI W11h the help ol thb, th<t phase angl<! bo!tween us prim.i') ~ndsec:ond•ry c•n
Gen.,.tor Protecdon
b.- e•·il~ ••d1~•..d. In practlec ii I• WJU>l<d liUCh lhat ou1put <-Um'lll Lig) b\ 120"
r••h.'f chan usual ISO· from the input.
'• • Input current ol awuhary tr.msformer

l.tt1 • Ol1tp,1t cu.rrmt ol au'<lliary t1·tl1l.'IOfonm•r
'~· 1.,gs '~by 120"

H<>nce che relay primary cames the current which is phase dr!ittenct" of '•• and ly
Positi,•e Sequeeee Cunrnts : The C.T. secondary currents are shown in the
fig. 5.23 (a). The Fig. 5.23 (b) shows the pcsitioo of vector lx1 L>gging '• by IW. The
nit-~23 (C) ohuWS th<• \ t'<'lOr sum of In and - ly.
Thl' plm'<' d1lfl'Tt'llct' ol '•• and I, I> IN v..:tor sum of 111 .>nd - ly It can 5<'<'1l
ln"n th<· l·ig 5 2.1 (c) lhnt th~ rt1ultont is UTO Thut th~ r~lay pdm.iry curr<1tt '' uro
Jlkl rru\ .. •nop<•...li\'t' for p<1$illvc ""'!""""" """""''·
.y '"
(a) C.T. ucol\dMy cur,.nta
.. ,
Fig. 5.23 Posltlw-nee cu.....,bl
N,~g.atlvt li•quenc• C'UrTf'nt• : rtw c T ('\UT('f'lb are .,JlOWr\ 111 the
~J1\ry
l-1g.5.24 (B). The Fig. 5.24 (b) shows lhe po.1tion o( 1~1 illgging la by 120' The
Fig 5.24 (c) shows the •ector difference ol 1.1 and ly which is the reLly current.
Under ncg:ati,·e sequenc~ currents, the- vector difference of J91 and ly results UltCJ a
rurl'\'t!I I as shown m th.> Fig. 5.24 (c) Tlus current I flows throuj:h the primary cot!
ot ihe rel• y.
'• (o) C.T. --.ry ..,rrenlO (b)C-t,.1

Ii.,
••
••
•
'••
(c)~cumtnl
Fig. 5.24 Neg•livo aequenoo ourront.

Under the 1nflm""°" of (\l<t<lnl I, lhe l'fln Of)<'<•t,·s. 111<! d..., n>tates IQ d°"" !he
tnp ct:J'tlt.,ct.:s .1nd 1t OJ)m' the circuit brc•~
This rel..1y ~ anoperah,..c~ fc,r zero ph.itse -equence currents But the relay ran be
mod~ opeeaetve for t"-' flow ol zero ~ currents also by !'""'Kling on nddinONI
,.,1\ding on the Ct'l\tral limb of the uppw magnet of the reby This winding IS
ronne<:ted In the ttS>dual ci~uil ol the thm. line C.'f.s. Thi> ret.v ts ealled induction
1yp.:· •"'S'llve •nd zm> ><"quen<e lcl•r
Protection and Swltct.vear 5 .30 Gentntor Prol9ctlo<1
The schematic anangement or indudXln type negatkt and zero sequence l't'by 1$
shown in the l'ig. 5.25
• • ...._
·~ ..
,.._,,
I !=:::
~
--·
l ,
b
E
I .t; I
.-..
-
......~
~
- "- ._
--
l•.......,.
Fiy. 5.25 Induction type negMlve and z•ro seq-.ce .. tay

5.14 Protection Ag•inst Unba.lanced Loading
\\•h<., th~ told on the gt>nemtor """°""'5 unbala,,,,,.I, neganve phase sequmcr
currents flow. The n<g.11ive sequence compononls product> a rotating magnetic r~
which rotates at synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rocor
field. Hence effectively the relative speed bftwHn the two is double the syochronous
'f""'\l n.... doubt~ f""IUCl!C)' currents are induced In the rotor. These currents Cl!Uk
severe he.1tlng of the rotor ond can ca~~ damoge to tht rotor. Tilt- unbalanced •••tor
rurrent~ ubo c.flul!IC M·v~~ v•br.ati~ and hc:.atins of arator. tlenct'I It I• ncccssary to
provide the ncgah>t '\l'qU<na- p!'l>tecuon to the generator$ against the unb.tllntftl
to...i conditlM1s.
The neg•livc phaS<' sequence filttr alongwtth the ovorrurm>t relay provid~ the
,,....,,.,.,ry
pl'(llt'<tion .1g.11nst the unb.t!.r«el ~
Tht• n•l111lvt· •>ymmctry nl • three ph.1$t: gt'IX'nltorIJ siven by th~ n1tlo "' Rqllh\'t
><'11l4'1W• current to tht· rated currtnt M•thttNtlc.dly II an be apn.~d as.
'*• s • ~)(
I
100
% S • pemmtage asymmetry
I,. = N~.ative sequenor cvrttnt
J - R.1K-J CUrttnl
5. 31 Genenlor Protection
.
.......................
•.
•
••
'
'
-CT
I V I R
''
• .
••
I
•
' CB. -
CT
I V I
y
.
-.: •• '' C.T
. ' """'
v • 8
•... - ...... - ..........'
I
NegoWWpna1•-
riltor
Fig. 5.26 Negttive Hquonct pro1Al<.llon

A nepti"e phase «=q<><•><:e (iltm b conn«leJ to tht• second"rie. ol the current
transfonners. A negau•·e phase sequeece filter consists of resistors and indUC1ors.
These •re"° ominged th.\t under normal oper•ting conditions, the Is inoperiilke. "'"'Y
Tiw filh'r nm.11t if •wblc for the •ymmnnc.&I ovcrlood• up to aboul thn.., hml"> the
'·''"' run lo.id.
\\1- unb,1~\llC\'d l<:"d O<'CUr~, the ot'll-'h'~ phase- M'Qlll'n<t' mttt ara11t f'l'Od.,_
an output proportional to th< n<gativ~ pN.s<- sequence componfflb. This Is du\'Ch'd
thro<1gh the relay coil Hence the relaj- opera~ to open the drcuit breaker to isolate
the goenmotor.
Examples with Solutions
1• Example 5.3 : TM "'"tr11/ point of• II 4V d/trrnator is rortltnl through o m1>talf<'t

of 12 0, lht> rt'loy 1> Stl to DptrRlf ltM lhml is 0111 of l"1la1•:f rurmit of 08 A llw
C.T s """' • "'''°
of 200/S. Whnl pnrntlll!' of,,,.
windi11g " prol.-cttd 4g0•1Ut urtlt
}lulls. Wi.tt musi ,.. tht 111/111mum ""1111 of tlrlhmg r..,;islattct rt'f•unl to giDt 90% of
J"Wl«llOll 10 ....,.,, /~111$f 7
Pn>tecllon and Swltch~or O.nenilor Pt«ecllon
V1 • 11 kV R • 120 C.T. ratio • 2000/5

i • n!loy curr~t • OJI A
~. • minimum ~nllng llM current (CT prlm.iry)
1,,.2~.~:ml
s s
= 320 A
V = line to neutral •"Dltage
~ II >d 0' • 6350.85.."9 V

/:i
Rl•xtOO • 12•320 xlOO
v 6350.8529
• 60.46 ""
• Windmg pml<'<ll'd • 100 • 6046 • 39.53 %
Thu' "'llh R 1211 only '9 ~3 'II. "''nd"'6 lo prolcct<od
It 1> n<'Cl..,.$.HY to gl•c 90". prot~tion.
. . % Winding unprotected = 100 - 90 • 10%
R•I• xlOO
v
10 a
Rx320 lOO
6350.8529~
R = 1.9846 0
This is tll<' minimum value or "'5lsWxr to give 90% protection to the l•rgest
m~lunr
.. E•amplt 5,4 ; A 50 MVll, J pi-, lJ tV synrlrrrmo11s;(t'lmllor"' prottfftd 'J lit<
\1n:·rrll't 11rolt(l11111 11>!11g IOOOl.5 moo CT ... II Is pro!lldrd u•11J1 rtilritttd Nf'l.ll /ft/I
//ot t1tr/hit1g ft>IJlll1ftt of 1.5 0
prOl(dlOll !(ltllt Wl/Cu/oll lh; ~tnlal/' of rrutdtllf
unprolrctrd "' 1•,r('/1 pita." agaillSI milt J6Mlts if /ht mlnrrrtum OP"nlwg """"'' o/ /lit
'""Y is 0.5 A
Solution : Th• gl""'' valu<'S .re,
V1 • 33 kV C. T ,.rio • 1000/S R • 7.5 0
~on and Swlll:hg<tar Ger,.rutor Pr<MKlion
~. " 0.5 A " reb) cvrrml

10 • mlnlrnum oper•tmgCUrrctlt (prl1tl4'ry)
• ..,.~. os~1000
s ~
• 100 A
v ~. 33.10•
./5 Jj
= 19052.55 v
• Winding unp~ltectcd = R~o "JOO
• :).936%
,,.. Example 5.5 : A IJ.2 kV, 3 pi-. 100 AIW at O.S pf Ins. alttr1111tor has rt11dan..r .,r
0 ! p.11.
•1
If 11 is "'"'"'""' wrl/r 11 ''"'""'"".f '"'""' <1iffrr1·111~1/ 11rotm1011 kt
/rasl nt SI~) J\ fault 01rrrnt •lffm«IN lltf mngn1tu1lr of tkr •rr111rol K""'""'"~
to O/'<T•lt
"'"'""" th11I lrv11"" tlrt tcr.%. of l/rco "'"""'t unprot.-ct"I

Soludioft : The g.ivr:n VAlues are,
VL & 13.2 kV cos•= as p. 100 vtw x. 0.2 p u,
r. Jj vL IL006+
lllO<tO• - fl• 13 2• I0'• 11' 08
11 - 5467 .33 A , I - full load currer11
The p.u. reacta.nce ;, given by,
IX
p.u X = V where X = reK'lance per phase
0.2 •
">167 .J3X
wh,'fe V • Ji
v
( 11.2Js111')
x • 0.2787 n per pNs.>
.._ of unprot«ted winding • 10-~
Protection and Switchgear 5. 34 Generator Proteetk>n
• 0.02787 n
Voltage induced in 10% ol unprotected winding
• 10 xv = ..!Q.. ll2xlO' = 762.l02J v

100 100 j3
Let this voltage be v = 762. 1023 V
Z • Jr'·•'
whert• Z • Impedance olforcd to the rault
r • Resi.stnnce In neutral
x • Reactance ol 10% ol winding
v
z = I
v = Voltage induced in 10% winding

= 762.1023 v
I s Fault current • 500 A
762.1023
500
:. Jr' + (0.02787) =
2 1.5242
.. ,2 + (0.02787)2 • 2.3232
r1 = 2.3224
r = 1524 n
This is tht! required resistance in neutral earthing.
•• Example 5.6 : An nlltnwlor slnlor wi11ding prolt<lnl by• 1"'rtt11l•s< 1liffi•rei1tml rrl•y
1$ sltoiu11 in tllf Fig 517. 1'111 rtlny Jrns 15% .i.,,.- of dNlmclmsliN (11 - 11) 11gnmst l/1
+ /fl) Tltc high r<>JStn11ct groumf fault has ocrurrnl nmr the grounded 11r111rnl r11d of
th•• generator ft!iriding u#r1lr tlt.t generator is carrying load. Tir.t currents Jlou1i11g nt tot"h
<t1d of the gmrrator roinding are also sirown. Assuming C. T. ratio to be 500/5 A. wifl
tltr rt~lay operate to trip lht circuit brtnke.r ?
Protection and Switchgear 5. 35 Generator Protec.tion
- 500IS
v CB v C,T
Cl
*
..... t
°""""""'
""'
- (b}
1, .. 1,
2
(a)
Fig. 5.27
Solution : From the given current at two ends, let us calculate C.T. secondary
currents at two ends,
'1 = (300 + j 0) XS~)()= 3 A
and i1 = (340 + j 0) x S~ • 3.4 A
The direetions of currents are shown in the Fig.. 5.28.
"!;' i;
i, II ] j 1,
Fig. 5.28
The current flowing through the relay coil is i1 - i2.
i1 - i, = 3 - 3.4 = - 0.4 A
While • 3+3.4 = 3.2 A

2
. ii + 12
From the characterbtia or 15 % slope, corrcspondlng to th• out or balance
2
current n.'quircd is,
;, - i1 • Slope•( 1,; 12 )
= 0.15x3.2
• 0.48 A
Proteotlon and Switchgear 5 -36 c;.nerator Protection
..,. 15% Slope

This is shown in the
Fig. 5.29.
I
1,-i, O•&A
Thus i1 - i2 must be
more than 0.48 A i.e.
o.... above the line to
--Aclualpo&n1
operate the relay but
actual point is located
below the line ln
negative torque region.
Fig. 5.29 Hence the relay will
not operate.
,... Example 5.7 : A 6.6 kV, Siar ro1111ected alt<rnnlor has a 11'lmsiml TttKtanct of 2 n
per phase And negligible windi11g resistanu. It is prolrdtd by arcul.ating current
1'1n=-Pritt proltclion. TI1t alttmalor neutral is t.t1rU1et/ through tbe resistance of 7.S Cl.
ThL rtfllJIS are sn lo optrale when /here is out of l"'lanct current ef l J\ m strondllry of
SOOf.; J\ current trrmsfarmtrs. How mud1 % of winding is proltcled ag•ins/ mrlh fault?
Solution : The given values,
VL • 6.6 kV X • 2 O/phosc r • 7.S 0 C.T. • 500/S
Let Ille• % o( winding I• unprotected.
Reactanee of unprorectcd winding = 1~

x 2 = 0.02 x n
v = A= 6·6 JS03
= 3810.511 v ... full voltage
V = Voltage across unprotected winding

x
= 100· 3810.511 = 38.10511 xv
r = 75!1
Z = Impedance offered to the fault
a r + l (0.02 x)
a 7.5 + j (0.02 x) n
IZI • J<7.SJ' +(0.02xl'
i • fault current
• out or balance secondary current x C.T. ratio
Protection and Switchgear 5. 37 Generator Protection
500
= lxS
• 100 A
Iz I . -v
J(1 S)' ·(0.02x)2 =
38.l05llx
100
(7.5)2 + (0.02 x)' • 0.1452x'
56.25 • 4•IO"'x' = 0.1452 x2
0.1-HS •' = 56.25
... x' = 388.4668
x = 19.7%
This is "C. of wmding unprotected.
% o( winding protected = 100 - 19.7
= 8029 %
,,.. Example S.8 : ii >yneliro11011s ge11erntor rnltod 111 20 kV protrrttd by <irr11/ating
current S)l$1tm /11w111g ntutral .~romrded tl1ro11g/1 II rtSi5tmrcr of IS 0. n.. drffrrnrtra/
protrctton rtlRy r> ~t to o~rntt t11llt1r llu•rc• i3 nn 0111 of bola11ct n1rrn1t of J A Thr
C T.s haw ratio of IOOOJS A. O.trm1i11t,
iJ The % of tPinding llnrains unJJrottcled
ir) Voluc- of tilrlh mistanct lo acl1irVt" 75% protection of tc,i11di1rg :
Solution : The given values are,
Vt = 20 xv. ~ = 3 A, R = 15 0, C.T. ratio = 1000/5

i) 10 • minimum line operating current (C.T. primary)
. 1000 3x1000
.:;: Ix-=-~-
O 5 5
• 600 A
v • ~ • 20xtol
.[j .[j
• 115-17 v
~ X • "• of wind ing unprotected
R 1• x 100 =
15" 60(!
= v 11547
x 100
Protection and Switchgear 5 - 38 Generator Protection
• 77 9-1 %
ii) We want 75~ protection.
"· x = 100 - 75 = 25 %
Remaining conditions are same except R.
25 = R 1• •100
v
Rx600
25 • 11547 • 100
25• 11547
600x 100
• 4.811 n
This is the required earth resistance.
•• Example 5.9 : TM Fig. 5.JO sluJWS tht pertrnlogt diffrrrntil>I reluy u,...J for ""
prot<t·tio11 of nn nltmtnlor u>inding. T/1c rtlay has minimum pid:up c11rre11t of 0.25 A
a11d /111S n % s/01"' of 10%. A high resislnna ground fault occurs '""" ti" groundt'd
llf'IUtrnl ("11d of ffl(' gmrrntor windhrg witl1 ll1r rurrmt dl5tribution ns sl1ow11 111 lht'
Fig. 5.30. llss111nt • C.T. nrlio of 4()(): 5, dt•lrrmint if rrl#y urrll operat«.
-3'0• jO A
Wl
Fig. 5.30
Solution : Jlor the given current at the two ends, the C.T. secondary currents can be
ootalned usiJ,g C.T. ratio OJ$,
jI • (380 + j 0) •
4~
" 4.75 A
i2 • (340 + j 0) x !i• 4.25 A
.
" 11 - •1 = 4.75 - 4.25 = 0.5 A
i1 + i2 4.75+4.25
2
= 2
= 4.5 A
So i 1 - 11 current flows through opuoHng ooil whil<' 4.5 A nows thr<>ugh the
l'\."Str-.,(nlng roil
Protection and Switchgear 5. 39 Generator Protection
\Voth the eummum plckup current of 0.25 A, and slopt' IO'l'o, the operanng
choracteristie1 is as shown in the Fig. 5 31.
+ve torque
11
I-1, 0.7 A
-vo torque
0.5A
- • -
'
•
- • •
"-~•
........ Oll
I .
po1tn
_____ J' . Minimum
: P'C*uP CUrTeM
4,SA
(i-?)-
Fig. 5.31
TI>e equation of the c:Nracterlsti<& is,
y • mx+c
At origin. x • 0 but y • 0.25

y•c•0.25
H~ characteristic equarlon ls,
(•1• - •v'_\ ; m
i1Til
2 + 025
. where m ; slopt' ; 0.1
0.1 c· ~ii)· 0.25
For 4.5 we get
i1 - i1 ; (0.lx4.5)+0.25
= 0.7 A
Thus to operate the relay, 11 - 12 must be greater than 0.7 A when it ~ 11 ts 4.5 A.
Bui actually 11 - 1, • 0.5 A as shown. It is located below the liM in negative torque
region hm« relay will not operate.
•• Ex1mple 1.10 : An allmintor rntrd 10 kV 11rotmed by l>ofanctd cifC'Ulatmg cum'nl
systt111 lvts tis Mulml grou11drd llrrougli a resistanct of 10 ohms. Th<' proltrltv. rtl•y is
°"''"'' °"""
it'I to I/int is an out of balnnct current of 1.8 omptTl'S m tl1t pilot ,.,,,...
rrinm 11n c.on11ttttd lo lht secondary of current tmnsforrncrs u1i1J1 ratio 10lXJ/5.
Protection and Switchgear 5 ·40 c;.nerator ProtKllon
Ottmn1"4! :
I) 17,,. prrcmtagr winding wlrich rtmni11$ wrprotrcttd.
ir) TN mmrmum va/ur of /hr tt1rtl1illg rtslstn11cr rtq11irtd to protec: 80% of tht a•mding.
(V.T.U Avp•,..:zooll
Solution : VL = 10 kV, R • IO 0, C.T. ratio • 1000/5, i0 • 1.8 A
10 = minimum opcmtlng line current (C.T. primary)
. 1000 1000
= 1
• x-•1.8x-•360A
5 s
v = line
.
to neutral voltage = .}j
V
c
JOx 10>
J3 = 5773.5026 V
i) % Winding unprotected = ~· x JOO = S~;.:6 x JOO
= 62.3538 %
ii) It is n«'<!SS3ry to give 80 'l'. protection.
:. % Winding unprotected = Ill() - 80 = 20 %
Rx360
20 • 5773 .5026 x l OO
R " 3.2075 0 ... Minimum c>rthing resistance required

•• Example 5.11 : A11 oltrrnator stator winding pral«ltd by a prrmrtagt di/frmtlial
rriay is shau•n in Fig. 5.32(a). The relay has 0.15 amp minim111n pi<k up and a 12%
sl'1pr of clian1rterist1cs (i1 - i1) V, ( i, ;i,} A high r-.istonce ground fault has occurrd
11ear tht grounded neutral end of the genrrator winding while gmnator is <rlrrying
loa4. TM t:urTrnts flawing at Meir end of the gmenuor winding arc shown in Fig. 5.J2.
Assuming that the CTs IU1lJC 40015 amps ratio and no i1UJC01rom will tht ,.lay trip
t~ gmtr11tor CB under tl11s faull condition.
Fig. 5.32(a)
Prot..ctlon and Switchgear 5. 41 O.nerator ProtectJon
l1•1i
2 -
Fig. 5.32(b)
(AIJ.April·200ll
Solution : From the given current at two ends, let us calculate CT. secondary
curents at two ends,
'1 = (300+jO)x~=3.75A
11 = (300+ jO)x
4~
= 4.5 A
The relay roll current • 11 - i2 • 0.75 A
• 4.125 A
12
From the chnracteristic:s of 12 % slope, corresponding to ( ;, ; ) , the out of
balance current required is,
i1 - iz • slope•(;, ; i2) = 0.12 x 4.125 e 0.495 A
Thus i1 - i, must be more thntn 0.495 A for relay to operate. And actually it is
0.75 A. Hence the relay will operate :
(1,_l,I 18.18 % slo

12,. slope
Adv••
point
0.75"
4.125A
Fig. 5.33
Protection and Switchgear 5. 42 Generator ProtectJon
Actuol point· is loc.ited in positive torque region. Slope of line thmugh actua] point is
: (1, - i,J s 0.95 x 100
(i· ;i,) 4.125
= 18.18 %
A» this slope Is more than 12% of the characteristics given, relay will operate.
•• Example 5.12: A J pluls<, JO MVA, 6.6 kV alternator supplies a /ood of 8 MVA at

0.8 p]. und is IN>mg protttttd t/1ro11gl1 Mtr:."prr<t cirn11#t1ng curren! systrm and 115
,,~111y:o trrt ~ r..tl that thty ''" not opemt« until lht out of ""1/anct current ocurs nt 20%
of full load c11rrmt. Coln1/ntt ti~ool11e of Mrt/1 rttl51ana: to bt providfd i11 ordff to
t•rrsurt• tllnt 011/y JO'Jr'. of 11/tm111tor winding remains 11nprottett!d. Assu111t altrrnator
rmctn11rr of 10% Ntg/t'(/ rtSista111x of tlrt altcr11ator. IAU·De<.·21l<Ml
Solution: VL = 6.6 kV. Rating= 10 MVA, V = Vr.f../3 = 3810.5117 V.
Rating = .J3 VLIL
IO x IO' = 874.7731 A ... Full load current
J3 x 6.6x l03
IX
• v• 100 ... X • Rc.,ctnncc per phllte
10 = 874.mix x 100
3810.5117
x = 0.43560
Reactance of unprotected winding •

11~
x 0.4356 = 0.<»356 0
v = Voltogc induced in unprotected winding
10
• iOO x v • 381.0Sll 7 v
= F•ult current = 20% of IL : 174954 A
z : v
I
= Impedance offered to fault• 2.178 0
But z = A + j 0.04356 n
... IZ I = JR1 ~(0.04356)2
(2.178)2 • R2 •(0.04356)2
R • 2.177 0 .. Earth resistance required
Protection and Switchgea_r 5. 43 Generator Protection
.,.. Example 5.13 : C11rtl'nt trn11sfvrmers of r11rre11t ratio of 1000/S A art 11Sfd for
protrctto» of a star ronntdtd J pha<t, 10 MVA. 6.6 kV nltmtntor If 1/11• rdny is Sl't to
Of)l'rnlr< for a minimum current of 0.5 A, Cnlculalr ti,. '"""'''"~' ef rach 11l111s.• stator
1virrdtt1g u~rirh is 11nprottcttd agains torlll fault 1vlten tlPr ,,whirit operott'S at nor111al
vollagr. Assume lhnt star point of alt<rrr11tor is e11rlltrd through a rts1stanct of 7.5 !t
(AU· April· 2005)
Solution : VL = 6.6 x 103 v, R = 7.5 n. C.T. ratio Q 1000/S. i,, = 0.SA
I,, = i,, x C.T. ratio = 0.5 x I~ = 100 A
103
V = ~ = 6·6x = 3810.5117 V
..f3 .f3
RI 7.5 x 100
'X. winding unprotected • T x 100•3810.5117x100
• 19.682%
'""' Example 5.14 : A ~ kVA, 6.6 kV stnr c.ot111Ht~ Altnnalor 1111.3 a syncJ1ronous
rrat'IRllCI'of 1.0 n pn pllllsr and 11rgligible rt"Sisln11cr. 11.. diff,,..mtiJrl rt/try op<rn/'5 if
tlrr out of bolanct currrnt through it exc.'eds 3(;% of tht norrnal full load current of thr
alternator. 111t slilr pomt of tht' alternator is rartlt<d through a rl'Sistancc of 5 0 . Wltal
percent of the slal<>r winding is left unprotected ? Show Iha/ the effrrt of tht' alternator
ri'ndn11ct arn bt ~ltdrd. (AU·D«.·2005)
Solution : The full load current,
SOOx 103
• 43.738 A
• J:i•6.6xlO'
Out of balana> rurent s 30% le • 0.3 x 43.738 • 13 1214 A
Let winding unprotected : x 'Yo
Impedance of x"'. winding = 1
~ (0 + j I)
Value of earthing resistance = 5 !l

' Total impedance at fault of the fault circuit.
a (5 + j 0.01 x]
Voltage induced in • '!o of winding
6.6 • tol x 66x
• J3 "100. Jj
Voltage induced
Out of balance current •
Impedance
Proteetion and Switchgear 5. 44 Genenitor Protection
13.1214 • ... (I)

S+JO.Olx
Thb "' to be solv•'<I by trinl and error method. Hence errcct ol alternator reactnnre
""" be neglected.
13.1214
~ = 1.7217 % ..• Winding unprotetced

The equation (I) can be solved as,
66x
s-fj
13.1214 = ... Considering magnitude.
Jcsi1 +(o.01xJ'
J25•(0.0lx)2 = 2.904 x
25 +(O.Olx)2 • 8.4334 x2
x • 1.7217%
Th" •how• th.lt the rcactance can be neglected without any error.
Review Questions
I \\1tKll ~ th.- t.wnoUJ tyin offaulr~ tuhFch tun oct11r in If getN'Ut&r ? Ex'*'" '" brief
2 Mty tltr prottelicn qf g<nt"rDIOt'I ;,, comph'X ? £.xplain.
J. \"1lJdl mr tltt' rvrious abnor111alru11111ng ronditio,,s, wlrkh may e;i:ut in " gmnato< ' Wltilt ""
t_.,r tf!«ts and IJOW t~ t/frds c•n be mbrimiud 7
"· Erplirm IJ-.t' br:$ic differmtialprotection sch~"mt'. Whnt nrr its dis44N11btga !
S. E.qWm tht bi:r::t.ic pm·t11tagr diffi•rcrntial prottch'o11 sdwite. Dnr.v its opmating ~
$1to;tvtg po51.tnv t1nd ~tit.-IO'rflllt" rrgkms.
6. Dnr.u tmd npltrm tlv Mtr:·l'rlCt prOf«liot1 of dlftnuttor Slator utfn.dinp. Star.t 1H *'t.Ylnlaga.
1. \\l.t d tht '°'"of 1tu.rflktry rtlly, in M1r:-Priu prottttion 1
8. E1plo111 tit.- tr:slnctnl ftl.rllr /iJu/r proitttlon uf grntraton.
9 {.)nm- tlr o:p""310n Nr lltt pt'ffi'ttt«gt of windiMg 1111pro1«14'fl in thr rdlntl.t'IJ «'llrlh }alllt
l'f'Ol«llOft..
JO UJMm tht OJ't'Wllc>n of untfftnct.,'tlNrlh /a11ft JJrotttt;on ldlfmt.
J J. p,r.,. 1111J npl.11n 1Ml111trtidotrttt fa1dl prottrtlol1 «hr1rir
Jl- Is 11 po#i~ tlwt 100 % ca.•Jnding of grnrrtJtor 11prottt"tdl1g11n# filrllt fat1fr, > H°"' 1
U. SuU'fl th< ""'-Jo< 1ntm1"" fault prott<liOft for Stat#' of"""""""'·
Protection and Swltchge.,. 5 -45 i;.n-.,, Protection
14. £.:qlai11 tM ntrtliv ,,.,_ .tnf"t"ICl'prolt:elionfor lfll' gcucrators.
JS. l-o,.7wt ,.,_. tlk- tntthods to prwadt rotor 01rth/null prot('Ctiau ~

16 H.fl*t tht l"OftdlOtl 1pJ1t.1t lM$ of tzcit11tI0~1 is pruvklL'li ilt gf'tt('t'fttOf'I r W1ly 11 Cl '*J'O'Ulll 1
JJ. A If'"""''°' Is ptot"okd w.th Mlrl(ttd "'r1lif1'1dt prolrC110J1. TI1t ,.,t1ngt •rr 11 tv.
5000 tVI\.
Thro 1vnYH1-,,v cf unJ1ng ''°'"''J 411tai1Ut pJMSf to grtJ11nd fault ;, 80%.. Tflt trify fttftft$ 1ut#J
rlatt '' tnp§ fol 2.S'lt Oki of ba.1111act. C11Jc11l1ttt' ti~· rriistancf to ltt ltddtd 111 '""'"' to ground
'°""""''•· <An.s.. 1.94 n1
11. Tht NWlflll poi11t of Q 10,000 V aitf'fU.lllOr 1$ fQrlhi"d tl1roi1gl1 It felll.fllrt« of 10 alt-. ,,...f'tWy ii
.stf to optntt "*"' tNrt ~on 0111 of bolstn<t' c11rrtt1t <f 1A. TM C.T.s hftrt • nrtio of IQ00.5.
Whal p«cm~ of tJr romding & proti'tt('d 11g1ti11st fi1urt ro Nrlh •ml afttt Jfhllt bt wti1ti-n11m
m
tulflt' oj IUJ"iJrmg l'l'$JSI#""' to gitlf' pn>f«/;011 lO eot'll phnM winding '!
(Ans. : 62.5.,., us OJ
19. A J ~. 2 polt-. 11 kV~ 10,IXJO kVA onemetor hi'.s 1wutraf cWrlht-4 tltTOUgli • rt'Sl'!'lantt of 1
ohru. TJct tnlldlint It.is '11.rmtt bokr11ct prol1:rlion which optnrt~ upon out of lwlanu "'""''
l'7ettd 2~ of full "'"- Detmnint % of wi•d;.,g I"""""' •ga;nst ntrth fault. (Anf. :38.4%)
10. 1ltt Frg. 5.J41a} ~ pm:n1tag" dijfrrr.11t1nl "'"Y applkJ to tht- pl'Ot«tion tf en aftlnutor
a..,nifmf, T1w nWy ha; 1044 ;loptr of diarocttris.tits 11 .. 12 w: (IJ + 12}!2.
A •wt rt'Nfl•.nc" ground fault O.."Cllrrtd ~1tar 1111! KrcHltt.drd ritutml rnJ af tht gttttrotot 1t'f.11d1ftg
rilM ~ n tvtrytng '°'"'·
A.1 • OOllH'qlll"Urt, lM (Urrtnts I'! ll1ffP'(f'tl ~"I •1 tWlr tn:d c(
tht • .,,..,,,,, •tr lhowrt '" rig. S.J4. l\SJUtuinx c.T. "''"' "' 400(5 .,,.pt'f't'4 ..,,,
tht ttlitly
ortn" to ttrp tltt bMtktr (An1. : Rcl1y will not optr1tt)
Operating eel
Fig. 5.34(a)
I
0.39A
' I S«IPI. 10%

''
: 3.9A
!L..!l
2 --~char8C1eri1tlc
Fig. 5.34(b)
Protection and s·wltchgear 5. 46 Generator Protect.ion
21. /\ rI l'V. J rfwN Mttr,..tt.w lurt full /Qr.f(f rQlt'd currtrtl of 200 /\ ~cf ,.,.,,,.turt wil'ldlng if
15 Jlf'rttnt. Tht J1f/f't'mtwl prolttlHm 1y,t1•n1 1$ 1tt to Opi"'dtt on Nrtlt faMJt tumtJtl of '"Ort '"""
2(J(J Ai, find tht n.tMrr.J f'llrthing rnl1tu11cr, ri.iliiC'lt giws rartlt fe'1'1t J"'1tttfl0n IO ~ of 1tt.1tor
u•11tJ11f,(. (Ans.: l.'l45 n)
22.. /\ i>.tar...conntctN J.J!l'lltfr 10 AiVA, 6,6 kV oltmwJor Ml • pn phnt rt'fld.an(t of JO?I'.. It ;,
prot«.tt'd ly Akn•Mt clml.l.tit1g-<urfl."1t pr1'nclplt Ulhidl 11 ltf IWJ 1JptT91' ft- fault <urrent$ not
l.t!S.." than 175 A. c.IntlJJtt IN i.ubu of mrtl1ing rt'lisblna to be- ptT1f"dtd "' onJn to t'ttSU'i' tlNl.t
onJ.lf 10% of tltr MttnUlor winding rrntlil11t.111nproted(t/. <An.J.: 2.1710)
23. Ai >1or conn«ttJ.J plwl:s<, lO MVI\, 6.6 kV rtft1¥"nntor is pn>t«tal by Ainz~Pricr cimllnting
<untJ1I priJtdplit 1<n'N5 lt'IUptrr'S C'umnl tr•~
tdi11g 1ltt Sb1T pOml of th.! alh'rnator 11
... nhni 1hm13h • ,....,....,., of 7.5 0 • If lh< minim•., opmrtlllf ,,,,..,., for lltt rtlily b O.S A,
cnl<iflatr tlr pnrmi.gt of iOdr. pluw oj' tht stator ttti.ruli'fg 1l1'udl is unprt)tt'CMI ogo111JI L'rlflh
fo1tlt.1 fl>htN tM _,,,,.,.ts opm1l1ng 111 ,1urn1al volt1gt. (Ant. : 19.69 %)
2.f. A 6600 rolt J..1tl•s.- t-.rltcHltirnntor '"~!f
a n1l':rt1t1111t1 r0tttl1tt1ma ,.,,,., of 2.tOO .tW •I 0.8 pf.
u1td its. frfll"l•M' l1 11.5%. fl & tqulpJil"J (uitl1 Mtr:.*PrtO" cirn;i.t1'-8 tu'"'"t f"Ol«tion ~~thkh 11
kt to oprnttt o.t foull CUt'mll.l not Ids tl1111t 200 111ttptrt1. Ftnd ...,, tulw aJ tht- n.-11tnrl l'l'lt1'11ri,it
n-s.rStoJIN'r I~ 10'% f/ tlw n-<rndin~ tnrprotttttd 1 (An.J. : 1.89 0)
25. A. 5(.) MV~. J.-pl~. lJ J:V •lltmot.or W bti11g prOIH-trd !iy thr 11:!1' of mt'UIMing ~unmt bdlan(t
Khm1r- i&ng ~ atnfl'(" aumrt tm11sformer. Tht nM1tnl of dtt gmitntor 11 tr1rlbtd thro11gl1 a
NCR of 7.5 olnt1s. If t~ pict up t;u-rrt'11t far thl rtlily i; jltSI a6oot' ().S ""'PftY• dttum.int wliat
pertt11ta:gr tf Hit 1Cirf4;ng of '*1t phtut' unprcHtcted ag.oinst tut1t U.WW tM ""'1(1Une optniftS 12t
IWl'f'li;Wfl ""'•· (Ant. : ?.88'%)
000
6
Induction Motor Protection
6.1 Introduction
Based on the control action i.e. starting. stopping or reversal, various controlling
clements known In electrical terms as switchgear are employed for the prote<tlon ol
lndt•ctlc.>r\ motor. Gene-rally two basic prorecuons viz, short cin:u1t protecticn and
overload protection are provided lor each motor. The swatchge•r used for protection
includes contactors with H R.C (use and thermal overload rebys along with circuit
breakers.
II the rating ol the molQr is upto 150 kW then contactors and ruses can be used
while for motors having rating beyond 150 kW, circuit breakers are used. The
contactor is a kind o( switch through which supply can be given to the motor when
its coil is energized. I( the current to be Interrupted is six times the rated current o(
the motor then contactors can be used.
6.2 Abnormal Conditions and Failure in Case of Induction Motor

The t11N.~ phase brductton motors are used in numerous indU5trial applications.
Hence before studying the protection clrcuit we have to consider the abnormal
conditions and fuilure that may occur in case ol induction motor.
JI the motor is heavily loaded beyond Its capacity then It will be overload
coedtnon o( motor In \\fhich case motor draws 1\cavy CllrTcnt from the supply and
there will be simultaneous rise in temperature of winding and detertorarton or the
insulation resulting in damage of winding. Hence the motor must be protected against
this mechanical overloading with overload protection circuits.. Normally thermal
overload relays, over current relays or miniature circuit breaker with built in trip coils
may be used.
It 1nigl1t be possible th.it the rotor is locked or starting lasts for longer duration 01'
rotor does not move because of excessive load (stalling) at 5tart. ln all these cases
motor draws heavy current from the supply and results in damage to the winding
due to o\•c_rhe.,ting as stared above. Jn this cnsc the_mtal re.la)") or mstantaneous
overeurrem rclay!I: arc used.
(6 - 1)
Protection and Switchgear 6-2 Induction Motor Protection
If the supply conditions are abnormal such as loss of supply voltage, unbalanced
suppl} voltage. phase sequence reversal of supply voltage, over voltage, under volt.ag•
or under frequency then also the performance of the motor is affc-cted. \Villi
unbalanced supply voltage there will be excessive heating while with undervoltage the
motor draw.!t more current for the same load. for undervoltage protection,
undervoltage relays arc used.
With correct phase sequence, the motor runs in one direction. With change In
ph..,.., sequence of supply it runs in other direction which Is dangerous in some of the
apphCdt101\S such a."J cranes, hoists or elevators. In sueh cases pl·u1sc reveNOI relay may
be provided which will disconnect the supply to the motor through the rircuit
breaker
Due to excessive temperature rise, the Insulation may get damaged which may
lead to stator earth foult or stator phase to phase fault which are rare in nature. Por
low rating motors, HRC fuses provide sufficient protection against these faults while
for large motors, diffefl'ntial protection may be used.
Due to blowing of fuse In any phase or open circuit in one of the three phases
results in single phasing. In such case motor continues to run and if it is loaded to its
rated value then it will draw excessive current which will damage the rotor and
eventually th.! motor will be damaged due to excessive overheating. Normally thermal
overload reL'lys are used against sing.le pha~ing. Sometimes. special single phase
preventer m.1y be provided.
Summary of abnormal condition and protection circuit to be employed is given in
the table.
Abnorm.-1 oondltlon Choice of prolectk»n circuit to bt' employed
I Med\an.cal ovttloed Ovef'toltd rftan. themi.i OYtrtoed re-lay, O¥er

currenl relayt, miniature drcuil br"li.ef (MC8) '#Ill
built In !tip coll.
2 SU11ng or ptOlongt<t starclng ot motor Thermat rollys, ln1tant.1neou1 cwercurr~ r1tey.
3 Undlf YOltoge Undor votiage r1'8IH·, Ul'lder Yolt8ge retey.
• Unbl!lnotd vob91 Negeltve pha11 MQlHMCI rtlaya.
$ R~ ~ .. tOQUenc:e PhNt revetNI rei.y.
6 PhNe llO phue tault or phase to urlh HRC fuse. lna1an1aneiou1 ovwcurranl rel.ya. fot
foul lat~ moto11, dlfferentJall)fot......, moy bo
omployo<Ifor oconomy.
1 Single phasing Th1rmel overto.d r•ys., tingle phase prev.nw.
Te.ble 6.1
Protection and Switchg•ar 6-3 Induction Motor Protection
The motor protection circuit that Is designed should be simple in operation and
economically feasible. Its cost should be less than 5% of the motor cost. It should also
be kept in mind that during starting and permissible overload conditions, the
protection cimiit should not operate. The choice of motor protecting circult Is !Msed
on variOU5 factors •u<h as roted voltage, ratoo k\V, size of motor, type of onductJon
motor, type of starter, type of switchgear used, cost of motor, type of load, starting
current possibility of occurrence of abnormal conditions etc.
6.3 Protection Circuit for Induction Motor

The protection circuit along with its single line dtegrem Is shown in the Ag. 6.1.
Fusa
The<mal overtoed reley
f~ Switch
Fuse
ON pushbuuon
-
(normally open)
OFF
(NOl!Nllll' Bunoo
.-ct)
Mein
COOCaolS
-r-.11m:-.. • ·······I·· ·t ··I·· ·I::;~
R v B AC
Induction
MOlor
(•) {b) Sing1e One dlJOrWft
Fig, 6.1
Prote-ction and Swftc,hgear 6-4 Induction Motor Proteetk>n
The three phase supply is given to the motor through various elements such as
ruse. switch, contactor and thermal overload relay. The control circuit of contactor
consists o( energizing coll. start and stop buttons. The start (ON) push button is
normally open gn.>en switch while the stop (OFJ') push button is normally closed red
..,\, 1trh.
Wh<'ll the st.tr! button is pressed then the contactor coll is energized "' it gets
supplv vottage, The coil ottrncts the plunger when excited nnd the main contacts are
d°">d alon11 with the au~;t;•ry conrect. Even I( the ON push button is rclea se'Cl, the
ainractor cool remains energized os it get• supply through auxiliary contacts. ThuJ
motor st~lrts runnlng.
The OFF push button which is normally closed when pressed cuts the supply o(
the rootactor roil and hence the main as well a.• auxiliary contacts are open so motor
eventually stops. I( supply voltage fails, control coil ls de-energized whioh opens the
rontactor and motor stops.
0\1ring cvertoad condition, the thermal overload relay operates. Thermal overload
rel•y consists of bimetallic strips. Because or bending or one or more bimetallic strip
results in operation of common lever which operates rhe trip contacts to de-energize
the coil and disconnects the supply to the motor.
The bimetallic strips are either heated directly by flow of current or with the help
of special heater coil through which motor current flows. For large motors, these
rel,.tys are connected in secondary of current transformers. The bimetallic strips can be
oi sell s..>tting type or hand resetting type in which mechanical reset is required as the
trip m«hanism locks itself in operated cond.ition. u should be observed that the rating
oi thermal relay should be such that it should not operate during normal starting
condihons. A setting range is provided for adjustment for various load conditions.
Protection against short circuit is provided with the help of HRC fuses.
6.4 Single Phasing Preventer

If one of the suppl)' line is disconnected due lo open circuit or improper contact in
.witch then still the motor continues to run. The power is then supplied to the
rem..,ning windinl!'. The current in the other phASl'8 lncrcaSl'8 to about ./3 times its
norm;al value. This is called single phastng which results in unbalanced stntor currents,
The component which is present In thls unbalanced current called negative sequence
component causes magnetic flux rotating in cpposlte direction to the main flux. This
results in double frequency currents to induce in the rotor to cause its heating. Thus
mAjor damage to motor mni• take place due to single phasing i( proper prC<'aulion is
not taken. As the phase ovcrcurrent relays react slowly, they cannot give the
instantaneous protection against single phasing.
Protection and Switchgear Induction. Motor Protection
For small motors separate protection og•inst single phasing is norma,lly not
provided as thermal relays sense the increased current in rcmoming phases due to
sini;le phosmg and provides the su((icicnt protection.
A separaee •ingle phMlng protection circuit is required in ~•sc of large lnduchoo
motors as even a small unbalance can cause damage to motor \vinding and rotor. The
single ph.1s1ng preventer is shown in the Fig. 6.2.
R y B
L i L~ L
~
f c.r.
:J C.T, C.T.
Thermal
""9rlood
relay
-·-
ON
OFF
•• • ~
···R·l·v·•·;i··1I=
•
- COtltadof Conia<:1or
coil
Three phase
IJ~.
Fig. 6.2
As shown in the figure. it consists of C.Ts connected in each phase. The output of
control circuit is fed to the level detector which sense the magnitude o( unbalan«.
Depending oo this output from the control circuit the tripping command to th<! •tarter
or the circuit breaker is given when negative sequence current exceeds its preset limil
Protection and Swttc:1>9ear 6·6 Induction Motor Prottcilon
6.5 Ground Fault Protection

The gro11nd fault protection is achieved using corth leakage circuit brcaktt (ELCB).
When the fault current or leakage current nows through earth return path then It
forms the earth fault, These faults are relatively frequent and hence protection is
required against these which is provided with the help of Earth leakage circuit
breaker.
Consider an example of a person whose linger sticks into the socket. Even though
the metal enclosure is securely earthened, the person will receive a severe shock.
Under such case there must be certain device that will rut the Sllpply. This can be
done with the help of ELCB which will typically trip in around 25 ms ii current
exceeds Its preset value.
The schematic of EL.CB is shown in Fig. 6.3.
..,.,_
c.......
nn1tormtr 1
Mlgle
"".,_/ . -..;---,,__~~~~_] - L
..._
Fault ID
..mo.iew;,
•k~~or
_ ..
phneaupply
N..------<L___ j-~ • eouctling
: to a M lel"mfnal
-..-.
••
• .•• •
•
•• .. J-----------·
Fig. 6.3
As shown ln the Fig. 6.3 EL.CB consists of a small culTe.Tlt transformer surrounding
live and neutral wire. The secondary winding of current transformer ls connected to
relay circujt which can trip the circuit breaker which is connected in the circuit.
Under normal conditions, lhe current In line and neutral conductor is same so the
net current (IL -IN) flowing through the core Is zero. Eventually there will not be any
production of flux in the core and no induced emf. So the breaker does not trip.
If there is a fault due to leakage from live wire to earth or a person by mistake
touching to the live terminal then the net current through the core will no longer
remain as zero but equal to IL -IN or 11 which will set up Owe and emf in C.T. As
per the preset value the unbalance in current Is detected by C.T. and relay coil Is
energized which wiU give tripping singal for the circuit breaker. As C.T. operates with
low value of curttnl. the core must be very permeable at low nwc densiljl!s.
Protection and Switchgear 6·7 Induction Motor Protection
In case of three phase circuits, single ring shaped core of magnetic material,
encircles the conductor or all three phases as shown in the Fig. 6.4. A secondary is
connected to relay circuit. Under normal condition, the component of fluxes due to
fields of three conductors are balanced and secondary carries negligible current.
R Y B
,,
Coro_ Rol1y
ofC.T,
Secondery
of. C.T.
Fig. 6.4
During foulty condition, the balance is disturbed and current is induced in the
secondary to trip the circuit breaker through relay.
This method to provide eorth fault protection I• collcd core boloncc type
protection or zero sequence current lrans(om\er (ZSCT) protection. In Cl\SC o( earth
faults, to avoid burning o( coils and stampings the motor must be dlsconnected as
quickly M possible from the supply.
The Fig. 6.5 shows ZSCT prorection scheme. It Is preferred for the systems wilh
neutral earthed via resistance. (See on next pag<.•)
6.6 Phase Fault Protection

This protection is also called short circuit protection. At the time of such a fault,
the current increases by 8 to 10 times the full load current of the motor. Attracted
armature type relay unit is connected in each phase with a current setting of 4-S times
the full load current. This is because starting current can be 4-5 times full load current.
Protection and Switchgear 6-8 Induction Motor Protection
R------<f>---
Y
8
f Three
phase
suppfy
I
ruu
r--~
.
C.8. ~
-
Cable bOx - \--I
oorrent balance -
Coreltanstonner
(ZSCT)
jft:==-J
_,.,, Over curren1
relay
time relay
Three
phase_
supoty llna
Fig. 6.5 Earth leult protection by ZSCT

Hence to operate the relay only under foult condition such a setting is necessary. Such
• prott'<tion is shown in the Fig. 6.6.
C.T.1
, - R Th(ff
lnductio<I y ,,.,. ..
motor
... '
- 8 IU~
·'- - -- "•
• 'I I I'
Pn•M
~
-- - -·' laull
ptOlldlon
I I Ea
ptOI
Fig. 6.6 PhaM and earth fault protection

Protection and Switchgear 6·9 Induction Motor Protection
The phase fauJts can cause burn out of coils and stampings and bence 1TI<1tor
should be disconnected as quickly as possible when fouh occurs Fast over current
r\!1.iy~ alee are used to provide phase (Jlalt prorecuoo.
As mentioned above to avoid relay functioning during st.1rting.. the short circuit
protection current setting must be just above the mnximum starting current of the
motor,
6. 7 Phase Reversal Protection

The direction of induction motor depends on the direction of rotating magnetic
field produced by the stator windings. for • particular phase sequence RYB lho
motor rotates in a particular direction due to cerrespcoding direction of rotathlg
magnetic fit•ld. But if any two lines arc tnrerchanged after repairs the phase 5(.-quei'l<'t.>
reverses such as YRB Then the direction of rotating m..1gnctic fic-ld also reverses and
Induction motor slarts rot~ling in opposite direction. Such • chanso of dir<.oetlun Is
dangerous if the induction motor is used for cranes, hoists, lifts or in threading mills
etc.
Thus to disconnect induction motor from supply if there is phase reversal, phase
reversal protection is provided.
This protection is provided using motor driven disc working on electromagnetic
principle. The secondaries or two current transformers connected in two lines drive the
motor to operate the disc. The arrangement is such that for .1 normal direction of
motor, disc rotates in a particular direction which keeps the auxiliary contacts dosed.
6ut If there is phase reversal then the torque produced reverses to mt.lie the disc in
opposite direction. Due to thts au.xili.iry contacts get opened. This intunl clthce
operates the circuit breaker or de-energises starter roil to disconnect the n1ntor (mn1
the supply. Thus phase revers.ii protection for the Induction motor l• achieved. Now •
days solid slate phase reversal relny sensing the phase reveesal is used
Review Questions
1. E.xplain •bn~ conJ1tJOnS ""'' possfblt'/aflurr of htdudkm mDION.
2. Y\?::dl ~ of prott'ft""" ts !d«tnf for t'Ur101l$ nbnor,,i.11 conditwns ?
3. ~'" the O«rlodd proltclltN'I US1ng lhtnnrd relays uSf'd for ~·nductlOf'I JllO'tor.
4, J.low twrih fault prOl«t""1 if prut!U.ft.d to lltt< itulut:llo11 riroton. !
5. ExplJtln ~It ,nttsmx m mdudhtl1 motoN. I to1u ,,1olor Le prolrt.tal from sngk plawn~ 1
6. llow th-."" foults pn!'l«fllN'I '' proc•sJtd to tJrc• i11tturtwr1 t1Ktt~ 1
1 \.Vh.:11 d: plt#k "f'tllt'rlltl 1 \o\'1aitt Ii 11'$ cffi"t.t 1 Hittt.1 It IJ pn•clf'nttd ,,. 1nd..ctNHt MOia,.. 1
oao
l•. 11)
7
Transformer Protection
7.1 Introduction
The transformers are static devices without having any rotating part and are
totally enclosed. Hence the chances of faults occurring on transformers are much rare
as compared to the faults occurring on generators. Similarly possibilities ol running on
abnormalconditions are also less in transformers compared to the generators.
But though the fault possibility is rare, if fault occurs, the translormer must be
quickly disronnect<d from the system, The rare faults ii not cleared quickly can get
developed into the major faults which may be very serious for the transformer. Hence
the proi.rtion must be provided to the transformers •gainst possible faults.
The use of series fuses is very common in case ol small distribution transformers
instead of circuit breakers. Hence it Is not necessary to install any autorrustic prot«tive
relaying equipm<!nls with the distribution transformers. But the power transformers
hnving large ratin!I" always need some type of automatic proteetive relaying
equipments, to give protection against the possible faults.
7.2 Posslble Transformer Faults

The generators are subjected to the number of faults and atmonmal conditions but
the transfonners are not Tbe various possible transformer faults are.
I. Overheating 2 Winding faults
3. Open circuits 4. Through faults
5. Over Ruxing
Let us discuss lhff<! faults.
7.2.1 Overheating
The overheating ol the transformer Is basically of suslllined overloads and short
dn:uits. The permissible overload and the corresponding duraUon is del'<"J\dent on t~
type of transform<.,. and clius of insulation used for the tr.tnsforrncr. Hlg~r loods are
permissible for very short duration or time. The overloading which continues for
longer time is dang<>rous as it causes overheating of the transformer. Similarly the
failure of the cooling system, though rare, is another possible caUSI' of overheating.
(7 • 1)
Protection and Switchgear 7-2 Transformer Protection
~rally the thermal overload relays and temperature relays. sounding the alarm are
used to provide protection against overheating .. Similarly temperature indicators are
also provided. On the transformers, when temperature exceeds the pcrmissiblr limib,
the alarm sounds and the fans are started. The thermocouples or res1Stance
temperature tndreators art: olso provtded near the winding. Tht>se ere connected in a
bridg• cln"Uit. When temperature exceeds tho llmiling SJfo value, the bridge balance
gets disturbed and alrtrm is sounded. II the eorreerive action is not taken within
e<.-rtain period of time then the circuit breaker Jrips.
7.2.2 Winding Faults

The winding foults ore called internal faults. These faults are,
1) Phase to phase foults
ii) E.irth faults
iii) lntertum faults
The overheating or mechanical shocks cause to deteriorate the winding insulation.
I( the winding insulation ls weak, there Is a possibility of short circuit between thc
phases or between the phase and ground. Also the possibility of short circuit between
the adjacent turns of the same phase winding is also possible.
when such an internal futilt OL"CW'S, the transformer must be quickly disconnected
from the system. If such a fault persists for longer time. there is possibiUty ol oil fire.
The differential protection is very commonly used to provide protection against such
faults, Stat this protection is not economical for the transformers below 5 MVA for
which an over curn:nt protection Is used. For the high capacity transformers in
addition to main differential protection. the overcurrent protection is also provided as
c backup protection. For earth fault protection, the restricted earth fault protec-tion
~~tent. neutral current relays or leakage to frame protection system is used,
7.2.3 Open Circuits

Tbe op<>n circuit in one of the three phases is dangerous as it causes the
undesirable heating ol the transformer. A separate rclny protection Is not provided for
the open circuits as open circuits arc much harmless compared to other faults. In case
o( such fnults, tho transformer can be mnnually dlsconneeted from the system.
7.2.4 Through Faults

Through fJults are the externnl faults whleh occur outside the protected zooe,
Through faults are not detected by the diffen:ntial protection. If the through faults
persists for long period of time, the transformer may get subjected to the thermal and
mechanical stresses which can damage the transformer. The over<"Urrent relays with
undervoltage blocking, zero sequence protection and negative sequence protection are
Prot&etion and swttchgear 7.3 TransfomHH' Protection
used to give protection •g•inst through foults. The setting ol th• overcum.'nt
protection not only protects the transformer but also covers the station busbar and
portion or • lnmsmi.sslon line. S11ch a protection acts OS • backup protection for the
differential protoo1on.
7.2.5 Overfluxlng
The Owe density in the transformer core is proportional to the ratio of the voltage
to frequ""C)' Le. V/(. The power transformers ore designed to work with {t!rtam value
of Rux density in the core. In the generator transformer unit, i( full excitation is
applied before generator reaches its synchronous speed then due to high V/f the
overfluxtng ol core may result. Higher core flux means more core loss and overheating
of the core. The saturation ol magnetic circuit is also the probable cause for the
overfluxing operation. The V /I relay called vol ls/hertz relay is provided to give the
protection against overfluxing operation. This relay does not allow exciting current to
now till lhe genen>lor roaches lo o synchronous speed and runs to produce voltage ol
proper frequency. The overfluxing relays with enough time lag also can be provided.
Apart from these foults, some other foults like tap-changer faults, high voltage
surges due to lightning J.nd switching, incipient faults l.e. slow devejopmg foults may
elso occur in the lransfo1 mers, The Bu<hholz relay is used for oil Immersed
lronsformers to give the protection against lncipient foults.
7.3 Percentage Differential Protection for Transformers

The percentage differential protection or Merz-Price protection based on the
circulating current pnnciple can also be used for the transformers. This system gives
prolection ag;iinsl phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults to the power
transformers.
n..., principle of such a protection scheme is the comparison of the currents
entering and lea,~ng the ends of a transformer. The vector difference of currents 11 - 12
passes through the operating coil while the average current (11 + i.J/2 passes through
the restraining coil. In normal conditions, the two currents al the rwo ends of the
trn.nsforme.T are equal and balance is maintained. So »o current flows through the
operating coil of the relay and relay is inoperative, But when there is phase to phase
foult or phoR to ground la11lt, this balance gets disturbed. The d.ifle"'°"' current
nows through the operating coil due lo which relay operates, tripping the circuit
breaker.
Compnred to the differential protection used in generators, there are certain
lmportanl points which must be taken care ol while usmg such protechon for the
power lransfonncrs. These points ore,
Protection and Switchgear 7.4 Transformer Protection
I. In n powor transformer, the voltage rating of the two windings is different. The
high voltage winding is low current winding while low voltage winding lS
high current winding. Thus there always exists difference in current on the
prunary and secondary side'& of the power transformer. Hence If C.T.s of same
ratio are used 011 two sides, then relay 1nay get operated through there 1.s no
fault cxisnng.
To compensate for thi' difficulty, the current ratios of C.T.s on each side are
di(Ccrent. TI'l'-"Sl' ratlos depend on the line currents <)f the p<.l\'\'er transformer
and t~\C connection of C.1',s. Due to the different turns ratio, tllC C'Urttllts (cd
into the pilot wires from each end arc same under normal conditions so that
the relay re1n;lins inoperative. for example lf K Is the turns ratio o( " power
transformer then the ratio of C.T.s on IO\Y voltage side is made K times greatt'r
th.1n that ol CT .s on high voltage side.
2. In case of power transformers, there Is an inherent phase difference between
th~ voltages induced in high voltage windtng and low voltage winding. Due to
this, there exists a phase difference between the line currents on prima.ryand
secondary sides of a power transformer. This introduces die phase difference
between the C.T. secondary currents, on the two sides of a power transformer.
Though the turns ratio o( C.T.s are selected to compensate for turns ratio of
transformer. a differential current may result due to the phase difference
between the currents on two sides. Such a differential CUrTe1'\t may operate the
relay though there is no fault. Hence it is necessary to correct the phase
difference.
To compensate for this, the C.T. connections should be such th.1t the resultant
currents fed into the pilot wires from either sides are displaced in phase by an
engle O'qu.11 to the phase shill between the primary and secondary currents. To
achieve this, secondaries of C.T.s on smr connected side of a power
transformer are connected in deli. while U1e secondaries of C.T .s on delta
connected side <)f " power ~mnsformcr arc connected in star.
The Tobie 7. 1 gives the way of connecttng C.T. secondaries for the vMiOUJ types o(
power tr.1nsfom1t•r cennectlons.
Power Tr1ntformer Conn.c:tlont c.. T. Conn•ctlon1
Prlmory Seoon<llry Prtmary s._..,.
SIOI DeltJ OolUl s...
Oolta Oelto Stor SW
St01 Stir Ot•• Oolta
°"'"' Star
Table 7.1
Star Delta
Protection and Switchgear 7.5 Trarnforme< Protection
With such an arrangement, the phase displacement between the currents gets
compensated with the opposlt~ly connected C.T. secondaries. Hence cum.'RI$ fed to
the pilot wil"'5 from both the sides arc in phase under normal running conditions and
the relay Is ensured to be inoperative.
3. The neutrals of C.T. star and power transformer stars arc grounded.
4. Many transformers have tap changing orra.ngemcnt due to which there is a
possibility of flow of differential current. For this, the turns ratio of C.T.s on
both sides of the power transformer are provided with tap for of C.T.s on both
sides of the power transformer are provided with tap for thdr adjustment.
For the sake of understanding, the connection of C.T. secondaries in delta for star
side of power transformer and the connection of C.T. secondaries in star for delta side
of power transformer is shown in the Fig. 7.1 (a) and (b).
Delta side of
S1er Ale power tr1115fotmw
of
,,,,,,,.,.,....pow., \... """"'"---+-i'fi'+--
lrtl'lllettnt
f
...
-- (•) (b)
--
Fig. 7.1
7 .3.1 Merz.Price Protection for Star-Delta Transformer

Let us study the Merz-Price protection for the star-delta power transformer. The
primary of the power transformer is star connected while the secondary is delta
connected. Hence to compensate for the phase difference, the C.T. secondaries on
primary side must be connected in delta while the C.T. secondaries on delta side must
be connected m star. The star point of the power transformer primary as well os the
star ~ C.T. secondaries must be ground<"<i.
The drcult diagram of the scheme Is shown in ~ie Fig. 7.2
The restrainirlg roils •~ connected across the C.T. secondary windings while the
operating coils are connected between the tapping points on the restraining coils and
the star point of C.T. secondaries.
Prot.ction and Switch1141or 7-6 Transfonner Prvtac:tion
f
i
Q
m
u ...... --- ------!------ _( ~
•
\ :- -~- - - - - - .. - - .... - .. ·: ~
o
0 ~
'-.....: I"'-- ..._ t - •c
I ..., ......_ I
1 ...,~ ~
I
o
I
I u
Il
I I 0
L-~-------------•· •' u
·1·1-~~~-.-~~--.
.'
--~----· ..................... .~ 0
I ' ''
''
'
',_ --- ------ - - - - - - - _,'
--------· ''
a!
o
t I I
d u a!
a: 0 u
..."'
0: ..
Protection and Switchgear 7 •7 Transfonner Proteetlon·
With the proper selection of turns ratio of C.T.s the cons are under balanced
condition during normal operating conditions. The C.T. secondaries Cart')' equal
currents which arc in phase under normal conditions. So no current Ilows through tile
relay and the relay is Inoperative.
With an Internal fault In power transformer wlndtngs, the: balance In the C.T.s get
disturbed. The operating coils of differential relay carry currents proportional to the
difference of current between the two sides of a power transformer. This causes the
relay operation which trips the main circuit breakers on both the sides or the power
tr.11tsfor1ncr.
The basic requirements of the differential relay are,
I. Th" differential relay must not operate on load or external faults.
2. It must operate on severe internal faults.
The relay Mtislying these requirements is used in Men-Price protection.
It Is Important to note thut thl$ scheme gives protection against short circuit foults
betwNn the turns i.e. lnterturn faults also. This is because when there is an Irucrtum
fault, the turns ratio of power transformer gets alfocted. Due to this the currents on
both sides o( the power tmnsformer become unbalanced. This causes an enough
dlfferentil1I current which nows through the relay and the reloy operates.
7.3.2 Merz-Price Protection for Star-Star Transformer

The Fig. 7.3 (S.<: Fig. on next page) shows the Merz-Prtce protecuoo system for the
star-stnr power transformer. Both primary and secondary of the power transfomler are
connected in star and hence C.T. secondaries 011 both the sides are connected in delta
to compensate (or the phase dlsplncement,
The star points of both the windings of the power transformer arc grounded. The
restralnlng coils arc connected in the C.T. seeondaries. The operating roils ore
connected between the tepplngs on the restraining coil and the ground. The operation
of the scheme remains same for any type of po~Ycr transformer as discussed for
star-delto power transformer.
Proledlon and Switchgear 7-B Transfonner Protectlon
ll .J
:>
I ~
LJ
p
:::i
lf
p
h
i
t
~ .-::.
!t - - - - - - - ------ -,
~
-- -- - - -- --
_/
~
___
' ' .•
I
''
''
<.i
a:
o
•• • (?_
• '' ~
·•:
·- - - - - - ------ - -'
<.i
0
•I'.,
•- - i.------ - - - .... - - '
I~
I
•'
•
'
. - - - - - - ------
I'
''
'' ·- - -- ------ -------
' - -'' '§ '§ ~
r r.;
~ J!s
t t t
u
« u0 u,,;
.I Lr- u-
-
j ::>
€n I> I .,>
I li
a:
Protection and Switchgear 7.9 Tran.afonner Protection
,,.. Example 7.1 : A thrtt phn~ "°"'"' transformer /1aoing a lmr voltag.- NtlD of 4()() V
to 3J kV tonttttttd in stnr-aelt». Tlltt C. T.s ou
1$ 4()() V s1dt l1attt rormtl rnt10 as
1000/5. What m11st b< ti"' C.T. reno 011 33 kV sidr.
A.~•umt nirmot on 4()() V sid1• of trmis/orm1•r to /,• J()()(I A.
_______________
{ ·-------------~
- ------ ---
__,
__,
-· -·~
CT
5A
' Ip C T MCOndlMI
lrl&W
5,)A
'-----------------------.
''
''
''
Fig. 7.4
Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 7.4.
On the primary side, which is 400 V side of transformer the current is 1000 A.
Hence CT .s primary will carry current of !:JOO A.
The C.T ratio is 1000/5 on the primary side hence the current in C.T.
S..orondaries which i• phasc current ol delta connected C.T.s Is.
5
Ip • IOOO•iii(j(j • 5 A
This is shown m the Fig. 7.4.

le • ./3 I,• 5./3 A
Protection and Swftc1l9ear 7·10 Tninaformer Protection
·nils is because the C.T. seeondartes are connected in delta.

The same <u'"'"t nowsthrough the stor OOMC<'ted C.T. sec:ondories. Hence ••Ch
secondary of C.T. on the secondary side of translonn•r carries a current of S,/3 A.
For the power transformer the apparent power on both sides must be same.
:. Primary apparent power • Secondary apparent power
,/3 Vu lu = ./3 Vu lu
"3x400x 1000 = ./3x33000x1Ll
lu = 4QOx IOOO = 12.12 A
33000
Thus each primary of C.T.s connected In &tar comes a cwrent of 12.12 A while
each scrondnry of C.T.s connected in stnr carries o curreet ol s./3 A.
Hence the C.T. ratio on 33 kV side is,
C.T. ratio = Primary current • .!!;!! • l .4 : 1
Secondarycurrent sJ3
This is the required C.T. ratio on 33 kV side.
7.4 Problems Encountered In Differential Protection

The problems encountered in the simple differential protection are.
I. Unmatched characteristico of C.T.s : Though the S3turation Is avoided, there
exists diflcrenre m the C.T. clU1mcteristics due to ratio error at high values ol
short cin:uit currents, This causes an appreciable difference in the secondary
currents which can operate the relay. So the relay openites for through externat
faults.
This dlfficuhy is overcome by using percentage differential relay. In this relay,
the difference in current due to ratio error exists and nows through relay coil.
But at the same time the average current (11 + 12/2) nows through the
restraining coil which produces enough restraining torque. Hence relay
becomes inoperative for the through faults.
2. Ratio change due to t.p change : To alter the voltage and current ratios
between high voltage and low voltage sides ol • power transformer, n tap
changing equipment is used. This is an Important feature of a power
transformer, This equipment clfectivi>ly alters the turns ratio. Thi• causes
unbalance on both sides. To compensate for thi• effect, the tappings con be
provided on C T.s also which are to be varied similar to the O\l\in power
transformer. But this method is not practicable.
Protection and Switc:hg&ar 7 -11 Transformer Protection
The percentage differential relays ensure the stability with respect to the
amount of unbalance occurring at the extremities of ~1e tap change range.
3 Difference In lengths of pilot wires : Due to the difference in lengths of the
pilot wires on both sides, the unbalance condition mny result. The difficulty is
overcome by connecting the adjustable resistors in pilot wtres on both sides..
Tbese are called balancing resistors. WILli the help of these resistors
cquipolcntfol polrus on the pllol wires cen be adjusted. In percentage
dtffcrenllal relays the lop• ore provided on lhc operarlng cool and reslr3tnlng
coil to achiC\•e balance.
~- M•gnetidng current inrush : When the rransformer is energized, llw c:ondilion
initially Is of Lero induced c.m.I. and ii is similar to 1he •witching of an
Induenve circuit. Due re this the transien! inrush of n1i.gnetising current flows
in to the transformer. T11ls current is called magneualng current il\rush This
eurrent may be as great as 10 times the (ull load current of the transformer.
This decays very slowly and is bound to operate differential protection of the
transformer falsely.
The factors which affect the magnitude and direction of the magnetizing current
inrush are,
a. Size of the transformer
b. Size of the power system
c. Type of magnetic material used for the core.
d. The amount of residual flux exisling before energizing the transformer.
e. The method by which transformer Is energized.
If the tran..former is energl>Ald when the voltage wave is passing through zero, the
magnetizing current inrush is maximum. At this Instant, the current and Flux should
be maximum in highly Inductive circuit. And In a half wave flux reversal must hike
place 10 attnin maximum value in the other half cycles. If the residual flux exists, the
l\.'qUtred Rux may be m same or cpposlte direction. Due to lhia magnetizing current
inrush •• less or more. If it Is mono ii is responsible to saturate 1he core which furlhtor
increases its component.
Tiils current d<'C•}"' rapidly for first few cycles nnd then decays slowly. 11w: time
coosiant L/R of the circull Is vartnblc "J inductance of circuit varies due to the cN!nge
in penncability of the core. The losses in the circuit damp the Inrush currents.
Depending on the si.ze of the transformer, the time c:ons1an1 of inrush current varies
from 0.2 sec to I sec.
'The waveforms of magnetizing inrush current ln three phases is shown in the
Fig. 7.$.
7 -12 Transformer Prohctlon
P'hm-seR
-·
...... s
Fig. 7.5 Typlt41 magnetizing lnruah currant wavefonna
TI\ere •re number ol ways ensuring Immunity from the operation by magnetizing
surges, Fil"!tly the reloy may be given a setting hi,gher than maximum inrush current.
Sc.'<Ondly the time setting may be made long enough for the magnetizing current to
fall to a value below the primary opernting current before the relay operates. But these
simple remedies are inconsistent with high speed and low primary operating cum!nl.
In the latest method, the harmonic content of the magnetizing current flowing in
the operating circuit is filtered out and passed through • restraining roil. This is called
harmonic current restraint,
7 .4. 1 Harmonic Restraint and Hannon le Blocking

The higll initial inrush ol magnetizing currents consist of a h!gll component o(
even and odd harmonics.
Table 7.2 gives the typical values ol harmonic contents in • magnetizil1g current
Onlo< of - c:ontenl tn ""'~ Amplitude .. o 'II. of -

current
r' 1!3.ll
r 2e.t
•• 5.,
Protection ond Swltcftileor 7 • 13 Tronofonner Protection
s• 'I
f" 37
.,. 2•
Table 7.2
The operating roil carries the fundamental component of the inrush current only.
The harmonic contents and fundamental together is passed through the restraining
coil.
Thus more the hannonk contents in the inrush current, more ls the restraining
torque and the relay does not operate. So use ol pc=ntage diflerential protection
rather than simple differential protection is preferred. The circult used to compensate
the cflect of magnetizing current using harmonic restrnint method is shown in the
Fig. 7.6.
. - ... - 1"' .. • ,.. ...... I
'
• •
- -
'
- f
Fig. 7.8 Magnetizing current compenaotlon

The fllter F1 ls designed to pass the fundamental 50 Hz component which excites
the operating coil R,,. The magnetizing current has large third harmonic component.
There is an additional restraining roil R,. The filter F2 is designed to pass the third
harmonic component which energizes the additional resb'aining coil R... The current
passing through normal restraining coil and current passing through additional
restraining coil R, produce sufficient restraining torque. This compensates for the
differential current resulting due to the now ol magnetizing current
The separate blocking relay in series with the differential ttlay Is used. The
operation ol this relay ls based on harmonic component of Inrush current. This relay
consists of 100 Hz bloddng niter in operating coil while 50 Hz niter in restraining coll.
At the time o( lnt'ldh cunent. second hnrmonic component is maximum and thus
blocking relay is blocked with its contacts remain open.
Protection and Swilc"9ear 7 -14 Tn1nsfon'ner Protection
In short cimtlt case. the harmonle component Is n•'gllgible and 50 Hz component

is dominant. H.mce the blocking relay operntes to close its rontacL This principle is
called h•nnonir blocking.
7.5 Frame Leakage Protection

This protection Is nothing but the method of providing earth fault protection to the
transfonner. This protection can be provided to the metal clad switchgear.
Tbe arrangement Is shown in the Fig. 7.7.
r--,---T--:::::i1--untts ot meta1dad swildigear
-
Cono••
Fig.. 7.7 Fro,,,. teokoge protection
The metal dad switchgear is lightly Insulated from the earth.

The lrame of the switchgear I.e. enclosure is grounded. This is done t"'°"Sh a
primary of cum.>nt tmnsformer in between.
The concrete foundation of switchgear and the other equipments are lightly
insulated from the ground. The resistance of these equipments with earth is about
12 ohms.
When there 1$ an earth fault, then fault current leaks from the frame and passes
through the earth connection provided. Thus the primary or CT. senses the current
due to which cummt passes through the sensitive earth fault relay. This operates the
relay.
Such • prottttion is provlded only lor small transformers. For the large
transformers. the differential protection Is enough to sense and operate for the earth
faults.
Protection and Switchgear 7. 15 Tranaforme<Protection
7.6 Buchholz Relay

The 8...:hholz ttlay is a gas operated relay used for the proteeuon ol otl unmorscd
transformors ag1ans1 all the types of Intern>! faults. II Is named alter its mventor,
Buchholz. The slow developing faults called lnclpienl laults in the translonner tank
below oil level operate Buchholz relay which gives an alarm. II the fuults are severe it
disconncct5 the tninslonncr lrom the supply.
It uses the principle that due 10 the faults, oil In the tank decomposes, generating
the gases. The 70% component ol such gases is hydrogen which is light and hence
rises upwards towards conservator through the pipe. Buchholz relay is connected in
the pipe, as shown in the Fig. 7.8. Due to the gas collected in the upper portion ol the
Buchholz relay, the relay operates and gives an alarm.
Fig. 7.8 Basic arrangement of Buchholz relay
The oonstructional leatures of Buchholz relay are shown in the Fig. 7.9.
(See Fig. 7.9 on next page.)
Under normal conditions, the Buchholz relay ls lull of oil It c:onslsts of a CNI
housing containing a hinged hollow float A mercury switch is attached to a float The
Ooat being rotated In the upper part of the housing. Another hinged flap valve is
located in the lower part whkh Is directly In the path of the oil bnwttn tank and the
cooscrvator. Another mercury switch Is attached to • flap valve. The float dooes the
alann circuit while the lower flap valve closes the trip circuit in cue of lnt"""'I fault
Protection and Switchgear 7 -16 Transf<>nY* Protection
To
llatm Goo occ:urn<Allod
.r!3!---FloMbllirog wilh rtduoed oi -
Oil
To 1t1P olrtu•
==To-
......
From
uans'°'""'
manlri
Fig.. 7 .9 C·on1tructlon of Buchholz reley
7.6.1 Operation
There are many 1yp<!$ or internal faults such as Insulation fault, core lwatlng. bad
switch contacts, faulty joints etc. which can occur. When the fault occurs the
decomposition of oil in the main tank starts due to which the gases are generated. A$
mentioned earlier, major component or such gases is hydrogen. The hydrogen tries to
rise up towards conservator but in its path it gets accumulated in the upper part of
the Buchholz relay. Through p•ssage of the gos is prevented by the flap valve.
When gas gets accumulated in the upper part of hcustng, The oil level inside the
housing falls. Due to whkh the hollow float tilts and dose the contacts of the mercury
switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. Due to this
operator knows that there is some incipient fault in the tra.nsformer. The transformer
is disconnected and the gas sample is tested. The testing results give the indication,
what l)'!)e of fault is started developing In the transformer. Hence lrall$lormer can be
disconnected before rault grows Into • serious one. The alarm circuit does not
immediately disconnects the transformer but givet only indication to the operator. Tl\ls
is because some times bubbk'S in the oil circulating system may operate the alarm
circuit through actually there is no fault.
Protection and Switchgear 7 -17 Tn111$lormer Protection
Ho\VC\'Cr if a. serious fault such l'IS internal short circuit between phases, earth fnult
inside the lank etc. occurs then the considerable amount or gos gl'IS generated. Thus
due to (nst reduce le\'el o( oil" the pressure In the tAnk tncreases. Due to th1.s the t)il
rushes towards the conservator. While doing so it posses though the relay where nap
valve is present. Tbe flap valve gels deflected due to the rushing oil. Due to this the
mercury switch contacts get dosed. This cncrgtzes the trip circuit which opens the
circuit breaker. Thus transfonner is totally disconnected from the supply.
The connecting pipe between the tank and the conservator should be as straight as
possible and should slope upwards conservator at a small angle from the horizontal.
This angle should be between 10 to 11°.
t'or the economic considerations, Buchholz relays are not provided for the
trnnsfcrmers having rating below 500 kVA.
7 .6.2 Advantages
The various itdvantagt."5o( the 8ucl1l1olz relay are,
1. Normally a protective relay does not indicate the appearance of the fault. it
operates when fault occurs. But Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault
at very early stage, by anticipating the fault and operating the alarm ctecun.
Thus the transformer can be taken out of service before any type of serious
damage occurs.
2. II is the simplest protection in case of transformers,
7.6.3 Limitations
The various limitations of the Buchholz relay are,
1. Can be used only for oil Immersed transformers having co~·ator tanks.
2. Only faults below oil level are detected,
3. Setting of the mercury switches can not be kept too sensitive otherwise the
relay can operate due to bubbles, vibration, earthquakes mechanical shocks etc.
4. Tbe relay is slow to operate having minimum operating time of 0.1 seconds
and average time of 0.2 seconds.
7.6.4 Applications
The foUo\Ying types of transformer faults can be protected by the_ Buchholz relay
and arc Indicated by alarm :
1. Local overheating
2. Entrilnce of air bt1bbles rn oil
3. Core bolt Insulation fatlure
Protection and Switchgear 7 -18 Tr1n1f<><mer Protection
4. Short circuited lnminntlons

S. Loss o( oil and reduction in oil level due to teakage
6 Bad and loose electrical contacts
7. Short circuit between phases
8. Winding short circuit
9. Bushing puncture
10. Winding earth faults.
,..,.. Example 7.2: A 11 kV/132 kV power 11J1nsformu is connrcted in 40111-Slar. Tht

C. T.s 011 tht law voltago suu hnvt turns rotio of lil)()f5. Find tilt suitnblt turns ratio
for the C.T.s on liig/1 uoltage sidt.
Solution : The connections are shown in the Fig. 7.10.
C.T.
c.r
( .____ -·------------
'--------------
...__ ----------------
_,,
)
f •.
SA
5A -
5A ...
Fig. 7.10
I.et the cum'nt on the primary i.e, low voltage side ol power transformer be 600 A.
This current will flow through el>Ch line on primary ol transformer.
Prot.ctlon 1nd Swltchgeor 7 -19 Transformer ProtKtlon
Hence cul'Tl'nt in each seeondery or star connected C.T. on primary is the phase
current 1, as shown in the Fig. 7. 10.
Ir :r 600x 600
5 u 5A
The same in line current IL which is line current for the C.T.s connected in delta
on secondary of transformer.
Hence current In each secondary or C.T. which is phase current or C. T. is Js times
tJ,c line value.
... Ip ~ "'5J3 A for C. T. secondory connected in delta
Now apparent power on both sides is same,

..fi VLL lu es ..fi V l.2 lu
f3x11000x600 s f3x132000xlu
11000x600
lu • 132000
• 50 A
This Is the current Oowlng through each primary or dcltn connected C.T.
· C.T. ratio on high voltage side • {:,/~)
Q 17.32 : 1
.
,_. Example 7.3 : A 3 phase, 200 kVA, JI kV/400 V lrans/ormtt is connttttd in
ddta.star. ~ C.T.s on low voltagt side hiwr turns ratio o/ 500/5. DdermiN th< C.T.
mtio on high ooltagt sidt. It/so obtain th< circulating current wl1tn II" fault of lSC A
offalll>Wing types occur 011 the low voltRgt silk :
ii Earth fault wit!tin llie 11roltctiw %Dllt
II) &r1h fault autsidt I/it prottdi11t "''"
iii) Pll4St lo plrll5t fault tvilltin I/rt proltdiw :wn•
iv) ""- lo plrast fault outside I/rt prottttiu< zont
Assu111t Nlanad voltage.
Solution : The connections are shown in the Fig. 7.11.
On prinary which is delta connected, C.T.s are connected in star while
On serondary which is stor connected, C. T.s are connected in delta.
Let cu.mnt on low voltage side be 500 A.
Now lu • 500 A
Protection and Switchgear 7. 20 Transformer Protection
SIM·
-..
-
C. T. H. V Side ~. v. Side
soconclaloes
- --
C. T.
- I Slar
)
I•.
Fig. 7.11
C.T. rotlo 500/5
. . Current through primary or C.T. on low voltage side
= lu s 500 A
Ip = Current through each secondary of delta connected C.T .s
= soox500•
5 5 A
IL • Une current through pilot wires
• .fj '•
• :,.fj A
Same ts the current through each secondary of star connected C.T. on high vottage
side.
Ip • :,./3 A on h. v. side C.T. secondaries
Apparent power on both sides of transformers is same.
· .fj V Lt lu • .fj Vu lu
· .fj x llOOOxlu • .f3x400x500
Pr«ecllon an~ Swltc•ar 7. 21 T111n1former Protection
400x500
11000
• 18.18 A
This is cUJ'rcnt through each primary of C.T.s connected in star.
Current ratio of C.T.son high voltage side
-~
=
18.18
2.099 : l
(i) Consider the earth fault within the protective :w~ as shown In the Fig. 7.12.
(See Fig. 7.12 on next page.)
Now lu=750A
Equating apparent power,
J3 Vu lu = J3 V1.2 lu
J3x11000xlLI = ./3x400x750
lu • 27.27 A
Thb is the lino current on h.v. side under foult condition.
The C.T. ratio is 2.099 : 1. Hence corresponding current through C.T. secondary on
l
h.v. side is, = 27 .27x
2.099
= 12.99 A
So 12.99 A current will flow through the relay and relay will operate.
(li) Consider the earth fault outside the protective zone as shown in the Fig. 7.13.
The llnc current on secorulary is 750 A.
5
Seeondary C.T. current • 750 • 500
• 7.5 A
·. Current in pilot wires = 75x.f3 = 12.99 A as delta connected
P_,, - Swhchgear 7 -22 Transform« Pro4.ctlon
a: •),_ I
..
~
>
.J € E~ Ep
:
- --,, .
, .... ..
<
• • ii!
'• ..:~ < I•
• ii!
~
t
•
'•• I
''
.........
' 'I , t
.....
-:
I t
. <
8l f-0-
• "'- 0-
I
.-"'
<
N
v v / 0-
< <
I'; I';
~
N :.
<
<
~ - ~
~3 J
p p-
E )
'I '' n 1 l
' ) >-
> ..
I
Protection and S>tilchgear 7. 23 Transforme• Protection
l·
.:
..... _ -~- •
•
> • I
l
"''
•
'
'"' /
'
''
••'l! ~ E• E•
l l
•! < <
-•
a
" ~
''
''
. -..:!?
n
...
--•
~ - -
..y-
,, -
~
LI
j
>
"•
~
~
•
~ ~
<
•
J ,
I I >
'
. i 1 l
> •
The currents arc shown in •he Fig. 7.13.
So on both sides the am-ent Is balanced hence no current will Row through the
relay and relay wiU not operate.
iii) Phase to phase fault in the proteded zone on low voltage side. This is sl\own
in the Fig. 7.14.
Pro!ectlon and Switc1l91ar 7. 24 Trantformer Protection
'c '• • '
l -
~ E E·
1
!
>
~
-
...l ...... ~ .
..
4•
r<
!l
<
•-
!!
-©.I
©!
/ / v< ©-
-<
< <
!> <!! < I:
%
N
~
:II
!;
~ ~
N
- ~
i
::
~
-
~ J J
I I•
. n 1 1
Due to such fault current wiU flow in two phases of low voltage winding but in
all three phases In high voltage winding as shown in the Fig. 7.14. This current on
rugh voltage side wiU flow through the relay and relay will openue.
7. 25 Transformer Proloctlon
• > •
!
s-
i E I,
>
~ E•l
l
• • • • •
f f ~ ~ ~
..-
•
. ".fr...
--•
- - ---•
,, ,, ,, -•
j •~ •: ••! • •
>
• ~ s ~~ - = ~
J
I
.. l l
• • •
iv) Consider pbasc IO phose fault outslde the protecttcl zone es shown In lhe
Pig. 7.15. The various currenrs and corresponding distribution is also shown in
the Fig. 7.15.
As the currents on both sides are balanced, no current flows through the relay
hence relay will not operate.
,.. Example 7.4 : A 3 ,,,,_ trtmS{onner rated for 33 kV/6.6 kV a Cbnn<rt<'ti slllr/de/lJI
nnd the protecting currtnl tnmsformtrs on tlit low IJOltagr silk hnvt n ratio of 400/S.
Dttrrmine llrr ralto of lht curren! trn11sfon11m on H. V. •idt. Drirw tltt co1111tttion
diagr1tn1 sl1otving Jiow 1"4- rtlgy operates 11nder /a11ll cond1lio11J.
Prot•ctlon and Swttehgear 7. 28 Tninafotmer Proi.ctlon
Solution : C.T.s on deha connected side are star connected Hence the secondary
phase currents are equal to currents in pilot wires.
C.T.s on star connected side are delta connected h<'Tl<'e current in secondary is
equal to current in pilot wires divided by ,/3,
Assume 400 A is flowing in the lines on low voltage side Le. 6.6 kV side.
Now primary apparent power • secondary apparent power
"3 Yc1 lc1 • ,/3 Yu 1.,
.fj x33xlO-'xlu = "3x66xlo-'x400
111 • 80 A
.
This Is primary current ol C.T. on high voltage side.
On the delta side ol translormers the C.T. secondaries are star connected. Their
secondary current is 5 A. Hence current fed in pilot wires from low voltage side is S
A. Same current is led from C.T. connections on high voltage side which are delta
connected.
Hence secondary current ol C.T.s on high voltage side is S/,/3 A.
Thus c:r. ratio on H.T. side is 80 : 5/,/3 i.e. 27.712:1.
The connection diagram is shown in the Fig. 7.16.
..
CT
Secondaries
In dell.ft
.-~ ..
CT
S«.IOl'ldarles
In star 11-
SW
.. °""".. I
I
I
.•.. I
·-·
R-c:oOt
.
-
. .
°""'""19 cols
Fig. 7.16
J.
Protection and Switchgear 7. 27 T,.n.tormor Protoctlon
,,.. Example 7.5 : A J.p"'1St ll'lln•farmrr /1aumg /mt llOlt•gr ratio o/ 440 V/11 kV iJ
co1111f'Ctcd tn star/Dtlta TM protttt;on transformer on thr t V 1idt haw a current rot;o
of 500/5. WhAt m11$! bt /lit l'lllio of tire protection transformn' am11erttd 011 HV sidt ?.
(AU·April·2005J
Solution : The arrangement is shown in the fig. 7.17
_______________
_________________
( --------------' _,.......
•
C.T.
:~A------ - -·
•ec:ond•tl0$ _ ,l
5./l°A
I IpC. T. &e<:ondaries
-------------------
~
.
- -- -- - -- - - - - --
••
5./JA in star
••
••
Fig. 7.17
On primary side which is 440 V side, let the current be 500 A.
Thus C.T.s will carry the current of 500 A.
The C.T. ratio is 500/5 A heru:e secondary phase current or C.T.s on primary side
1, = ~•500 =SA
IL• -f:i Ip• sJ3A ... Delta connected c:r.a

Prot.ction ond SwltchjJear 7. 28 Tr11n1fonnerProtectfon
Th(• samv current flows through the stnr connected C.T seeendaries. Hence eadl
sccond~ry of C.T. on the seconcbry side of transformer carries a C\JITI!Rt of sJ3 A.
The apparent power on both sides must be same :
f5VulLI = f5Vulu
.. f5x440x500 = f5xllxlo'xlu
Lu s 20 A
Thus CtlCJl primary of C~T.s connected in star on H.V. side carries a current o( 20
A while ench secondary c•rri., C\Jm;nt of sJ3 A.
Hence the C.T. ratio on 11 kV side is,
. Primary current
Secoodary current ·-sJ3 20
= 2.309: I ..• Required C.T. ratio on H.V. side
•• Example 7.6 : A J ,,i- 500 kVA, 11 kVJl).4 kV tnmsformu is connected in

0.•lla/stnr. Tiii' prottcltmo tmnsformn on llot LV sidt lwtlt turns ratio of 50015. What
will bi Ilic C.T. ratio on tht HV sid• of lloe tronsformtr ? (AU·Dtt.·2005)
Solution : The conne<'.lions are shown ln tho Fig. 7.18.
·-
&Of·
-
CT. H. V. Side l)ob. L. v. Side
C. T.
- I Delia Siar
-Ii.
_.,_ )
Fig. 7.18
P..-cllon and Switchgear 7 .30 Transformer Protection
S Stat!' ll1t• problrn11 t.nro1inttml ur • ,.,,.,. llflnmt.J prot«tion of tmns/orn1CTS.

6 Wrrttt If llOlt'I 011,
i> ~!(nl'trr rorrrnt '" ruth

II) H41rrftOiU( rt1-tm1nt a11d Ntrmoruc bfoc:tsng
li1J Fri11"''li"llka.~r prottetion
1. Omu1 a11d t'Xplat11 th!! <"On:ttn•ctbt •*" _,~ of Budtltolz. r1•"1y. ARnln$l which fowltJ BMdtltoh
rrii1t1 giort lhr prolrclkm 7 St.tt its .ttllln~ "1td d~"hrgts.
8. l)."'l(.ribf u•iJh llN• l:elp of 11 nt'ilt d.wgrftl tltt awrn«hMS r( differnrtial proi«t1on of 11 tntrrsfonwr
A J-~ JJ/6.6 kV 1-tar/iltlta aMH«Mi b ..... wr is prot~tt.d by dif/!'rentMI SJPfem.. ~ C.T. "s
Off LT lidf lutrM' ratu, cf;~. Sbt dMr tlrl C.T..son HT side niill Jrm.1e a n1tio {,(): sJ3.
.9. A J p/Mts-.4' trilmfarmn of UWIJ,cn> liM eolts is (Onn«h>d ;,. stnr/d.."1t11. TN pJ"Ot.ttamt
lr11ns{ormf'rS on 220 V $itk bmr" Ql'l'r'ml ~of~ What should~ C.T. ratio on 11iJl.XJ V
$Idt ,..,,.,,,.,,..,.. on
the 120 V sidr.s llo1tk' a C'UTmtt ntt.it of ~ WMJ 11t11St be tl1~ ratio of tlu- C.T$ on dtt
ll.000 V std•· ••d ,,.,,, W.11 th<y lit _,td I (Ans. : 12 : 51

11. A 1l1r1,. plia!iil.' 66 kV/ll tV I"*'" tnnsJwwn • OMn«fN 111 fl"r/d1o/fQ. 11tt• tr.nsjonnn fl
prolt'tfnt by Mrrr·Prlcr arc11llet1ng CMnm.l •J"klff· Proltcli'W '"''""' lru11t.fomt1T1 on lltr low
t°Oll•Xl' 1idt JNtt'C' a r111;o of 25QIS, Fm4 tltt rallO of tbt atrrml lriAns/on11l•r1on hfsh t#1ltR,V s*.
(An.. : 14.1 : ti
Jl A thrt'< pJNrS<' pmt~r trt1nsftNwwr ,_, • ooltagt' nllao of JJ,4.6 tV tt111I 1~ lff"r 1ft'lt11 &>nftlCt~ n.--
ptl)ft'ttiPr C. T.1 on thr 6.6 kV "'1k Mv 1 tumnt natlo of JOO. Whnt rt111St bi- tltt ntho crf
prol1"tllr'I'C.T.1 o" 11,_. 33 kV silk 1 (AnL: 3S: 1,
aao
8
carrier Aided Protection
and Static Relays
8.1 Block Schematic of Carrier Aided Protection

Carrier aided protection is used for the protection of transmission lines. The carrier
currents with high frequency range arc transmitted and received with the help of
trans1n.lsslon lines for protection. The schematic representation o( carrier current
protection is shown in the Fig. 8.1.
But bllr Bus bllr

Cirouil
CT.-,~~1-~ Tran5ml1slon llne CB
P.T >---+----- ---- --~,____,
Couci'ing
cepecltor
Relay
""'
---·-
C..Wcun-enl
'"""'*·
unit. __ .,,
Uno """'V
-
c.- ......
1
Fig. 8.1 Schematic of carrier current protecdon

The identical carrier equipments which lndude transmitter, receiver. line tuning
unit, master oscillato<, power amplifier etc. arc provided at each end of the
transmission line. The description or various blocks in the schematic representation Is
gi ven below.
l. Coupling capacitor
The various carrier equipments described above ore connected to the transmission
line with the help of coupling capacitor. 11,c capacitive rea<Unce is given by .:C·
Hence for carrier frequency ii offers less reactanee while high reactnnce for normal
(8 • 1)
Carrier Alclod Protection
Protection and Switchgear 8·2 end Static Rtltya
power fr<'qucncy. It can be f<'en that the carrier current signals are allowed 10 pass
through this capacitor and enter in carrier equipment while power frequency currents
are blocked. The lnductanc\' connected in series with the coupling capacitor reduces
the impedance to further low value. Thus a condition of resonance is achieved at
carrier frequency.
2. Line Trap Unit
This unit is between the busbar and the connection of coupling capacitor IO the
line. It consists of parallel combination of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) acting as
tuned circuit. This circuit offl'I'$ low Impedance to power fttquency currents while
offers very high Impedance to carrier frequency currents which prevents the high
frequency carrier to enter in the neighbouring line and carrier eurrente now only in
the protected line.
3. Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipment
Due to lightning, switching transients or faults, overvoltage surges are produced
on the transmtssion lines, These overvoltages may produce stress on coupling
equipment und line trap unit. For protection purpose, the nonlinear resistors are
connected across line trap unit in series with • protective 8"P· Th<."Se resistors with
protective gap is connected across Inductor In the coupling unit. The length of the g•p
11 "djuaiitcd In Stich a wa)' that, spark over takes place at • let value of ovcrvcltage,
The earth rod is used ls for earthing of coupling unit so as to get low resistance earth
path. The relay room consists of carrier equipment panel which is connected to station
earthing system.
<I. Electronic Equipments
Following electronic equipments are. generally used at each end of the line,
a) Transmitter unit
b) Receiver unit
c) Rcloy unit
a) Transmitter Unit :
The general representation of power line carrier equipments is shown in the
Fig 8.2.
Normally the frequencies with range from SO to 500 kHz are employed in various
frequency bands with each has specific bandwidth. The 05Cillator is used for the
generation of carrier fttquency and it is tuned for a particulat frequency which ls
chosen for particular application Sometimes a crystal oscillator mny also be used
which gives particular bandwidth afh!r selecting particuar type of crystal. Voltage
stabili1.crs arc employed for maintaining the oscillator output voltage constant.. The
IO$S(?S in the transmission path between transmitter and receiver at remote end of line
Cal"Mr Aided Protection
Protecclon and Swltcl>gear 8·3 and Stelle Raloys
CT
1--.- T,.nttni11ion
Pne
Une
trap unit
P.T
Bus
bar
R.-y
unit
-
Fig. 8.2 Re-ntatlon of carrier current protection unit
are overcome with the help or amplifier which increases the level or the signal to be
trnnsmittcd.
The ancnuanon In signal Is due to looses In coupling equipment which are
constant for given frequency range. Depending on length of line, frequency whether
conditions and the size and type of line, the line losses vary.
II weather is fairly reasonable then the attenuation is of the order of 0.1 dB/kHz at
80 kHz which increases 0.2 dB/Ian at 380 kHz. If we consider 250 km line then the
output or power amplifier is about 20 W. For a particular bandwidth the amplifier
should gjve maximum power. Depending on the type of protl!ction required, various
methods are adopted for the control of transmitter. The interconnection between
ooci.llator and amplifier is done through control drcuiL The block diagram
representation or tra.nsmitting unit is shown ln the Fig. 8.3 (a).
Conlrol
unh
I
Form
relay
unll
Ooc9ttor
Fig. 8.3 (a) Tranamittlng unit

- To
lne
Cwrlor Aided Protodion
Protection and Swttchgear and Static Relays
b) Receiving Unit :
The block schematic ol receiving unil is shown ill the ~lg. 8.3 (b).
From
line .........,,.,, MalchO>g
element
Bandpass
lite<
coupler
Amp11rler
detector
Carrier
1eceiver
Protective
. relay
Fig. 8.3 (b) Receiving unit

The signol is reduced to a sale value with the help o( ettencatcr. The undesired
•ignals which are signals from subsequent sections or spurious signals are prevented
by using band pass fllier. The matching element mol<:hes the Impedance ol the
transmission line and receiving seeticn, The undesired signals are generated either by
short clrcults or radio interferences. The malfunctioning ol this unil is avoided due to
the noise signals by using the set value above 2 mUUwatts which is above noise level.
If the carrier signals have power level of 20 W and receiver unit is set al higher level
of 5 milliwans lhen the operation 1s unaffected by spurious signals. For avoiding the
overloading. the signals should be attenuated before applying ii to the amplifier
detector.
cl Frequency Spacing : The subsequent line sections use various frequencies. The
carrier signals are prevented from entering Into nexl section by wove lr•p•. The filters
from receiving unil filters other frequencies. The frequency bands ol various sections
arc properly co-ordinated.
d) High Frequency Signal Modulation·
For modulation of power frequency signals, the modulator is used. The signal after
modulation is passed to the amplifier and then transmitted through coupling unit.
From the hall cycle line curttnlS, the required blocks of carrier signals are generated
with the help of oscillator. The level ol line current al which osdllaeor generates these
carrier blocks should be theoreticnlly corislant but practically there is critical minimum
current. The modulation o( line current into hl.gh frequency carriers is shown In the
Fig 8.4.
Carrier Aided Protection
Protection tl\d Swttehgear 9.5 tnd Static Rtltys
Fig. 8.4 Modufallon of lfnt curTtnt
8.2 Phase Comparison Method of Carrier Current Protection

There are various methods of cattier current protection. Some of thern are as gtven
below:
I. Dlrt'clionnl comporiloo method
2. Phnse comparison method
The block diagram of lhe phase comparison method is shown in the Fig. 8.5.
I I I I I
!Jl ~ Uod ..dstor ~
I I I
' I
Summnon I I
I s- I __J Con_,.-. : •I •
RteelYet I
I
.
Fig. 8.5 Block diagram of phase comparison rMthod
-
Tr\>
.
In this method, the phase relation between the current entering in the protected
ion<' and current leaving the protected zone is compared withoul compnrloon ol
mngnitudes of currents. ii don not provide back up prol«tion which is to be
additioMlly provided but it acts as main protection.
Carrier Aided Protoctlon
Protection and SWltchgear 8·8 1nd Static Rtl1y1
In this method the signals are sent from each end of the line while lhey are
received at the other end. The signals ore obtained from C.T. secoodartes and ore
related to the cu.rrent flow in the main line.
ln the absence of any foult on the line, the signal is sent for alternate half cycles
from each end resulting in continuous signal on the line. For external fault the same
condition holds good. lf there is an internal fault the current in one of the lines
reverses in phase and remajns below fault detector setting resulting in sending the
~•rricr only for half the time. The relay is arranged to S<!n5e the absence of signal In
tlw lino. When th« p~ angle between the two signals reaches to a cl'rtain S<'I value,
the tripping occurs,
For internal fault condition, the transmitted signals and received signals are almost
In phase with each other. The comparator compares these signals. For alternate hall
cycles, the signal is absent so the compa:rator gives output which operates to trip
relay. Various signals in primary circuit; secondary circuit transmitter, receiver
comparator during external fault are shown in the Fig. 8.6.
End 1 End2
Fig. 8.6 (1) Extem1I f1ult

~Trier Aided Protection
Protection and s·witchgear 8-9 and Static Relays
8.5 Basic Elements of a Static Relay

The Fig. 8.7 shows the block diagram of a static relay lndiC"ating Its basic elements.
I Feed_ I oc -·
I 11"""1
I I I
Input
elemenl
Meesvring
etement °""""
eleme<ll
Tripping
elaymg ampilie<
"""""
Compara1or TrlU1$is$or N
an""""'*
Fig. 8.7 Block diagram of a static relay
8.5.1 Input Element
The relaying quantity can be the output of C.T. or l'.T. or it may be the output of
a transducer or it may be combination of various signals. Thus an electronic circuit
such as rectifier is required as an Input clement to get the Input signal In a conventenr
form before applying it 10 a measuring clement. Some mixing circuits such as op-amp
udder mfty nlso be ~uirt..trd as an input clement,
8.5.2 Measuring Element

This is the heart o( the static relay. It compares the output of an input element
with a set value and decides the signal to be applied to the output element which
ultimately drives .the tripping cirC'Uil. Thus measuring element is a declcling signal
generator.
Measuring element can be classified as,
1. Single input device
2. Two Input device
3. Multi-Input device
The single input devices, depending on the protection and control schemes are
further classified as,
a. Noncritical Rope•! Function (All or Nolh_lng Reloy) :
As the name suggests, these
devtees are completely unenergized
'"R""' or energl1.ed much higher thnn the
marginal rondition required, to
produce '"t'r)' last response. It can be
represented a.s shown in the Fig. 8.8.
Fig. 8.8 Nonctitical repeat function
The input R is either :r..ero or too
Carrier Aided Protecllon
Protection and Switchgeor 8 -10 and Static Relays
higher lhoi1 the m•rginal operoting level. Such devices on. Instanmneous with
response time less than 20 ms. The switching power gain associated with them Is
generally 10'. Such devices hove multiple output contacts.
The main functions of such devices in the protec:tion are.
I. To produce final tripping signal to the circuit breaker.
2. To produce signals to perform supplementary functions such as alarming.
inll!l'tripping etc.
3. To act AS Intermediate switching sto.gcs In a comp!"" protection scheme.
b. CrHicol M•osuring Function :

This device is a sort of on-off control.ler. It aclivates when the input signal reaches
to some critical level decided by the protection scheme. Such a device is shown in the
F'.g. 8.9.
Input
R ·l.__.,,....,_cr::"'_·__.I
·l_l -_
... ___J-1-~ =
Fig. a.9 ln1t1nt1neou1 crltlcal fllnclfon
Thus when input R is greater than some crltkal value P, It operates. While for
reset, input R must be less than kP (k S 1).
It has only one output and switching gain need not be high. The output of such
device then can be connected to instantaneous noncritical to obtain multiple outputs.
'
The venous requirements of c·ritic.al function devices are,
I. High accuracy.
2. LOrl& term consistency.
3. Fast and reliable operation.
4. High oontrollable reset ratio.
c. Definite or Fix~ Time Fu·nction :
This is nothing but a delay function
T element. It prodtJCeS a define time delay
between its input and the output. Tho delay
may be provided between the appljcetion of
lnpul
R input and activation of output or between
remova! of Input •nd ......,tting of output. It Is
shown in the Fig. 8.10.
Fig. 8.10 Definite time fllnctlon
Protection and Switchgear 8 -11 and Static Rel1ys
The input Is noncritical type t.e. either zero or too hlgll th.m the marginal
requirement. Peacttcally charging time of a cepacltor is controlled to obtain fixed time
delay.
d. Input Dependent Time Function :
This function depends on lhe input characteristics and decides the time
accordingly.
The common form of input dependent time function characteristics is,
t • f(R") where R• Input
and
The function and its characteristics are shown in the Fig. 8-11.
Input
R ·I~,
. :ime tunc:aaon
Fig. 8.11 Input depen<Mnt time function
As n is tlegative, as the input increases the operating time decreases. So operating

time Is inversely proportional to some power of the input. The examples of such
relays are Inverse definite minimum time lag overcurrent and earth fault relays.
The two input devices are very common such as comparators, level detectors etc.
while multiple input devices are extension of two input devices to extend the range of
charnctcristics.
8.5.3 Output Element

The signals obtained horn the measuring clement ore required to be amplified
before applying to the tripping circuit. Thus output elemene is an amplifier. Somctlm<'S
this element not only •mpllfies dw slgn11ls but multiplies them or combines them with
other signals to delay them,
8.5.4 Feed Element

The measuring eJement uses electronic circuits consisting transistors, diodes etc.
The output clement uses transistor as nn amplifier. AJI these components, circutts
alongwith the tripping circuit ttquirc d,c. supply for the proper functioning. ·nic feed
element provide> the d.c. voll•ge required by the various elem~'""'·
Carri•r A.ld•d Prottctlon
Protection •nd Switchgear B • 12 and St.tic Relays
8.6 Comparison of Static and Electromagnetic Relays

The conventional electromagnetic relays use the moving parts such ns an armature,
disc etc. Thus they are bulky in size. These relays are robust and highly reliable. These
are subjected to differential forces under fault conditions and hence required to have
delicate setting of small contact gaps, special beloring arrangements, clutch assemblies
etc. Thus there are lot of manufacturing difficulties and problems related to
mechanical stabiLity associated with electromagnetic relays_ The current and p<>ten~al
transformers are subjectt'd to high burdens ln ease or electromagnetic relays.
The stlltlc relays are commonly using the transistor circuits and rolled transistor relays.
This is because transistor can be used as en amplifying device as well as a switching device.
Hence any functional characteri.stics as per the requirement can be obtained by the static
relays. The transistor circuits can perform functions like summation, integration, comparison
etc.
8.6.1 Advantages of Static Relays

The various advantages of static relays are,
I. 111c moving pam are nbsen], The moving parts are present only in the actual
tripping circuit and not In the control circuit.
2. The burden on current transformers gets considerably reduced thus smaller
C.T.s can be used.
3. The power consumption is very low as m051 ol the circuits are electronic.
4. The response is ''ery quick.
5. As moving parts are absen~ the minimum maintenance is required. No bea.ring
friction or contact troubles exist.
6. The resetting ume can be reduced and overshoots can be reduced due to
absence o( mechankal inertia end ~hcrmal storage.
7. The sensitivity Is high os signal amplification can be achieved very easily.
8. The use of printed circuits eliminates the wiring errors and mass production is
possible.
9. As electronic circuits Can be used to perform number of functions, the wide
range of operating characteristics can be obtained, which almost approach to
ideal requirements.
10. The low energy levels required In the measuring circuits make the relays
smaller and compact in size.
11. The testing •nd servicing is simplified.
Protection end Swlteho-er 8. 13 and Static Ret•r•
8.6.2 Limitations of Static Relays

Jnspitc of various advantages, the statlc relays suffer from the following
limitations,
l. The characteristics of electtonic components such as transistors, diodes etc. are
temperature dependenL Hence relay characteristics vary with temperature and
ageing.
2. The reliability is unpredictable as It depends on a large number of small
cornpcnents and their electrical connections.
3. These relays have low short time overload capacity compared to
electromagnetic relays.
4. Additional d.c. supply is required for various transistor circuits.
5. Susceptable to the voltage Ouctuations and transients.
6. Less robust compared to electromagnetic relays.
Now a days effect of temperature on the semiconductor devices can be
compensated by careful design of the circuits.
8.7 Semiconductor Devices used In Static Relays

The various electronic components, devices and circuits whkh are commonly used
in static relays are,
L Semiconductor diodes : This includes the conventional p-n junction diode.
zener diode, avalanche diode and the drcuits using these diodes such as
recrifiers, regulators, references etc.
2. Traruistors : This includes bipolar junction transistors (Bm and field effect
transistcrs (FET). The transistors are used as amplifiers or as switches in the
starlc relays. The direct coupled amplifiers using transistors are also used in
the static relays.
3. Unijunctlon IT.tnsi.stor : The device UJT having negative resistance
characteristics i.s often used to obtain relaxation oscillator, the output of which
is used to trigger 5CR.
4. Thyristor family : 1his includes various two and three terminal and four layer
electronic devices such as silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), triac, diac, silicon
controlled switch (SCS). Such devices are used in static relays to obtain high
speed switching characterisHcs.
5. Logic circuits : Most of the relays are bistable devices Le. they are operated in
two stable states either ON or OFF. TI1e logk dmdt also has two states high
Prot•ctlon end Swltchg•ar 8·14 and Static R•l1y1
i.e. ON nnd low i.e. OFF. Hence logic circuits play an important role in the
stunc relays.
6. Filter circuits : lhe RC and LC filters are also used in static relays after
rectifiers to obtain smoothing of d.c, voltage generated. To obtain fast
smoothing instead o( conventional capacitor filter, the phase splitting before
the rectification lS used in static relays.
1. Multlvibrat·ors ! The verious multivibrators using transistors are used to
produce square wa,·e(orms in s"'tlc relays. The diode clippers also cen be used
to <.>l>tttinsqt1are waverorms.
8. Time delay drcuits: The variety of tJme delay drculbi such as delay tlnes, RC
circuits, timer circuib~ resonant cirC"Uits usi.ng transistors. th)•ristors and ICs are
used in static relays. Depending upon the requi"'11>Ctlt or time delay, the
particular circuit is chosen. The delay lines are used (or shorter delays while
RC charb~ng and discharging circuits are used for longer delays. The time
delay> of the order o( micro SCCS to hours can be acltieved using such time
delay circuits.
9. Level dcttctors : In static relays, It is necessary to de!«! the operating levels of
various siK"als and used it to produce the nettSSary aduoting signoli.. The
level detector cir<"ults using the d lodes, rectiOtt nnd r<C elements nre
t'l>m1ntlnly used LI\ static relays.
10. Analog circuits : The op-amp available in IC form is very common In bulldlng
analog circuits such as adder, subtractor, differentiator, Integrator, inverting
amplifier, noninverting amplifier etc. Op-amp also can be used to obtain ~
circuits like zero crossing detector, Schmitt trigger etc. All such circuits are
used in various types of static relays.
8.8 Static Time Current Relay

Thls Is nothtng but instantaneous ovcrcurrent relay. The Fig. 8.12 shows the block
diagram o( st.itic rime current relay.
-- - -
Input
From
summation
C.T. - C.T.
- Recli!ie<
unit f--
Ovef1oad
i.v..
detOCIOr - Tmng
- LOYOI
- Amotrner
(.iter
!
Trippjng
olroull
Fig. 8.12 Block diagram of llm• cumnt atotlc rt11y

P...mctlon and Switchgear 8·15 and Static Raia~
The secondaries of line C.T.s arc connected to the summation circuit. The output
of summation C.T. is given to the input C.T. The input C.T. is called auxiliary C.T.
which has taps on the primaly for selecting the required pickup and current range.
Then the output of auxiliary C.T. is rectified and smoothened. It is then applied to
overload level detector and RC timing circuit. When the voltage across the timing
capacitor reaches to a critical value then it triggers the level detector. The output of
the level detector is amplified as per the requirement and given to the tripping circuit.
This operates the output devlee. The charging of CApadtor In a timing circuit is
achieved by a voltage derived from CT current. This voltagt! is obtolncd across •
nonlineor n... tstor by passing rcct!fi<'<i current through It. The proper selc'Ctlon of
nonlinear resistor and RC timing circuit allows to obtain destred shape of time current
characteristics of the static relay.
The current at which the level detector trips is called threshold current denoted as
I~. Thus for an cvercerrera relay,
when 1., < 1 .. ....,... level detector does not tr·l
when I., 2' 1 .. ...,... level detector trips
8.8.1 Static Time-Current Characteristics

The tfme<Urrcnt char~tics is Inverse type of cha..,ctenshcs and given by the
expression,
where t = Tame or operation in seconds

K a Design constant of relay
TMS • Tim<! multiplier s.tting
I • Tap current multiplier
Ip s Multiple or tap current at which pickup occurs
n ~ Olaracteristic index of relay
The shape of the characteristics and degree of inverse nature is standardized,
According to British standards,
For standard inverse chara~tics (lDMT),
K~ (TMS) • 0.14, n s 0.02 and 11, c I A
For srendard very Irwerse chamclcrlstics,
K• (TMS) • 13.S, n c I and IP • l A
Carri<lr Aided Protection
Protection and Swhch9t1ar 8·17 and Static Relays
J 0
-
0
------------------
Fig. 8.14 Sta.tic overcurrent relay

Carrier Al<hd Protection
ProWctlon and Switchgear • • 18 and Slatlc Relays
8.8.3 Inv•,.• Time-Current Reley

11>e Fig. 8.15 shows the circuit dlllgnm of stalk inverse time-curreet n!loy.
ut
o.
0
..-
Fig. 1.15
Protection and Swhcnljear 8 • 19 and Static Relays
Under normol conditions, Q1 gets biasing from d.e. 5upply applied through R,
and P:i and conducts. Hence capacitor C is short circuited. \Vhen fault current exceeds
the pick up value set by the potentiometer P1 and selector switch then the transistor
Q1 becomes OFF. The capacitor C starts charging through R3 and P1 by the voltage
developed across R1• This charging time varies as per the severity of the fault. More
severe is the fault, more is the voltage developed a<TOSS R1 and less is the time for
charging capacitor C to a aitical level. When voltage across the capacitor reaches to a
predetermined level set by the potcntionmcntcr 1>3 then the transistor Q3 conducts.
Thos l'1ergius the trip coil and the drcuit breaker opens. The diode D protects the
tra.ru.istor from the high reverse voltage. Thus more Is the fault current, less is the
time required to operate relay hence it Is inverse ti.me<urrcnt relay.
8.9 Directional Static Overcurrent Relay

The directional relay is nothing but a directional power reby which operates when
the power in the circuit flows in a particular direction. Thus it requires to sense the
S)'$lem voltage as well as the S)'$1em current.
The Fig. 8.16 shows block diagram of the directional static overeurrent relay.
Input I
Au.Kiiiary
CT
8
Phase
1hlfto1
Phase
c:omparale<
Oftecllonol
"""
- nmer
circuit
....._
-
l.ovel ,_. Amplifier ..._
Trip
circuit
Input V
Flg. 8.16 Dlreetlonal static ovorcurrent relay

The input A is proportional to the system current supplied to a directional unll
through auxlllary transformer. The input B is proportional to the system voltage,
supplied to a directional unit through phase shill.er.
The phase comparator compares the phase angle between the two inputs. Let this
angle is +
while the relay characteristics angle is 9. Let 1, be the current setting
magnitude. Then the relay operates when,
IP s lroo(+-e)
Protection end Switch~., '. 20 ond Static Roloyo
The output of the phase comparator is applied to a level detector through timer if
time delay is required. The output of the level detector is amplified and given to the
trip circuit.
The phase comparator is generaUy of two types,
I. Hall effect generator which is popularly used in Russian countries.
2. Rectifier bridge type comparator which is popularly used in European countries,
The static dlroctional overc:urrent relays are v•ry sensitive and directlonal unit can
be made reliable down to I'll. of the sysh!m voltage.
8.10 Static Differential Relay

A differential relay Is the relay which operates when the phasor difference of two
or more similar electrical quantities exceed a predetermined value.
In startc dilferential relay, two similar quantities either voltages or currents are
compared. The comparator measures the .vector difference between the two similar
input signals. The rectifier bridge type comparator is generally used in the stalk
differential relay. The block diagram is shown In the Fig. 8.17.
In ...
A
Input
B
ComplrolOf
- AmP** - Tnp
c:vcuit
Fig. 8.17 Static dlfforenllol reloy
In normal conditions, the two quantities balance each other and the comparator
output ls zero and the "''"Y Is Inoperative.
For any intcmal fault rondition.s, the comparator senses the phase difference
between the two quantities and produces the output. This is amplified nnd given lo
the trip circuit which operates the relay.
This scheme is used for protection of the generators and transformers against any
~ of internal fault.
The various advantages of static differential relay over electromagnetic differential
relay ere, highly sensitive, compact, very fast In operation, low power consumption,
less burden on input CTs and Inrush current proof characteristics.
C1rrler Al~d Protectlon
Protection and Swttchg••r 8. 21 1nd Static Relay•
C.T. C.T.
~-
The basic static differential relay scheme is shown in the Fig. 8.18.
-
Equipme<a
ID be proleded
-li<llnO
Fig. 8.18 St1tle dlflerentlal relay acheme
Let n0 and n, be the number or turns o( operating and restrolnlng ooib
respectively. Then the relay operates when,
f<1 no lo > K2 n, Ir +K'
where k1 and k2 are design constants while K' is the spring control torque.
8.11 Static Distance Relay

In the dlstanee relay, the operation is dependent on the natlo or the voltage and
current, which Is exp~ lnterrns of an Impedance. The relay operates when the
ratio V /I t.e. impedance is less than • predetermined value. The distance relays
Include impedance, reactanre and admtttance relays as discussed earlier. In static
relays the comparison of voltage and current is achieved by electronic comparator
circuits.
Pro4ectlon and Switchgear 8. 22 and St11ic Relays
The boslc block diagram of •tatlc distance relay is shown in the Fig. 8.19.
Me.HUiing
s,
cin:uit
eom.. .- - Al. ...... 1--

Trip
drcuit
......
Monumg
s,
Fig. 8.19 lloalc atatlc dlatanc1 relay scheme
The Line voltage V L and line current IL are gh·en as the inputs to the two
measuring circuits. The circuits produce the outputs S, and S, depending upon their
characteristics. Thus,
s, • K, vL • K, [L
s,. K3 VL+K, IL
where K1, K2, K3 and K, are to be selected according to the requirement of the
characteristics,
Now depending upon whether the comparator is amplitude or phase comparator
and the constants K1 to K,, the various characteristics of the distance relay can be
obtained.
The various types of derived voltages S, and 52 for amplitude and phase
comparators to obtaln particular characteristics are given in the Table. 8.1.
No. Amplltucle._-.tor PllaH-tor Df1tance
rtlay tChieme
Oporlltlng RH1rolnlng Oparlltlng -•ng
1
1 ·!;I
1, ~.- r.l. IL z, VL 01-lonll
2 11.1 11. z, - V1. J._ z, + VL Impedance

~
3
I -~I
1' ~
Ii,, Z11 - VL &ln8 IL z, Reaaance
• I id
~ -;;j 11, Z.11; - VL v, Mho
Tobie 8.1
Protection Ind Switchgear a -23 and Static Relays
Tbe characleristlcs of vorlous schemes aS obtained from above Tobie 8.1 arc shown
in the Fig. 8.20.
x x x
!•) Dhdlonal (b) lmpedanco Cc) Reaetanc• (d) Mho
Fig. a.20
The •talk distance rel•y• arc used popularly for protccilun of medium and long
transmission lines, parallel feeders and intert'Orlrl«led and T connected lines.
8.12 Microprocessor Based Relay

Let us see lhe relay logic which is very important in undemanding the
microprocessor based relay. The relay can be ON or OFF i.e. it has two stable states.
Similarly output of a logic function is ON Le, high or OFF i.e, low. The three basic
logic functions are,
I. ANO 2. OR 3. NOT
ANO function :
The block ochemntic of AND function and the truth table Is shown in the
Fig. 8.21. In the truth table J lndlcalt'S high while 0 indicntos low. ANO is nothing but
a multip(iGltion.
A B C•AANDB
0 0 0
0 1 0
, 0,
1 0
1
(•) llloc~ achemotlc (b) Truth table

Fig. 8.21 AND lunc11on
The diode ANO gale Is shown in the Fig, 8.22 (a) while the AND operation using
relays is shown in the Fig. 8.22 (b).
Protte11on and Sw1tch~ar 8. 24 and St.tic Rtl1y1
•V
R •o-~/. ~/. __ A•B :s AANO 8

'
A o--KJ----i B
8 --f<l----1--- C •A•B
(o) Olodo AND (b) AND wfth <*y•
Fig. 8.22
OR function :
The block schematic of OR function and the truth table is shown in the Fig. 8.23.
~ OR function i• nothing but an addition.
A 8 C•AOA I
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 t
1 , 1
(•)Blocl<schemotic (b) Truth bble
Fig. 8.23 OR functlon

The diode OR gate is shown in the Fig. 8.24 (a) while t~ OR operation using
ttlays ls shown in the Ag. 8.24 (b).
.j /. _J L_LA•B
B o---Dof---1 '
B
R
-.
Fig. 8.24
Protection and Switchgear 8. 25 and Static Relays
NOT function:
The NOT function is inverting function of the input. So if input A is 0 then output
is I and viceversa. The output is denoted as A. It is shown in the Fig. 8.25.
Ao-o--t NOT lo--oC=~
!•)Block- (b)Tl\ithtable
Fig. 8.25 NOT function
By using NOT function with basic A.\ID and OR two more logical functions can be
obtained which are NANO and 1'.'0R.
The truth tables for NAi"ID and NOR are given in the Table. 8.2
A 8 NANO NOR
0 0 1 I
0 1 1 0
I 0 I 0
I I 0 0
Table 8.2
All these functions can be achieved using transistors also. It is called transistor
transistor logic (TTL).
The Fig. 8.26 shows the block diagram of microproressor based relay.
The output of line CT is given lo the input receiver block where signal is
processed. The signal processing includes surge protector, rectifier, smoothening filters,
awciliary CT etc. depending upon the requirement. This signal is an analog signal. The
A/0 ronverter converts this to a digital signal which is accepted by the
microprocessor. The microprocessor is a decision malcing block. The digital signal
received is compared with the reference to generate the proper tripping signal. This is
a digital signal which is converted to analog again lo operate the tripping coil. This is
achieved by the 0/ A converter. The data logger captures the data and feeds it to the
miaopf<l<"SSOrwhen there is a request from the microprocessor. The information can
be displayed with a proper display device by talcing signal from the microprocessor,
Carrlor Aided Protection
Protection and Switchgear 8 -28 end Static Rtlaya
CT Line
/
I I T~
OIA.ca1wwter
Slgnll MJ Mc:IOC:WOC:•••ot
p<ooouOng converu.r
Plug
... 16og
0.11
logger
_..
Dall .,.__
DllOlay
Fig. 8.26 MICTOl'(oceuor baMd owrcunwrt relay

The main advantage of such relay is that It Is programmable. The programme can
take care of on line calculations and take the decision acxordingly. Another Important
advontage of mlcrop"""-'"Or based relay Is that one mlcroproccsoor unit can perform
the relaying operation of seveeat oyotems.
Thus various odvantages of microprocessor based relay are,
1. Very efficient and reliable.
2. Highly accurate.
3. Very fast in operation.
4. rrogrammable In nature.
5. One unit can perform relaying of several syal<!tns.
6. Eeenomical for large systems.
7. Useful for <'t!nlrallcy co-ordinated back up protection.
Only are must be taken that the microprocessor unit must be properly shielded as
it gets affected by eJ1temal interferences and environment Proper care of earthing
must a.ISO be taken,
Review Questions
1. Onltt' and trpliim bloct "'*"'*1tic of Olrrit'r al•kd prottdicm.
1. Wl1kh rl«tronlc ,.,..,,.... .. •rt llftd .i ,..,, end of tht u.. I
J. Expkth1 1l1t '"'"'""''"'I un.u 11Jtd ;,. Ctt""" lfldtd prottctSM.
"' e.xphliM lhl' Nod dW,fN#I of,,..,, CIJfffl'it'l$k>n n1tthod.
Protection and Swltchge.,. 8. 27 and Static Rol1ya
S. Statt the IWhwnl'lfl of omwr tllfrmt prot«ti0f1,
6 EApl#in rh~ bode &.mts of sl•J1e rrilrff-
7 c...,,.,, ...,I( and~" rrlitys.
8. Slat" lift' adtM"nt418t$ of Sl6h< ~
9. Whidi art lltt ·mriom st/lllicondudQr huices 1tUd rJI SlJJti< rtl#.yl 7
10. Ori.th' ltrtd apkill tlv Nod: diqN-111 "{ ttJJtit tin1e-c11rrtnt rday.
J J. Ontr.v "-"" aplam tN al'Olll d1t11gntm of static 111111.intantONJ taY- Clfrrmt ""'Y·
L2- Drou1 arid upt.in amur '•pm of 1tati' lnt~rsr tinlf Obtt' C'wnrnl Moy.
IJ Ortttv ittNI txptl1n tltt drnlll 4»$"'m of 1tdtl(' di'f'<'.ti01url ODl'TNll"Mlt m.y,
J4 expiAin tltt atfllU d»gnm of static dljfrr4•nJkdJ rtfky
Ot11w 11nd
lS. Write 11 note on ,,.,_It
dUtntt JYl.ys.
16. Write 11 note on mic'toptCllC'.lS*Jr bdMI t'Ny.
000
(8 • 28)
9
Theory of Arc Quenching
9.1 Introduction
The different drcu1t:s of a power !i)'Ster'I' viz transmtssion lines, \Jlstribttto~
generating stations etc. are required lo be operated under both normal and abnormal
roru.litions. Whenever any fault occurs somewhere m the system, it must be
immedlntely detO<"ti-d and dlsconnected lrom the system. This is necessary smce it
ensures less damage to d..., faulted apparatus and the fault is not spread into the
system. Also quick recovery ol lauit results in less interruption of service to the
consumers.
Previously the function of 5'\'itching on and off of the power system elements was
accomplished with the help ol switch and fuse which is plaeed in series with the
Clte\1it. But it suffers some difficLlll
1cs such tts replacement of fuse takes a long time.
So supply to the consumers \\till be restored .1ftcr long tune. The another limitntion is
that It will not be able to interrupt successfully the heavy fault currents. Due to these
dlsadvantages the use ol switch and fuse unit is restricted to the low- voltage and
small capacity circuits where frequent opcrati<1rtS arc not performed.
With the development in power system the transmission lines and various
equipments operate at very high voltages carrying large currents. The switch and fuse
arrangement explained earlier will fail to serve the desired function in high capacity
circuits. The use of circuit breakers can facilitate the opening and dosing of heavy
electric circuits smoothly and efficiently. A circuit bre1k~r c.1_n make or break a circuit
tilhtr 1nat1ually or 1uton11tic.ily under no luad, full lo.1d or short clrtult condltio1\s.
Thus it forms lmportanr cl\..-ment in any protective scheme.
Any circuit breaker essentially eonsisrs of Itzed contact and moving contact. Under
abnormal condlttons or wbeeever the circuit breaker is operated then the internal
mechanism makes the moving contact to move away from the fixed contact. Whenever
contacts are separated from each other the circuit is not breaked immediately as heavy
arc is drawn between the contacts which will continue for some time. The resistance
ol this arc is high which causes large power loss in the process. Also the components
of clrcult beeaker are under heavy mechanical and clectromotgnetic stresses,
(9. 1)
Protection and Switchgear 9·2 Theory of Arc Quenching
9.2 Formation of an Arc

Now let's sec the formation of an arc. Under faulty conditions heavy current Rows
through the contacts of the circuit breaker before they are opened. As soon as the
contacts start separating. the area of contact decreases which will increase the current
density and consequently rise in the temperature. The medium between the contacts ol
circuit breaker may be air or oil. The heat which is produced in the medium is
suffiaent enough to ionoise air or oil which will act as conductor. ThLtS an arc is
.irucl< between the contacts. The p.d, between the contacts Is sufficient to maintain the
arc. So lo1lg as the arc is remaining between the contacts the circuit is &11id to be
uninterru pied.
The current Rowing between th" contacts depends on the arc resistance. With
increase in arc resistance the current flowing will be smaller. The arc resistance
depends on following factors.
•> Degree of ioni .. tion : II there are less number ol ionised particles between
the contacts then the arc resistance increases.
b) Length of arc : The arc resistance is a function of length or arc which is
nothing but separation between the contacts. More the length, more ts the arc
reststance.
c) Cros.t·sectio1\ of arc : lf the area of cl'Oli111-.eciion o( the arc is less th<:n an::
restsrance is llrgl?.
9.2.1 Initiation of Arc

There must be some electrons for initiation of an arc when fault occurs circuit
breaker contacts start separating from each other and the electrons arc emitted which
are produced by following methods.
i) By high voltage ST•dient at the cathode, resulting in field emission
ii) By increase of temperature, re.. ulting in thermionic 4'mi!sion.
9.2.1. I By High Voltage Gradient

As the moving contacts start separating from each other, the area or contact and
pressure between the separating contacts decreases. A high fault current causes
potential drop (of the order of 10" V /cm) between the conlacts which will remove tbe
electTons from cathode surface. This process is called field emission.
9.2.1.2 By Increase of Tem.l)Of1ture

With the scporation of contacts there Is decrease in contact area which wUI
UlC.rea~ the current densjty and ronsequently the temperature of the surface as seen
Proteclfon and Switchgear 9.3 TMo<y of Arc Quenching
before, which will cause eml5sion of electrons which is called thennal electron
emission.
In most of the circuit breakers the contacts are made up of copper which is having
less thermionic emission.
9.2.2 Maintenance of an Arc

In the previous section we have seen the initiation of the an: by field emission and
thermionic emission. The •lectrons while travelling towards anode collide with another
electrons to dislodge them and thus the arc is maintained, The Ionizing is facilated by,
i) High temperature o( the medium around the contacts due to high current
densities. Thus the ldnetic energy gnined by moving eltttrons is lnereased,
ii) The Increase in ldnetic energy or moving electrons due to the voltage gradient
which dislodge more electrons from neutral molecules.
iii) The separation of contacts of circuit breaker increases the length of path which
will increase number of neutral molecules. This will decrease the density of gas
\\•hicl'I will Increase free path movement of the electrons.
9.2.3 Arc Extinction

It is essential that arc should be extinguished as early as posJible. There arc two
method' of extinguishing the arc in circt1it breakers which are namely.
o) High resistance method
b) Low resistance or current zero method
9.2.3.1 High Resistance MdlOd

In high resistance method the arc resistance is increased with time. This wiU
reduce the current to such a value which will be insufficient to maintain the arc, Thus
the current is interrupted and the arc i• extinguished. This method Is employed in
only d.e, circuit breJ1kers. The rcoistance or the an: may be lnneaS<.'C! by lengthening
the arc, cooling the are, reducing the cross-section of the arc and splitting the are,
These methods wlll be discusoed In detail later in this chapter.
9.2.3.2 low Reslsta,,.,. Method

The low resistance or current zero method is employed for arc extinction in a.c,
ctreuits. ln this method ate resist.a.nee is kept low until current zero where extinction
of arc takes place naturally and is prevented from restrildng. This method is employed
in many of the modern a.c. circuit breakers.
Prot.ctlon and Switctlgear 9-4 Theory of Ase Quenching
9.3 D.C. Circuit Breaking

The breaking in case of d.c, circuits can be explained as follows. For this, we will
consider a circuit which will consist of generator with voltage E. resi5tance R.
indUC'IOt' L and the circuit breaker as shown in the Pig. 9.1 (a).
_.,._ R
_,_ L
F"ig. 9.1 (a)

The ''Oltage-current relationship can be represented as shown in the Fig. 9.1 (b).
Frorn the Ag. 9.l (b), II could be"""' that curve AB represents the voltage E - lR,
i ls nothing but current At i.ny instant 11w curve XV represents t~ voltage-current
characteri>tia ol lM ore for dc>creasing currents.
x
t ftep Men?atioo
at E./R clla-
~
_4.,...,...-'<'-.-~~+..~~~--T~~~~-
• 8
i, c""""'-
Fig. 9.1 (bl Vol~-rrent relationship
When the circuit b""1l<cr starts openmg ti carries the load cutTent l e ~· In the
graph shown the current U. 8hown to be reduced to 11, 12 and 13 respecuvety. Section
pr represents voltage drop l3R whcl>.'>UI q• rep.-nts arc voltage which Is grcoter than
available volt1ge. The arc beeomes un.bble ond the difference In voltag•• Is auppllcd
Protection and Switchgear 9.5 Th.ory of Arc Quenching
d1
by Inductance L across which the voltage Is e1 s L -.
' dI
currents this voltage is negadve and according to Lenz's law it tries to maintain the
arc.
TI1e voltage aCTI>SS inductance L is seen to be positive in the region of currents i,
and ii slnce the arc characteris tics lies below tile curve AB. The arc current in this
region tries to increase so interruption ol current is not possible in this region.
AftcrwJrds tile arc is lengthened with increase in rontart separntiol'1 whtch ,, 111 raise 1
the arc voltage above the curve AB.

The operation in case of d.c, circuit breakers Is said be ideal if the chnractcristics
10
of the arc vol tag~ arc above the C'UrVe Al~ even ln the region of currents i 1 and i:z. This
1s shown in the Fig. 9.2.
I
Voltage
x
t
E A Current
I
y
B
Currentt--• lime-
Fig. 9.2 Arc voltage charact.Ostics

It can be seen that arc voltage is greater than E - iR and the balance between the
vcltages is supplied by the voltage across the lnducmnce ~ which Is proportional to
do
rate of change of current di
Thus the function of the circuit breaker Is to raise the arc characteristics without
affecting its stability. This is done by reducing the arcing dme which is the time from
<'Of\taCt separation to final extinction ol arc. But it will Iecrease extinction voltage.
Hence compromise between arcing time and arc extinction voltage is made.
9.4 A.C. Circuit Breaking

There Is a difference between breaking in case of d.c. and a.c, circuits. In a.c,
circuits the current paSSl'S through zero twice in one complete cycle. When the
currents are reduced to zero the beakers are operated to cut-off the current. This will
Protection and Switchgear 9-6 Theory of Arc Quendling
avoid !he s1riking of !he arc. But this conditions is difficult to achieve and very much
expensive.
The restriking of arc when current is intenupted is dependent on the voltage
between !he contact gap at !hat ins1ant which will intum depend on power factor.
Hight;r !he power factor, 1....,. is !he voltage appearing across the gap than its peak
value.
1'ow before studying the actual c:urrent interruption in a.c. circuits we will see
some theory which will help us in understanding this concept.
9.5 Short Circuit In R- L Series Circuit

Consider a series R-L ciJ<Uit as shown in !he Fig. 9.3 in which switch S is
suddenly dosed at lime t = 0.
s
l R
e=~an(d+&)
Flg. 9.3 R-'. - circuit

Appl}ing KVL to above circuit,
L ~ + Ri = e
dt
L di+ Ri = E,,, sin (0>t+9) ... (I)

dt
This equation can be solved to g1't the expression for current i. This is a
non-homogeneous differential equation whose solution consists of two pllrlS viz
complementary solution and pMticular solution Le. i = ic + ip.
Complementary Solution : To get the complemenwy solution we will consider
the auxiliary equation which is obtained by equating rigl>t hand side of above
equation to zero.
L::+Ri = 0 ... (2)
Separating the variables,

di R
I
=- - -L dt
Protection and Swltchgeor 9.7 Theofy of Arc Quenching
Integrating and solving,

R where K is constant or Integration
1081·-rt•K
Considering K•log.A
log. i = log. e <·•I Lit+ log. A
log , i = log. A e <·•Ill•
Taking ennlog on both sides.
I • A e <· ll / LJ t
This is complementary solution. This component of current Is seen to be

exponentially decaying component and called D.C. romponent. The constant of
integration A depends on initial conditions which may be zero, positive or negative.
ic = A el·R/l)t ... (3)
Particular Solution : For particular solution we will take a trial solution as.
i • Ccos(0>t+8)+ Dsin(wt+O) ... (4)
di d:?i
Toking -dnnd --;- of above equation,
I dC•
-dt .
dt
- C Olsin (mt +9) + D w cos (wt +O)
dl i
= - C td- cos (wt +9) - D tff sin (0>1 +9)
dt1
Putting this value in equation (1) and equating like coefficients.
C = -E,,. O>L
R1 +0>1L'
D•E,. R
Rl •wlLl
Substituting these values of C and D in the trial solullon we get.
i a - E,. , "'L, , cos (6.lt +9) + E,. R·+m
R·+0> ~
, R, , sin (rot +O) ... (5)
~
If+ is the impedance angle then.
..- tan+ = "'L

R
Protection and Switchgear 9·1 Theory of Al<: Quenching
-B ..
i • ..,....,.......,,..,. sin
JR
1•ro2L2
= -,...,..8;;;"'..,...,.(sin (Olt +O) <W + - <06 (rot +OJ sin +1

JR? +co2L:
sin (IOI +O-+) ... (6)
Tbe particular solution given by above equation is sinusoidal and is called A.C.
component,
Complete Solution : The total current i is given by,
i•ic+l,
i • ... (7)
To find the value ol A lt>t us put the lnitiol conditions. Al t • 0, •O.lfRis

assumed to be very small compared to rJ Ll; Rl +ro2L2 .. m L J
and. ;,; tOJ1-1
ool
R .. 90°
Case (i) : If switch is closed at e • 0
t = 0; e=O
Also = Oatt==O.
... 0 ~
E,. E..,
A • I"""!" .... ~~ • -
JR•+ ..'L' OIL
Thi~ ~ the maximum value of A. ThuJ the d.e, component Is n1aximunl whe.n
switch Is dosed at zero voltage.
uff (ii) : If switch is cloied at e • £,..,
t .. 0;
Protectlon and Switchgear 9.9 Theory of Arc Quenching
A • 0
Jf switch is closed when e = E.u then A = O l.e. d.c. component is zero.
Thus when the circuit consisting of R and L supplied with alternating voltage. is
closed at l = 0, the resulting current consists of two components viz a.c, and d.c,
components which are superimposed on each other. The d.c. component magnitude 1s
decided by the voltage at the instant of switching. When switch is closed at voltage
zero, the d.e, cc>n'lponent is n\AX.imum wherees the d,c. componc-nt is zero when 8\Vitch
1$ dosed al voltage maximum.
I
--
· -
-·---- ..... - - - ----- --
- - --
Fig. 9.4 Maximum D.C. component
,t
I 1
I
-
Fig. 9.S No O.C. component
The analysis of three pha.oe ohort circuit of an alternator is done by similar way as
we have done th• •n'1l)'!li• of ohort circuit of series R-L circuit The current Rowing
through the phases of alternator during short clrculr has similar waveform to that of
Protection and Switcf>gear 9·10 Theory of Arc Quenchl119
R·L circuit es shown pn.•viously if we neglect annoture rei&Cllon and vartatlon in tho
field current.
During the short circuit. the current flowing through alternator rises rapidly 10 a
high value during first quarter cycle. The flux whlch Is crossing the air gap is large
during first couple of cycles.
The subtransient reectaece denoted by x;, is defined as that reactance during first
two or three cycles. This is very less and correspoodingly short circuit current is large.
A(t"r first low cycles which are coming under subtransiml state the r.m.s. value of
short circuit current goes on reducing but the decrease in current is not (nst aJ in
>ubtr•nsicnt state. Thb st<>!<! Is called transient &tate and the corresponding renctance Is
called transient reactaoee denoted by Xd. The circuit breaker contacts separate in thi.s
state.
Finally the transients vanish and current will reach to steady sinusoidal state
called steady state. Tbe reactanee in this state is called steady state reactance denoted
by x.,.
The currents in the different phases are having dilfemlt d.c. components. So their
waveforms will be diff-erent In the Fig. 9.6 the oedllogram of the current in the pllue
htwing zero d.c. compooeot is shown.
•
c~ ..•-ll••---r-n1--•i-'---- '
' !
9
'
' ''
.... .., .. I
..
.
·-
...
-» ~
... -·
,1 ,' '
'
'' '
''
Fig. 9.6 Osclllogram of current In the phase havl119 zero d.c. component
Protection and Switchge.ar 9 • 11 Theory of Arc Quenching
9.6 Current lnterruptlonIn A.C. Circuit Breakers

Now we will see how the current interruption takes plaee in a.c circuit breakers.
Cc11crally the a.c, circuit beakers employ zero point Interruptlen technique.
Let us consider an alternator on no lond to which a circuit breaker is connected
which is shown in the Fig. 9.7. The circuit breaker is in open position with its other
side short circuited.
N ···········•·J· .....
3ph
.......
.......... 8. 8
-V,-
,
'•
'
y
Fig. 9.7 Sudden 3 phase shon circuit of an 1ltem1tor
When the voltage ol phase B w.r.t neutral is zero, the circuit breaker is closed.
Under this condition the B phase current will have maximum d.c. component and its
current waveform will be unsymmetrical about normal zero axis. This is shown in the
Fig. 9.8.
•
..... .,,
''
. .. ...
I
'
-
.......
·-
R"""'"'Y-
/
·-
...
""'
ln*1Uptto
,
Fig. 9.8 Current and voltage during fault clearing
Protection and Switchgear 9 -12
The current is zero before t s 0 as the •ltemator is on no load. The short circuit is
apphed at t • 0 and current Increases to very high value ( nearly 10 to 25 ti.mes lull
load current) during first quarter cycle. The peak of first current loop is shown by OA
\Yh1rt\ •~ rna.x1mum lnstantaneou:t value of current during shor1 circuit. This
onstantoncous peak value of first current loop is called making curttnt which is
cxpl'(..sed •• kA peak,
Now the circuit breaker contacts will separate alter few cycles which are taken by
relay and other operating mechanism. At time say t • T1 the contacts of circuit breaker
separate, The r.rn.s. value of short drcuit current at that instant of contact separation is
called breaking current.
As seen earlier an arc is struck between the contact when they start separating.
The arc current varies sinusoidally for few cycles. At t = 12 the arc is interrupted as
the dielectric strength of arc space builds sufficiently. This will avoid the continuation
of MC. Thus the arc will be extinguished.
The voltage waveform is shown in the Fig. 9.8. Before the instant t • 0, tile
contacts are etosed so the voltage between them is zero. At the instant t • T 1, the
contacts begin to separate and voltage across them starts increasing. This voltagt is
nothing but the drop across the ore. The current and the voltage across arc are in
ph.t!loe 3S the arc rs resistive. Due to Increased arc resistance the voltage across contacts
inCTe~SC"- "' lhe next C)'CI~ finally at t • T2 the Dre is e>cth'S"ulshed. A high frequency
tr>n>1ont voltage appears across the contacts which is supertmpcsed on power
frequency voltage. This high frequency voltage tries to resmke the ore. H~ it is
called Restnking Voltage or Transient Recovery Voltage. This is the voltage which
appears across circuit breaker contact which Is responsible for rntriking of arc. The
power frtquency system voltage between the circuit breaker contacts alter arc
extinction is called Recovef)• Voltage. The prospective current shown in the '"aveform
may be defined as the current that would. flow in the circuit if circuit breakers were
replaced bv solid conductor.
9.7 Transient Recovery Voltage

The transient reeovery voltage has effect on the behaviour of circuit breaker, This
voltage appears between the contacts tmmedlately after final arc lnterruption, This
causes high dielectric stress between the contacts. ll thi1 dteleetrie stttngth of tile
medium between the contacts does not build up faster than the rate of rise of t™"
transient rerovery voltage then the breakdown takes plocc which will cause restrilclng
<>I arc. Thus it is very important that the dielectric strength of the conlDd space must
build very rapidly that rate of rise: of transient recovery voltage so that the
mtcrrupnen of current by the circuit breaker tnkes place successfully. The rate of ri>C
of thi> transient voltage depends on the clrcult parameters and the type of the
Protection ond Switchgear 9·13 Th&<>ry of Arc Qutnching
switching duty Involved. The rate of bualding up ol the dielectric strength depends on
the effective design of the Interrupter ond the circuit breaker.
If it Is desired to break the capacitive currents while opening the copa<itor banks,
there may appear a high voltage across the contacts which can cause reigmtion ol the
arc after initial arc extinction. Thus if contact space breaks down within a period ol
one fourth of a cycle from initial arc extinction the phenomenon is called Reigintion. II
moving contacts of circuit breakers move a very small distance from the fixed contacts
then ~gintion may occur without overvottege. But the arc gets extinguished in the
next current zero by which time moving contacts should be moved by sufficient
distance from fixed contacts. Thus the reignition is in a way not harmful as it \-ViU not
lead to any overvoltage beyond permissible limits.
If the breakdown occurs ofter one fourth of a cycle, the phenomenon is called
Resmke. In resttildng, high voltoge appear across the circuit breaker contacts during
cAJ>llcitive current breaking. In successive rcstrlkes, voltage wlll go on Increasing which
may lead to damage or circuit breaker. Thus the circuit breakers used for apacitors
should be free from Rcstrlke t.e, they should have adequate rating.
9.8 Effect of Different Parameters on Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)

As seen from the previous section. after the final current, zero high frequency
transient vollage appears across the circuit breaker poles which is superimposed on
power frequency system voltage and tries to restrilce the arc. This voltage may last for
a (ew ICflS or hundreds of microseconds. if the shape of this TRV is seen on the
oscilloorope then it can be seen thol it may be oscillatory, non-oscillatory or •
combiruttion of two depending upon the characteristics of the circuit and the circuit
breaker. n... waveform is ns shown in the Fig. 9.9
Power f,.quency
Recovery vo111ge
- Transll!flt
YOll8ge
·-
Fig. 9.9 Shape of transi.nt recovery voltage
This voltage has • power frequency component and an ooclllatory transient
rornponent. The oodlL•tory rompon,-nt is due to inductance and capacitanQ! in the
circuit. The power frequency component is d~ to the &ystcm voltage. Thi• is shown
in the Fig. 9. JO.
Protection and Swltchgeu 9·14 Theory of Arc Quenching
,_
......
- Fig. 9.10 Voltages after final C-<Urrent zero
The transient oscillatory component lasts (or h:Y.· microseconds after \..•hich po\..-er
fn..-qut!l"tC) \ oltage run1nins. The transient component has frequency given by.
( - l Hz
" - 2.:j'LC
where f,, = Frequency o( transient recovery voltege
L • Equivalent Inductance
C • Equivalent capacitance
9.8.1 Effect of Natural Frequency on TRV

\.Yith Increase in the natural frequency the rate of rise of Tl~\' at current zero
increases. This is shown in the Fig. 9.11. Tile rate of rise of transient recovery voltage
is represented by slopes of tangents to the three waveforms drawn at different
r""luenc:ies.
Rate ol nse ol TRV cau5<'S voltage stress on the contact s•P which will ronhnue
the arc. If the frequency is increa.K'CI then reh1tiv~ly small time is available lor building
ol dielectric strength of oontact gap. Hence Increase in frequency causes greater
sttesscs. The rate ol rise ol TRV b related "ilh the breaking capacity of a circuit
breaker. Thus it also means rate of rise ol TRV is dependent on natural frequency of
TRV. As frequency increases the breaking capacity reduces.
Protection and Switchgear 9 • 15 Theory of Arc Quenching
v
I
,,.
0
... -
Fig. 9.11 Effect of frequency of TRV

9.8.2 Effect of Power Factor on TRV
At th<• instant nr final current zero the volmge oppearlng 3CtOS5 the C.ll. ronlacb Is
ollooed by the p.I. of the current, At current zero the arc "' extir\~uishcd Aft<r this
power frequency voltage appears 3CfOSS the ctrcurt breaker. The mstnnteneous value 0ir
the voltage at current zero depends on phase angle between lhe current and voltage.
For umty p.f. load as shown in the Fig. 9.12 both voltage and current ore in phase
and are zero at the same instant,
Ate
cumtn1
Ate
_ _, extlncttor'I
I
I
·-
I
I
,, I
Fig. 9.12 Unity power factor
Protat;tlon and Swltch11ear 9·16 Theory of Arc QuenchlnlJ
,~
I
I
I
-,
he
I
I
I I
I I
I
,_
I
I
I I
I I
\ ~I
Fig .. 9.13 Ze<o power fat;tor

I( we consider zero power £actor currents, the peak voltage El.NI_.. is lrnpressed on
the circu11 breaker contacts at the current zero lNtanL This Instantaneous voltage gi\•es
nlOt'C transient ,md provides high rate of rise of TRV. Hence If the p.f. is low !hen
&ntern1pt1ng of such current Is difficulL
9.9 Recovery Voltage

As seen previously It Is the volmge havtng normal power frequency which oppe•B
ofter the transient volmge.
9.9.1 Effect of Reactance Drop on Recovery Voltage

Belo"' fault is taking place let us consider that the voltage appearing across circuit
breaker is V 1. As the fault current Increases. the voltage drop ill reactance also
in<re•S<'S After fault cleorlng the voltage appearing say V 2 is slightly less than V1•
The system takes some time to regain the original value.
9.9.2 Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltage

Ibe short citcuit currents are at lagging power foctor. TheS-O lagging p.L currents
have a dem.111netlzing armature reaction in alt"'1\lltors. Thus the induced e mJ. of
altcmators decreases To r~g.1Jn the original value this e.m.I, t.kcs some time. Thus the
pc>\... er (rL~\ttJncy component ol rrco\·ery voltage is tess thu1l tile normal value of
St"item \'(1lt;1gc.
Proteetion and Switchgear 9 -17 Theory of Arc Quenching
9.10 Single Frequency Transient

Consider the circuit
.---'1~L~--...,..---~~~l>AI~- shown in the l'iK. 9.14.
"'° This circuit produces the
single frequency rc'Striking
Feut1 voltage transient.
c
The natural (r(oq_uenc) 1
or oscillation is given by,

1
Fig. 9.14
r. =
where L ~ Inductance in henry
C = Capacitance in lauds
Depending upon the values of L and C, the frequency ranges from 10 Hz IQ
10 l<Hz. The cirC\llt configuration in actual power system Is complicated and It has
distributed capacitance and inductances. In such cirtuits the TRV has several
components or f""JLIOncics which is shown In the Fig. 9.15.
Th<' tronslfnt shown In the Fig. 9.15 i• obtained by operotlng the terminal foult
where reaeranee between the fault and circuit breaker is negligible.
- "' ...... lrildng ""'og•

,-'
-
,
,' ' Res-triking
•''
•• ''
,,''
t-
••
• '
F1ji. 9.15
9.11 Double Frequency Transient

In IMt section we have considered inductan<e L and capacitance C on only one
side of circuit breaker. But It may be on both sidos of circuit breaker. This is shown tn
the Fig. 9.16.
ProteC'\ion.and Switchgear 9·18 Theory of Arc Quenching
Li 1 2
..-~-'llW'-~-i-~~--:c-:;;;:,__~-r-~~~~,
breaker
F...it
c, c,
Fig. 9.18
The points I and 2 art
.-- OoUC>le equipotential points before clearing
frequency
transient the fault. But ofter the arc extinction
r '' Yoiloge there wlll be two circuits which
•' may oscillate at their own natural
frequencies and thus a composite
'' ' double frequency transient appears
"
Fig. 9.17 across circuit breaker. This is shown
in the Fig. 9.17.
The circuit configuration, the type of fault and the type of neutral earthing are the
important factors which will decide the frequency, rate of rise and peak value of the
TRY.
The TRY wave is defined by specifying the P,eak value and time required to reach
the same or it can be specified by defining the segment of lines which enclose the
TRV waveform.
9.12 Derivation of Rate of Rise of TRV

As seen previously the transient voltage that appears ocross the circuit breaker
c:ontact:o at the ln•tnnt of arc extinction I• called R<.'51riklng Voltage. The rate of riso of
restrildng voltage RRRV is nothing but rote which Is expressed in volts per
m~d. This will represent rhc rote at which Transient Recovery Voltage is
mcreaslng. The rate of rise of TRY Is dependent ori system parameters.
With e •s the restriking voltage in volts then
RRRV •de volts I iJSCC

dl
The maximum instantaneous value attained by the restriklng voltage is called the
peak restriklng voltage.
With the given specifications of TRV the circuit breaker must be able to interrupt
the short circuit breaking current. The peak value of TRY, time to reach the peak
•
Protection and Switchgear 9. 20 Theory of Arc Qu&nchlng
wh<;re.
e • voltage across breaker term.iNls nothing but restriklng voltage
Dillor•ntiating (I),
di •
- • -+
c -d'• ... (2)
de L d12
The solution ol 'e' will thus depend on the current and ii interruption takes plMe
at current zero Le. when t ; 0 then,
I~ E.,slncot
col
and after opening of circuit breaker,

di Ern
di" = '(;[ . (I) cos (!) t
• E "' cos m t at ta 0
L
Substituting this in (2),
Elf\ e d2c
-coswt • -+C-
l. L di'
This is standard equotlon and solution ol this equation is,
... (A)
This is an expression for restrikingvoltage in which,

E,,, ~ Peak value of recovery
voltage phase to neutral in ...
-
- - - - - - - - - -fnlJ(
volts. I R~
• time in sec. •
L • Inductance ln henries
C • capacitance in farads
e • rcSt'rikhlg voltage
- - Fig. 9.19
-11n~
Protectionand Switchgear 9 ·21 Theo<y of Arc Quenching
9.12.1 Expression for Maximum Value of Restriklng Voltage E.,

and Corresponding Time t,.
Nuw
if ·e· ls tu be maximum
where I ; t,,.
· Time at which maximum restriking voltage <K'C\IJ'$ i!:.
I Im • •[CC I
And peak value of restrlklng vonage,
I ••· • P.,,, I
2
where E,,. Is equal to eeuve rtt0very voltage (Le. instantaneous value of recovery
voltage at current zero).
9.12.2 Expression for RRRV and Maximum RRRV
Now RRRV; ~ ;!; [E.(~[Jic])]

RRRV -sin--
E.. .a
t
.J LC .J L.C
maximum RRRV • 1rc
LC
when sin~• 1
v LC
i.e.
Protection end Switchgear 9 -22 Theo')' of Arc Quenching
t •
~.JLC
2 lor maximum RRRV
9.12.3 Frequency of Osclllatlon of Restrlklng Voltage (Transient)

I
f. =
Maximum RRV =
Maximum RRV = 2 n E,. r.

9.12.4 Restrlklng Voltage Under Varlou1 Conditions
The l'C$triklng voltage 'e' under various conditions will be,
where active recovery voltage i.e. the instantaneous value

V llr o( recovery voltage
at current zero and V"' can be written as
V., • K1 K2 J<, E,,,
Here !!,,, is the peak value of system voltage where,
K, is factor which ta""5 into accounts effect or drruit p.f. ond K1 • sin+
So ii +• 90°, K, • l
K2 is !actor which eeeounes effect or amuiture reaction on recovery
voltage.
K3 is phase factor or first pole to dear factor.
9.12.5 First Pole to Clear Factor

The first pole to dear factor is given by,
RMS voltagebetween healthy phase
and faulty phase
F•ctor pole to dear factor •
Phase to neutral voltage with &ult
removed
ln three phase systems if fault does not involve the earth. the voltage across the
circuit breaker pole first to dear Is 1.5 times the phase voltage. The ore extinction In
ProtAtc:tion and Switchgear 9 ·23 Theory of Arc Quenching
the three poles of three phase c.ircuil breakers i5 not simultaneous as currents are 1ioe
oul of phase. In procttcat system< the recovery voltage or the pole flrsl to extinguioh
the arc is or the order of 1.2 10 1.5 tin> .. of the phase voltage.
If fault involves earth and the neutral is ground<.>d through reactor, the rt'<'<!very
voltage is influenet'd by the equivalcn! S)'Sl>.'11\ reactanas.
Thus In 3 phase circuits K3 • l If n<'Utral ls earthed end fault Is also earthed.
While K3 a 1.5 if neutral is earthed and fault is insulated or neutral is Insulated and
faull ls earthed.
•• Example 9.1 : /11 sl1ort circuit test on • 3 polt, 132 kV circuit IJr<alo", tire Jollqwilrg
obsnvations are mn.te pf. of fault 0.4, rrro:xry volt•ge 0.9 times full tine ,.,/ur, tJw
brroking current symm•trical,frtt11JC1cy of oscillations of restriki11g voltagr 16 ktl:.
Assume nmtral is gro1mde.d and fault is not grounded. Determine average RRRV.
Solution : c • v; [1-ros(%)]
wheni V., • K1 K2 K3 E,,,
K1(tnkes lnto ac:count p.f. effl!CI) • sin +
K2 (ti.kes Into account orn1ature ""'ctlon effect) • 0 9
K3 (Phase factor or I" pole to clror be10r)
= 1 for bo1h neu1ul and fault grounded

e 1.5 for any one of the two not grounded.
In the problem,
K1 = sin + = sin [cos-1 0.4[ = 0.9165
K2 = 0.9 K3 = 1.5
Peilk value of voltage i.e. li110 IO ground
132 r-;
Em • .[3 • v 2 ~ 107.n kV
I
ff\ •
2n,/ LC
... 1
7L'C •
• 2n x 16 )( IO-'
• l• tOS
•
Protection and Switchgear 9. 24 Theory of Arc o ... nchlng
Time to reach maximum restriking voltngc
Maximum i,. • nJLC • •05

lxl
Maximum restriking voltage,
:s 2 v.,
= 2 K1 K2 K3 E,,. • 2 x 0.9165 x 0.9 x 15 x 107.7? x 10'
• 2.66682 x Jo' v
Average RRRV,. •
Maximum restriking voltage 2. 66682x Jo'
~~~~~~~~--'~~-"-~~-=
Time to reach maximum restrildng voltage
= 8.48 x 10" v/sec = 8.48 x to' kV /sec = 8.48 kV /µsec
•• Ex•mpi. 9.2 : In • short circuit lest on a 130 kV, J ~ sy>ttm, tilt brMlrer gave
the folluwing usults : pf of fault 0.45, •ttf!Vtry POllJ1$< 0.95 11""1 full line vo/tagt,
brtaker current symmtlricol, and restriklng lronsltnl Md • natural fm111mcy 16 kHL
!Rtermint /Wml~ RRRV. A>SllltU' fault I• groundm.
Solution :
.f'i x 130
E,,. " fJ = 106.144 kV
.
.. v. = K, K, K3 E,,, where K1 • sin+• 0.8930
= 0.8930 x 0.95 x 1 x 106.144 K, = 0.95
= 90.04n62 kV K3 = 1
Maximum e = 2 V., = 180.09452 kV
1
Maximum time • KJ LC and I =
" 2~.JLC
1 1
Maximum t •
-2 £-. • "2_x_l_6_x_J
... Q3'°
... Average RRRV •

Maximum c 180.09452
Maxlmumt • l / 2x16x10'
• S.76302 kV /usec
'
Protection and Switchgear 9 -2S TheOl)I of Arr; Quenching
•• Example 9.3 : Cn/c11la1< the RRRV of 132 kV cin:u1t bn:aker with 11e11tral earthed.
S.C. data as follows: Bro<Ln curnnt u symmttrloJJ, rrstrlking voltage llns frnlutncy
20 kHz, p.J. 0.15. Anumr /•ult IS o/so <arlhtd
Solutlon : K1 • sin• • sin (coo -1 0.15) • 0.9886

K2 • 1
K3 • 1 both grounded
E,,, = .{2 j.; 32 = 107.mss kV
..- v; = K1 K1 K3 E.,
= 106..54889kV
... Maximum e = 2 v;
= 213.09778 kV
tm = •..Ju:.
'" .
1
•..JLC•t,,,•2~ sec
2•..JLC n
1
Maximum t,,, =
2x20x103
RRRV a ·~·
- 213.09778
a ,.---.,..---.--,
'-• (I I (20x lo' x 2))
= 8.52 kV/ f'S<C

,_ Example 9.4 : A SQ Hz gtnerator has •·m.f. to neutral 7.5 kV (r.m.$.). 11zt react11na
of grnerotorand tlu: am11a:ted system is 4 0 and distributed cnpacitanct to neutrol is
0.01 µF with reslsla11ce negligible . Find,
iJ maximum voltage across tlrt circuit ltroJktr an1tads
ii) fmlutncy of oscillations
iii) RRRV avtmgt upto first ptak of oscillahons.
Solution: X•2nfl.=40
L • 4 I 2 •• SO • 0.0127 H.
fl,,, • .{2 x 7.5 • 10"°6 kV
- .. ' .,, .
Protection and Switchge.ar 9 -28 Theory of Arc Quenching
I) Maximum voltage = 2 • Eai

= 2 • 10.606 • 21.212 kV
2)
'· . I
2nJLc • 2.Jo.0121.0.01.10::
I
• 14.1227 kHz
3) ~iaximum tintc to rcacll maximum voSbge is.
nf[C. c .L • ---'--~
2 f,, 2•14 .1227 • 103
Maximum voltage
Average RRRV =
t,.
21.212
(1I(2•14.1227• 10'))
• 0.599kV/µ_,
0lht
•- Example 9.5 : /11 a sys/rm having 220 kV. lint to gro1111d capocilanu 0.015 µF,
111d11cta11ct 3.5 H. Dctcrminr volt•gt •pp<mng "'"'" polt of c·irniil hrtakrr if •
mt1.~nel1sing current of 6.5 A 1nstanl111U"OUS, is 11tltr11lplrd. Dr.ttr1ui11t also tlit valut of
m1,tu11rt" to bt• 11srd ncross tltt co•1tocts to tllm1natt tht n-striking voltagt.
Solution :
Energy stored in 'L' = energy given to capacitor

e=iJL/C where l = instantaneous value
3.5
= 6.5
• 99.J kV
To eliminate restrikl.ng vollllge and crltlc.11 damping condition,
R • O.SJL/C
3.5
•OS • 7.635 lc!l
( 0.015• 10 .. )
Protection and Swltchg•ar 9. 27 Theory of Ase Quenching
n• Ex1mpi. 9.6 : A 50 Hz, 3 pit alltmator, has ruttrl uoltagt l J.5 kV, co11ntr:ltd lo
.orcuil bMJkn, ituluclivt r<t1Cl•11ct 4 n,ph, C • 2 µF.
O<tmni"' maximum RRRV, ptnk mtrilang oo/lag•,fr.qutncy of os<illaltOnS.
,/2 x13.5
Solutton : E,. = J3 = 11.0227 kV
X = 2• f L :. L • 0.01273W H and C • 2 µF
• 0.997 kHz
Maximum n."Striking voltage • 2 Ein

• 22.1)454 kV
... de
do ~ -
e 1 .
.JLC Sin .JLC
I
This is the expression of RRRV
I
:. Maximum RRRV and In•
Maximum RRRV = 2 • !• E,. •

I'
• n x 0.997 x 10' x 22.0454 kV/sec
'· .. - .1"1
= 0.06907 kV I j15ec
9.13 Interruption of Capacitive Currents

' , ..
°'?i l
In power S)'Stems capacitor banks are used in the network whidl suppl!~ /'<•ctlv~
1
power at lca,cling power. /"~\I'~..·
There ·~ vari~ _cqnditions ~~c~,.
~tml~~-1--- as opening a long transmission
Circuit lln~ 01\'· no load or disconnecti~g a
e "'•- ~podi\lr11bank etc. in wlu't'h It 'i!'I
c ' c,, "ll Nljuu'ed1tb 'inle'irUpt the capaotfv~!,
cutrti\\!51\.,hldl ls- a i!flficul\di~~k'
~--~-~---~ !or the ci'rrult breax~.· ' 1!'0'1
Flg. 9.20 lmrruption of capoctttv. currento understand this dlf6culty lei us
consider a simple drcu1t shown in
the Fig. 9.20.
ProtKClon and SWitchi!•ar 9-28 Theory of Arc Quenching
111<' ,a1.... of load cnpacimnce CL is greater than C. The voltage across a apadtor
connot change insh,nt•ncou•ly. The cunmls supplied to the capodtor are generally
""'811 •nJ Interruption or !uch c:umnts hike p~lCC at first current zero. Al!o at the
b<oglnnlng.the mtc or rise of recovuy voltage is low and Increases slowly. Whenever
ouch drcuit Is ope11ed • charge Is trapped In the cnpadtance Cc. The voltage ti_ across
the lood capacitance will hold the same value when circuit was opened. This vollllge
lo nothing but peak of supply voltage as power factor angle is nearly 900 leadmg.
Aller opening the circuit the vollllge Ve the capacitance C oscillates and
actOM
lj)proodles a new steady value. But due to small value of capacitance C. the value
attained is close to the supply voltage, The recovery voltage c, is notlung but
difkrmtt between •c and •L· Its initial value is zero as the circuit breaker will be
cloerd and increases slowly In the beginning. When Ve reverses after half cycle. the
n1awerl voltage is about twtoe the non:nal peak value. 'fhcr~fon? It ls possib~ I.hat at
lhil 1Ntant arc mny restrlke as the el«trial strength between the circuit breaker
1 CCl't.XU is not sufficifnt. The circ:u.ft will be redOO<d and ei. 0<eillates at a high
fmju<ncy
The supply voltage at this Instant will be at its negative peak; therefore a high
lrequen<\ oecillation takes place.
At the instant of restrucking the arc. the reawery voltage V, is zero. Tbe voltage
across lhe load capacitance reaches - 3 times the peak value of normal supply voltage,
The recovery voltage then shirts inat'asing. If again restriking of arc takes place. a
"13h frequency of oscilletlon of eL takes place. Such several repetitions of the ...striking
cycle will Increase the voltage across Wad capacitance to a dangerously hlgh value. In
p"11Ctitt this volt.lge Is limited to 4 times the normal peak of the voltage, This is
rtprstntrd in the Fig. 9.21.
Thus "' the successive rcslrikes. thr energy ~ CY2 Is to be dissipated which is
quilv large •nd th,c ~1~u1t bl'('llktt ""'Y ~t d.tmaged in the process of restriking.
H'<nce ~ cifcuit kl"'M
thooe ""' to be l""1 lor capocitors must be frtt from
~n.s arid sli(){Ja fusv~ ~u. rating for capecitive current switching so that
... 'tte \-i>lhO.. tran$\.ih'b.'cail'be .voided.
'!"'·I.. . -"1>"" ;.J · f. ;,ifl:(l!Jl4r,
'· .JJ. tk<;ult .l?!'eal\e'i.•!ll'l!u~
<While $W!lching capacitor banks in parallel. the
~~ d14 is_ arc:,rif.,4ttt/jjjs~ contacts to\lCh together. rakes place. This may
~ the ~ 'II' .~,eilllllO'in the an: is converted into heat. Thus whlle
5"i~ wilh C3Nlflf1.b<lnlfa,Jllllblbl.• .-lvr L must usedin series to limit high
~uency ~ Oflll'lll· '
Protoctlon and Switchgear 9 -30 Theory of Arc Quenching
Consider the circuit shown in the Fig. 9.22.(o).

L
Olroui1
inll<Ot
t•E~ rv C
Fig. 9.22 (a) Circuit diagram showing lntMTUptlon of Inductive currents
eu,...nt finaly
SU9Ptet.:Sed before
natutat zero
Natural
~curren1 ze10
fhtdlOP--•I Time-
FirlC r•ttrlk.e --
'•
•••
'
•'
'
••
--- •- • - ,-,''--- .... '''
,
''' '
"••
Prolpte11Yo
ol ~ - Clcl'IO
-Miii lCl O
Fig. 9.22 (b)

Protection and SwltcllgNr 9. 31 Theory of Arc Quenching
While interrupting low inductive currents the rapid deionizalion of contact space
and blast effect may cau5" the current lo reduce a.bruptly to zero well before lhc
natura] currenl zero. This currenl chopping COL...,. very serious voltage oscill•lions.
Let the ore current be i when It is chopped down to zero value. The stored energy
in the Inductor which ~ L i' wUI be discharged in to !hi! capacitance so that the
capacitor is charged to a prospective voltage V such that.
! L i1 • .!_ CV2
2 2
V = i JL!C volts
This prospective voltage is extremely high as compared. to the normal system
voltage. The frequency ol natunl oscillations is given by.
(ft ~
1
2~JLC
To understand this point let us consider • small example ol 220 kV clmlit breaker
Interrupting a magnetizing current ol 10 A r.m.s. ol tnnslonner. Let the current be
chopped at the inst•ntaneous value ol 7A. Lei the value ol inductnnoo and capacitance
be 35 H a.nd 0.0020 µF
Assuming th•t all the inductive energy Is lronsfcrred to cnpadtanec and using the
above lonnulo,
... e = 926 kV
This voltage will appear across the circuit breaker contacts, Such a transient
voltage having high RRRV appears across the contacts. There will be restriking of arc
at some point. II the arc restrikes further, chop may occur. Thus before final
interruption of current there "~IIbe many chops and the cirruit breaker will fail to
cleer the fault. Alternately ii the resrrtke docs not occur, the severe voltage stress will
appc .. r ecross circu.it breaker contacts.
The rise of volhlgt' ti.fore restriking is on Important ractor. Tho lower Is the rate ol
rise, more Is the time required for dcioni7.ation and high vol11ge will be reached.
After first chopping the deionising force which Is still in oction •cts nnd second
chop ol current takes plaee, But the ore cur~nt is now smaller than the previous one
and arc: current collapses and rest:riking voltage is again build. Thu.s a sequence or
chops will occur and arc will continuously decrease until a linal chop brings arc
Protection ind Switchgear 9. 32 Theory of Arc Quenching
current to zero. 11\ere will not be any further rcstriking •• the 8"P i.s almost detontse.
This Is represented m the Fig. 9.22 (b).
9.15 Resistance Switching

It can be seen from previous sections that the interruption of low inductive
currents, interruption of capacitive currents give rise to severe voltage oscillations.
These excessive voltage surges during circuit interruption can be prevented by the use
of shunt resistance R across the circuit breaker contacts. This process is known as
Resistance Switching.
When the resistance is ronnected across the arc, a part of the arc current nows
through the resi.sbnce. 11us will lead to decrease in .re CUJTenl and increase in rate of
deionlutlon of the arc path and reslatan~ of arc. This will inaeas<? current through
shunt 1·cslat~nc:e • This process continues until the current through the arc is diverted
through the resistance either
comple1ely or in mojor part. If
the smoll value of the current
c remains in the arc then the path
•A
Flxed
conlad - 8
"""""'
tsololOf
switch
Fig. 9.23 Typical resistor connection

becomes so unstable that it is
easily extinguished.
The resistance
automatically
may
switched in and
be
arc current can be transferred.

The time requlred for this action
is very small. As shown In the
Fig. 9.23 the arc first appears
o""°"5 points A and B which Is
then trans(~ across A and C.
The shunt resistance also
ensures the effective damping of
r....
-
the high frequency re-striking
Fig. 9.24 voltage transients. This is shewn
in the Fig. 9.24.
We will now derive a relation which will show how damping is achieved.
Consider the circuit and Laplace transform equivalent as shown in the Fig. 9.25.
Protection and Sw1tchge.ar 9. 33 Theory of Arc Quenching
R
l R
C.B.
E "' c Fauft "' ~ )

.1
&C )
Ill (II)
(a) Cltcuk (b) Equhloltnt clrcuk
Fig. 9.25
Applying KVL to loop (I)
~ = (sl+ .~)11 (s)- 12 (s) ... (i)

5~
Applying KVL to loop (Il),
0 " - re 11 (s) + ( R +
8
~) 12 (s) ... (ii)
From eqll'11ion (ii),

11 (s) a (I • sCR) 12 (s)
Substituting this value in eqll'11ion (i)
~ a ( sl+ (I + sCR) 12 (s)- 12 (s)

8~) 5~
. .. -vs . (sl + s1R LC+sh + R -sh] 11 (s)
:f...s = ( R LC r + Ls + R) 12 (s)
V VIRLC
12 (s) = = --,.---,--.,.-..,.
s(RLCs' +Ls+R) (, I
5 8 +RC+LC
I )
Using partial lroctions,

Pl'Olectlon ind Switchgear Theory of Arc Quenching
12 (s)
1
Put x = 2RC'
11(5) a v{I
R ;-
•••
+(./Y)' - (t+x)1 (s••)'
x
•(.fy)'
}
Taking inverse Laplace transform,
2
i (t) = {(1-e-•(c:os_lY1+;sinJY1))
The natural frequency of oscillation is given by,
I
( a - ---..:.....-
" 2• LC 4C1Rl
It e1n be seen thot with the va_lue of the resistana! R equet to or lest than
~ J LI C, lhe otdllotory nature of the transient will not be there ond RRRV will be
within the permissible limits o( circuit breaker.
For critical damping
T~s- I
2
ffc -
Considering different v•lues of R, the

ooci!Lltions observed nre shown in the Fig. 9.26.
In air bl•st circuit breours It Is observed lhot
lhe rate at which dielectric strength of gap
increases is lower than in oil breakers. Since air
has a much lower dielectric strength than the
'
gases at same temperature and pressure in oil
cirruit breaker. The dielectric strength of a gas
increases wilh pressure. Thus the air blast circuit
breaker Is more sensetive to iutrtklng voltage
y
tronsient. In low or medium voltage nir blost
circuit' breaker the rate or rise of n.'8triklng
R•t~
voltage is higher. Thus shunt resistors ore used Fig. 9.28
9. 35 Theory of Arc Q<lenchlng
for low and medium voltage air blast circuit breekers, Also in case of oil circuit
breakers the !"ffis!an<e switching is not employed as it is not sensitive to RRRV.
,... E••mple 9.7 : In 132 kV lrnnsn1issio11 system, llrt pion~ to ground ml"'fll•nct IS
0 01 µF. 1""' 1nductonu ~irog 6 H. Ca/culntr thr volt•Kt •P1""rmg across lltt poJr of a
Ol'Oltt brrakrr If a 1111lgntlitltig curren! of 10 A os rnlrrr11ptat. Frnd t/U' '"''"' of
m1.;ront:r to bt 11St'd M:t0$$ "'"'"'' spnc.t to rlirr1inntr lltt striking voltogt tmnswnl.
Solutlon : L=6H
C • 0.01 µF m 0.01 x I~ r:
= 10 A
Voltage appearing across poles of circuit breaker, is given by,
v = .IVflC
6
= 10 ~ 0.01x10"'
= 10 (24494.89)
V • 245 kV
The value or resistanee 10 be used across contact space is given by,
R = ~~
= ~ ~ 0.01: !O ..
= 21 (24494.89)
R = 1214 le!!
9.16 Arc Extinction
The electric di.charge whi<h b taking place between the electrodes is nothing but
the clectric ere, We hove seen that when contacts of circuit breakers are sq>aroted, an
arc is established between the contacts which will last for some period. Tbe circuit
breaker should be capable of extinguishing this arc without damaging. ~ behaviour
of clrcull breaker is greatly influenced by the arc,
Protection and Switchgear 9. 36 Theory of Arc Quenching
Interruption or arc in ease of d.c, circuits is much more difficult than that in case
of ''·" circuits In a.c. currents the natural current zeeo point is available where the arc
vanishes and prevented from rcstriking.
The arc extinction In case or circuit breakers is not taking place frequently but still
it produces lot of slmls on the breaker. The difforent methods adopted for the arc
cxtlnctlon 01n be grouped into following three c.itegories,
9.16.1 High Resistance Interruption

ln this technique the resistance of current path is increased rapidly so that voltage
drop is increased. The arc gets extinguished when the system voltage is insufficient to
maintain the arc due to high voltage drop. This is normally used in d,c. circuit
breakers and air break type a.c, circuit breakers having low capacity. The system
Inductance stores the energy which is dissipated in the arc.
9.16.2 Low Resistance or Current Zero Interruption

"fllis method is used only in case of a.e, circuit bttakers. At the nAtural current
zero point or a, c, wave, the arc is lnterruptcd and is prevented from restrlklng though
there is high l'\.'Strldng voltage by increasing the dlcl<ctric: st...,,gth of the conmct gap.
This method is uS<!d in high power a.e. circuit brtakcrs.
9.16.3 Artificial Current Zero Interruption

In HVDC systems tlus method I• employed for breaking d c. currents where
current is made i.ero artificially.
9.17 Ionization of Gases

The non-ionized gas is generally a good dielectric medium. But the ionized gas is
n conductor as it contains free electrons. fn circuit breakers the contact space is ionized
by following ways.
9.17.1 Thermal Ionization

At normal temperatures. molecules of gas are mmting at various velocities In
various directions and possess K.E. as ~ mv2. With increase in temperature the
molecules break up In •lmpler fonn and then to otona. At high temperature more and
more collision takes plaee which will produce free ~l<"ClroN thus produces the
ionization by hcot and called thermal lonlution.
Pro49ction and Switche-•ir 9. 37 Tl>eoly of Arc Quenching
9.17.2 Ionization by Collision

Any panide may be atom, molecule or electron al higher velocity may strik•
another particle so that lhe energy of moving parttcle is imparted to other one. This
energy is wflldcnt to remove electrons from nloms. This b called lon1zalion by
collision.
9.17.3 Thennal Emission from Sur1ace of Contacts

Whenever contacts of a breaker are closed, they are pressed against each other at
high pressure. With the contact separation, the pressure between them reduces so true
area or contact is decreased to a few spots on the surface. Due lo this, high current
density areas are produced which will cause high local temperature. Due to this,
thermal emission takes place at contact surface.
9.17.4 Secondary Emission at Contact Sur1ace

Under the influence of strong electric field between the contacts the elechons move
from one contact to other producing emission from contact surface.
9.17.5 Field Emission

The \'Olla&" gradianl at the contact surface Is high which ls suHidmt 10 remove
electrons from surface of electrodes since as contacts separate initially voltage gndion1
is very high which causes breakdown of gas. This ls called field emission.
9.17.6 Photoemlssion
The electron emission from contact surface due to incident of light energy is called
photoemission.
9.18 Deionization
In circuit breakers the deicnization is an important process as it supports arc
extinction. This can be discussed in short as follows,
9.18.1 Recombination
II a gas contains po5itive ions and electrons lhen there is tendency between !hem
lo combine and form a neutral atom. This Is coiled recombination. This will asaisl an:
extinction as combination of positive Ions and ncgnlivc charges takes platt irislde.
9.18.2 Diffusion
The el«trons from highly Ionized space diffuse to the surrounding weakly Ionized
space which is an important process in building up dielectric strength.
Proteetlon and Switchgear Theory of Ale Quenching
9.18.3 Conduction of Heat

This will make the temperature to reduce and wiU help recornblnatton. J'artide8 at
hiith temperature travel to the spsce at lower temperatore. Thus kinetic en~"SY as
removed from the space which Is Ionized between the cootacts,
9.19 Arc Formation

As seen eerliee the separation of cont1cts of circuit breaker results in high local
temperature 011 the contact surface. The contact surface get ionized due to thermal
emission and the electrons are emitted. 1be space between the contacts is ionized and
becomes conducting. Thus the arc is initiated between the contacts.
The Fig. 9.27 shows general fonn of arr voltage and arc current. It can be seen that
voltage is nearly constant when current is nearly at its maximum.
Fig. 9.27
The arc path is purely resistive and t~ arc voltage is in phase with an arc current.
When the contacts arc separated tht arc voltage lncreases due to increase in arc
length. The arc voltage is increased till it becomes more than system voltage across the
contacts where arc gets extinguished.
9.20 High Resistance Arc Interruption Methods

The various methods of high reslstan<e and interruption are,
I. Lengthening the a.n:
2. Splitting of nrc
3. Cooling of ore
9.20.1 Lengthening the Arc

In this method the arc length Is incrused by using are runners which are hom
hlce blades of conducting material. The ore runne.rs ""' connected t(> nrd.ng contacts
and It Is in the shape ol letter 'V'. The an: is initiared at the bottom ond blows
upwards due to electromagnetic force. Due to this ore length Increases and
coesequemly arc is extinguished.
Protection and Switchgear 9. 39 Theory of Are Quenching
- v·-
Final poliUon of en:
-- Electromog""'1c
fi.. rorct fn upward
FWd _ dl1ectlon
I
Arc inltl•lion
Fig. 9.28 Arc lengthening

9.20.2 Splitting of Arc
ln this method elongation of arc is done and the arc is split using arc splitters
which are specially made plates of resin bonded fibre glass. These plates are placed in
perpendicular path to arc so that it will be pulled towards it by electromagnetic force.
When the arc is pulled upwards it gets elongated then split and coo~ due to which
it gets extinguished. This is shown in the Fig. 9.29.
.... .... ----- +

'------t'f--
--- ... ... .. .. ... ~dare
. -- -··+---- ....... .
,,..,...
ll'liliiltion of. arc
Fig. 9.29 Arc spllttln9

9.20.3 Coollng of Arc
As already seen, the rerombinotion of ionized particles can be done by cooling the
ere which removes heat from the arc. This is done by bringing lhe arc in contact with
cooled air. Due to cooling the arc dtemeter reduces which will Increase ilS resistance.
ll1is will help In arc extinction.
Prot.C11on and Switchgear 9 -40
9.21 Low Resistance or Zero Point Extinction

This method is used in a.c, arc interruption. Tbe current becomes zero two times
Lf\ a cycle. So at ench current zero point the An: vanishes for small instant and again it
appea~.
But in a.c. circuit breakers the arc is interrupted at a current zero point. The space
between the contacts is deionized quickly if there is fresh unionized medium such as
oil or fresh air or SF, gas between the contacts at current zero point. This wiU make
dielectric strength of the contact SJ>"C< to increase such that arc will be interrupted
and dosronttnued •fter current zero. This action produces high voltage seross the
contacts which is sufficient to rttStablish the arc. Thus the dielectric strength must be
build more than the restrlking voltage for faithful interruption of ore. Then the arc i$
e•bnguish<.'<i at next current zero.
\Yhile designing the circutt breakers the care is taken so as to remove the hot
gases from the contact space immediately after the arc. So that it can be filled by fresh
dielectric medium having high dielectric strength.
ln summary we can say that the arc extinction process is divided in thee parts,
a) Arcing phase
b) Current zero phase
c) Post arc phase
In arcing phase, the temperature of lite contact space is Increased due to the arc.
The heat produced must be removed quickly by providing radial and axial flow to
gases. The arc can not be broken abruptly but its diameter can be reduced by the
passage o( gas over the arc, \'Vhen a.c. current wave is near its zero. the diameter of
the arc is very less and consequently arc is extinguished. This is nothing but cunent
zero phase. Now in order to avoid the reestablishment of arc, the contact space must
be filled with dielectric medium having hlgh dielectric strength. This is post •re phase
In which hot gases are removed and fresh dielectric medium is Introduced.
9.2.2 Arc Interruption Theories

There arc two main theories explaining current zero Interruption of arc
I) Recovery Rate Theory or Slepian's Theory
2) En<>rgy balance throry or Cassie's Theory
9.22.1 Slepian's Theory

Slepian described the process as a race between the dielectric strength and
re5trlk1ng voltage. After every current zero, there Is a column of residual ion!Md gu.
This may cause ore to strike again by developing necessary rcstriking voltage .ind this
Protection and Switchgear 9. 41 Theory of Are Quenching
voltage stress Is sulRcicnt to detach electrons out or their atomic orbits which releo5'.'S
great he.lL
So in this theory rate at which positive ions and electrons recombine to form
neutral molecules is compared with rate or rtse c.r restriking voltage. Due to
recombination dielectric strength of g;ip gets recovered. So rate of recovery of
dielectric strength is compared with rate of rise of rcstrilting voltage.
If IM restriking voltage rises more rapidly than IM dielectric strength, gap space
breaks down and arc strikes again and persists.
In the Fig. 9.30,
a) Rate of dielectric strmgth is
more than restriklng voltage.
b) Rate of dielectric strength is less ----- ""
,-' --
;,_. 4 "\::/
than rate of rise of restriking

' ,'
voltage. '',,,
The assumption made while
Time -
developing this theory is that the
re.triking voltage and rise of dielectric Fig. 9.30
strmgth arc comparable quantities
which is not quite correct. Tiie second drawback is that the theory docs not consider
the energy relations In the arc extinction. TI1c arcing pNist. is not covered by this
theory so it is incomplete.
9.22.2 Cassie's Theory

Alternative explanation of above process is afforded by Cassie's theory or also
called Energy balance theory.
Cassie suggested that the reestablishment of arc or interruption or an arc both are
energy balance process. If th" energy input to an arc continues to increase, the arc
mtrikes and If not, arc gets interrupted.
The theory makes the following assumption.• :
a) Arc <OnSists of a cylindrical column having uniform temperature at its cross
section. The energy distributed iJl the column is uniform
b) Tbe temperature remains constant.
c) The cross section of the arc adjusts itself to accomodate the arc current.
d) Power dissipation is proportional to CTOSS sectional area of arc column
Protection and Switchgear 9. 42 Theory of Arc Quenching
TI>e energy equation as expressed by Caseie is given by,
dQ • El-N
di
where Q s Energy content I length of an: In cm

E = volts I cm
= Total current
N 2 Total power loss I cm
Breakdown occurs if power fed to the arc is more than power loss. The theory is
true for high currents.
Immediately alter current zero, contact space contains ionised gas and therefore
has a finite post zero resistance.
Now there is rising reshiking voltage. This rising ~triking voltage causes a
current to Row between the contacts. Due to this current flow, power gets dissipated
as heat in the contact spare of circuit breaker.
lnitinlly when restrlking voltage is zero, automatically current •nd hence power is
zero. It is again zero when the space hM become fully deionise and resistance between
the contocts is infinitely high. In between these two "'treme limits, power disslpntcd
rises to n maximum, I( the he.it so generated exceeds the raee al wh.ich heat can be
removed from contact space, ionisation will persist and breakdown will occur, giving
an ore for another half cycle.
...
Fig. 9.31 Wevoform of s.e, arc
9 -43 Th.ory of Arc Quonchlng
.... Extmpl• 8.8 : A 50 cy<:lrs, 3 phAN .11 ....... tor with sroumlrd llCrtlrol has i11du<t••«
of 1.6 mH ptr phnS< and is conn«trd to busbar througli a circuit bM1kn. Tltt
mpndtanet lo (:(lrtlr bctt11<tn th• •ltmcator and circuit brm/o•r is 0.003 µF ptr phnS<.
Tht circuit breaker optns wl1tn mu 1'11/ur of curl'C'nt is 7500 A. °''"mint ""
follotving:
i) Maximum rote of riM of rutriking IJ0/111~.
ii) Time for '""''"'"'" r•lt of riS< of rrstnldng oollllgt.
iii) Frrqut't1cy of oscillations
Neglttt first polt to clmr fadm.
Solution :
i = 7500 A. Le 1.6 mH, C = 0.003 µF
X1• e 2n I L • 2 "x 50 x 1.6 x JO->• 0.50265 0 . .
Peak value of active recovery voltage (Phase lo neutral) Le.
E,,, • (I x XJ x ./'i. • (7500 x 0.50265) x ./'i.
• 5331.4083 v
frequency or oocillotions • }
2n.JLC
I
•
= n643.96 Hz
Maximum RRRV = 2n fnE,,, = 2" x 72643.96 x 5331.4083
= 2433443822 v /S«
= 2433.4438 VI µS«
Time for maximum RRRV

• ",/LC
2
• 3.4414 ..-
.... Example 8.8 : 111 a short circuit ttst on • 132 kV, 3-phmt system ""' brcak<r g1111t /lit
fo/lt11ving rtsults pf of tht fault 0.4, '""""'Y
oo/llf8" 0.95 of full lint vnlut, brt11king
turr<nl is symmctri02l and "" mtn}dng transimt l10d a natural fr~qumcy of 16 kH:.
O.t•rnrir"' RRRV assuming that ti.. fault is graundrd. IAU·M•y·ZO<MI
Pr~tion andSwttchgur Theory of Arc Q"8nchlng
Solution :
V., • K1 K2 K3 Eov where K1 • sin +

Here + • cos-• 0.4 • 66.42•
... K1 • sin (66.42') • 0.9165
K2 = 0.95
K, a 1
... V., = (0.9165) (0.95) (1) (107.17) = 93.83 kV

Maximum e = 2 V., = 2(93.83) = 187.66 kV
1
Moximum lime = ~./!£, f •
n 2n./f£
... ~1ax1mum t •
1,
2 •
z 61 03 •
2• 1 • 1
3.125 x 1()-$"""
Average RRRV • ~::~: ~ •

3.1~7~~04
• 6.0051 • 6 kVl).se<.
•• Ex•mpl• 9.10 : What i$ tht p~t/vr. 1'0ltagt t aaou tht stray ""'"'cita11<" of
0.0023 µF. whtrr ti" ln$ta11tanl1)uS current chopp<d by dratit brlllkLr ,. 7 A. 71,. value
o/ l/1e i11d11dana in tltt circuit is 35.2 H ? IAU, Oec.·2004)
Solution : Prospective voltage appearlng across C.8. is given by,
. IL
e = ·~c
L=35.2H
C a 0.0023 µF • 0.0023 x 10·' F
i : 7A
... e •
7 I 35.2
~ 0.0023x 104
• 7(123710.74)
... e • 865.97 kV
,... Ex•mpte 9.11 : A drr:vil bl'tllictT iJ raltd at 1200 A, 1500 MVA, JJ kV, 3 Ste,
3·ph•"'· What are 11$ 111ttJi breaking current a11d malcing "'"tttt ? (AU, Ott.·20041
Pro49ctlonandSWltchgear
Solution :
Rated symmetrical breaking current (mu) • ~VA

./3 x kV
1500• 106
=
.J3x33x103
= 26.24 kA
Rated making current = 2..55 x 26.24
- 66.92 kA
Short time rnting • 26.24 kA for 3 tee.
'"* Eumple 9.12 : A J-,,,_•ltm1Ator l1ns lht 11111 vo/blgt cf ll kV. Tlw gmnator is
conntcled lo a circuit 17Mzllr. Tht mductiw rOJdana upto the circuit brtaku is
5 n I phase. The distn1nlttd aipocitanCt! uplo circuit lnwk.tr belWttn ,,,_ and MUlral
is 0.001 µF. D.lmrri"" ,..,.t restriking voltage ...,.,.,. IN CB, frequency of nstriling
vo/l•gt transitnls, IWtnlge mte of restriking vol~ upto ,..,.t restriling vo/blgt,
mArimum RRRV. IAU, ~20CNI
Solution :
E,. • .["JsII • 8.98 kV

x = 2ef L
L
x = ~(50)
= h<f 5
= 0.01591 H
2
C = 0.00111 F
1 1
(n • s • 39901.11 Hz.
2•.JLC 2•~(0.01591) (0.001 •IO_.)
Maximum restrildng voltage • 2 E., • 2(8.98) • 17.96 kV
e= E.. (1-cos-1-)
.Ju:;
de 1 . t
dt = E. J[Cstni:C
Th.is is the expression of RRRV
... Maximum RRRV • E., 8.98

Ju:; • Jco.01591) co.001.101)
~and Swltch-r
• 2.151 kV/µfee
Maximum e 2• 8,98 17.96
A veragc RRRV •
Maximum I • (1/2 f,,) • "'(l/"'2-x""3990=1-
ll"") :-.
• J.43 kV/µ$ec
._ Example 9.13 : In a systmr of 132 kV, Ille circui: ,,i.as. lo ground capacilatia is 0.02
microfarad, tht illduclm« is SH. Calcu/att lht voltage 11f1P<Mi11g across the polr of a
circuit brenktr if a magndic circuit of 8 A is interrvptol irutantaneous.fy. CalcuWt tit<
oo/ue of the pre-insertion ...mtor to be used acr0$$ tire contad spact. (AU, Moy-2005]
Solution : L • 5 H, C • 0.02 µF • 0.02 • 10.. F
I• 8 A
Voltage appearing 10055 poles of circuit breaker Is given by,
V • I fLCL• 3. / S _. • SJ-150• 10'

~c: \10.02.10
... V • 126.491 kV
The vhfu~;o( resistance to be used across contact space is given by,
R: 4/i
• ~~0.02:10""
• ~(J250• 106)
R • 7.9056 ldl
Example 9.14 : In a short drcuit ltSI on a circuit brtJlhr tht following fflJdlngs torrt
obserml on a singlr frn111L11Q/ transient tlllll to nodt tht ~ recotJ<ry voltagt 40 µstc
and tlit ptak rtStriking voltage 100 kV. Determint tht tmU•gt RRRV and the fr<qumcy
of oscillations. (AU, Moy-20051
Solution : Average RRRV is given as,
Peak reslTil<ing voltage (E.)
Average RRRV =
Time to reach the peak (t,.)
100 .10• 2500
- 40 •
Avuage RRRV • 1500 V/µHc
Natural frequency (0 is given by,
Prot.ction •nd Switchgnr 9 .47 Theory of Arc Qu.nching
I I
f,. = ----
2·1. - 2(40x10 .. )
= I = 12500 Hz
80x 10..
f. = 12.5 kHz.
Review Questions
I. Dtfi"' 1 drtuit bmoka I DtscrW m cprnd..., '" brief.
l. OrKUSS tht '"' p#tcttOfnt1tCM UI • drcvil bimlta.
J. '1\1w/ •n 4iffe:tmt •tt utlDT'KJ'llOn flttt/tob 1 £.qWlf •tty ON in dtfllU
4. EA)>/11/n IN fol'-'•I lmfll ,MuJI to rimnt b.Hl:tr.

11 A« ooltog< hi llalrihog ooltoi< mJ -1 oolt.tg<
5. E>J711fn Iii< favtt <i<>lri"I f"OC'# by P"I ~ of - ttm1il C'Vrmtl.
6. DiltHJI tht tf/tt1 of .,._, - °" Tit V.
1. Obllin In ..,.,- "" '"" of rift of_,.,,,, oaltogr.
I. Ex,*1n ~nor 1avtdtlrtt f/lll """""" to am.it ,._.,.,
9. £""'/" in dt'Mil 111< rlwrin ""'"'" ,,,,i.;n tltr '" t:r11ncr,... ,-_,
JO, Writt • nott °" inl""'f'lion cf cwp«•litY CIUfflttl.
J J. Wr1tt o norr °" twrmtt choppfttt '*'*"'ww.
12. &pi.In (n dtt.JI 4 c. nirTtftf .,,_.,,,,
13. A J /NM 1lttm1110T 1w>1 /Int oo/U>gt ti{ 11 kV. Tltt ,_..,., t1 -- to• <11<•i1 ,,,,..,,., Tht
il'tdi;ctlf't tnld•1'"' NJ"O drcvu ~ tf S n pn plw1t. T1w d.1$1rlht't'd tqil(llaMt UJ'W circuit
""""'' """""" ,..,. ""' "'"'"" i. 0.01 ~r.

•I Pl'llk -nlbog IJOl"8' - rittVit llMokn
°"'""""
~) '''f'ltft<Y "',..,ri}j., oolt.g. ,,. ..... ,
tJ A"""g< nrte of mrril:lng ool~ •pto p<ok tntl'iking ""'""
d) Mnl.,•m RRRV (Ans. : 18 kV; 12637 els ; 0.456 kVl,.sec; 114 Vf,.Hd
If. In • "'°" ciitult Int .., • J pol< rittVil - tf fw!t - O.f, tltr """""Y oo/l"f< ..,. 0.95
ti- fuU /in< "°''<sr· Tltt 1'mlh"I tvnn<t .,.. .,.._.....,.i. Tltt ~ of Cfdl/•11""'1 of
ffStn'ting oollllgt - 15000 </J. Ellnwtt til< ""''l< l'lllt of rift of mtritiog "'11'3'· Tltt MMl'lll
11 l"*ndN 11.i fool/ I- - Ntgltd /int pol< to rl<wr ,.,,..., !Ant. : 4.8kV/µH<)
15. In 1 sy<tm of 1.12 kV Iii< amt& pi- to_,.,-"""""
t1 0.01 mF, tht "'1a &.11""'11« is
6 H. Oobtolt tltt ool"'Jt -U.g """"' /lit pW ti{• dm<il 6ttob" if • """"' of 10 A
(in$tonhtneouJ)is in.ttf'IVJ'4'4.c.bW f!llt.11t fJf tltt ~ l.O bt lOtd .,_ uni.a spo« to
diminlftt tht rrstril:Urg toU.gr tnouitftt. (A.n.s. : 245 kV ; 12.25 ten)
000
•
(9 •• ,,
Circuit Breakers
10.1 Introduction
As already seen in the last chapter, whenever any f.iult occurs in the power
•)'!Item then that put o( the syorem must be iaolated from the rerMinlng healthy port
of the system. This /unction is a=mplished by circuit bi:eaUrs. Thus a circuit breaker
will make or break a cirruit either manually or automatkally under different
conditions such as no load, lull load or short circuit. Thus it proves to be on effective
device for switching and protection of different parts of a power S)'Stem.
In earlier days fuse was included in the protective system But due to some
llmitotions they are not used In practice now a days. The main dtllerenw Ix-tween a
fuse and circuit breaker is that under lault c:ondition the fuse melts and It is to be
replaced whereas the circuit breaker can close or btt0k the cil'Cllil without
replocement.
10.2 Requirements of Circuit Breaker

The power MSOdated with the circuit breakers is large and it forms the link
between the consumers and suppliers. The n«essary ~ulrements of clrruit breakers
are as follows,
1. The nonnal working current and the short circuit current must be sofoly
interrupted by the circuit btt0ker.
2. The faulty S«hon of the system must be isolated by circuit breaker as quickly
as po6Sible keeping minimum delay.
3. It should not operate with now of overcurrent during healthy conditions.
4. The faulty circuit only must be isolated without affecting the healthy one.
10.3 Basic Action of a Circuit Breaker

The Fig. 10.1 shows the elementary diagram oi a circuit breaker. It consists of two
contacts a fixed contact and a moving contact. A handle is attached at the end of the
moving contact. It can be operated manually or automatically. The automatic operation
needs a separate mechanism which consists ol a trip coil The trip coil is energized by
(10 • 1)
Protection and Swhchgoar 10 -2 Circuit e,..akers
M.orondar\ "' the current transformer The t"'1nln.tb or circuit breaker are brousht to
f'<I\' er •upph
._
_
Trip
coi
_._
Aulamalic
""""""'and~
theclf<:ull-
....
-
Fig. 10.1 Batie acdon of circuit maklf
Und<r normal working conditions the e.m.f. produced in the secondary winding of
the tr•1t'f""""' is Insufficient to energize the trip coil completely for its operation.
Thu.• the contacts remain In dosed position carrying the normal working current, The
conuds can be opened manually also by the handle,
Under abnormal or faulty conditions high current in the primary winding of the
current transfonner induces sufficiently high e.mf in the secondary winding so that
the inp roil is energized. This will start opening motion of the contacts. This action
will not be instantan~ou.5 as there is always a time lag between the energization of the
tnp <1mut and the octuol opening of the contacts. The contacts are moved towards
nght aw., from fixed contact.
A. we have seen already the separation of contacts wlll not lead to breaking or
mt<·rruptoonof circuit as an arc Is struck between the contacts. The productK>n of arc
d•I•\, the current interruption and In oddltion to this It produces large amounr of
he•t which may damage the system or the breaker, Thus it becomes n«esSary to
e.iu>gUl$h the arc as early as possible in minimum time, so that heat produced will
be w1tlun the allowable limit. This will also ensure that the mechanical stresses
produced on the parts of circuit breaker are less.
The time interval which is passed in between the energi•.ation of the trip coil to
the instant ol oontact oeparation is called the opening tlm.e. It Is dependent on fault
currenl level
The time interval from the conlKt "'!'&"'llon to the exllncfion of arc is ailed
•rclng tlm• II depends nOI only on fault cunent but •lso on availability of voli.ge for
matnt\'NRC'• of arc and mechnnlsm u.5ed for ext!ncdon of arc.
Protection and SWltc'- 10. 3 Circuit Breakers
10.4 Claaslflcatlon of Circuit Breakers

The circuit breakers are classified by various ways. The different criteri• for
clMsiflcatlon of cilcuit breabrs are as follows,
I) Interrupting medlum ii) According to service
ill) Wny of operation Iv) Action
v) Method of control vi) Way of mounting
vii) Tank construction viii) Contacts
According to the interrupting medium the circuit breakers are classified as air
circult breaker, air blast circuit breaker, oil circuit breaker and magnetic blast circuit
breaker.
According to service there are two types of circuit breakers viz indoor circuit
breaker and outdoor circuit breaker.
Depending on the operation. the types of circuit breakers are gravity opened,
gravity closed and horizontal break circuit breaker.
On the basis of octlon. the circuit breakers ore duslfied as automatic and
non-automatlc circuit breaker.
According to method of control, the circuit breaker may be controlled directly or It
may be operated ~ly. The remote control may be manual pneumatic or electrical.
The way of mounting classifies the circuit breakers In.to p&M mounted, rent of
panel or remote from panel type.
Depending on the tank construction, the circuit breakers are classified as separate
tank for each pole type or one tank for all poles type.
On the basis of contacts, the different types of circuit breakers are Butt, Wedge.
Laminated flat contact, Explosion chamber etc.
Out of the various ways of classification of circuit breakers the general way of
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction which is normally oil.
air, Sulphur Hen Flouride (SF.> or vacuum.
IU\ch type of c:im.tit breaker is associated with its own advniabge& and
dtsodvaorages. We will now oonslder some types of circuit breakers in detail.
10,5 Air Blast Circuit Break•,..

These type of circuit break<>rs were employed in earlltt days for voltages rongiiig
from 11 to 1100 kV. At hlgh voltages this type o( circuit breakers are moot suttable. In
this type of circuit breakers the compressed alr Is used for the arc extinction. Hence It
Is called compressed air circuit breaker.
Protection and Switchgear 10 -4 Clr<:uitBreakers
10.5.1 Construction of an Air Blast Circuit Breaker

The Fig. 10.2 shows the constructional dttalls of air blast circuit breaker.
ECEVATION END·VIEW
On• pole of an extra l'lllgh YOll;ege• blalt clta.;lt·bre•k•t

13
10
15
,, 9
11
,. -Airflow
2
Docoa1o1- ..,,_ ....-
1. Tank air retervlor (NOelYef) a. McMng conloct (In 3)

2.
3.
Holtow lntu&llOt easembty
Doub• ste extlnalon chtmbtt
t ConMcrion
10 ~aortngo
'°' current
4. PoaumaUe Of)Ol'litingrMd\lin9m 11. °""1lngl for olr OU11er
6. Oper•tlng rod 12. Aldng ""'"' Opllonol
e. Pneumatic va1u. 13. Recite.nee awl•ohing unn
7. Fixed contact (in 3) t4. Endolwe
15.Port
Fig. 10.2 Conslrucllon of 1lr blast circuit breaker

Protection 1nd Switchgear 10. 5 Circuit Breake<s
At the bottom there is a tank which is called air reservoir with the valves. On this
rtterVoir there are three hollow insulator columns- On the top of each insulator
column there 1$ double arc extinguishing chamber. The current carrying parts are
connected to the arc extinction chambers in series. The assembly of entire arc
extinction chamber is mounted on insulators as there exists large voltage between the
conductors and air reservoir.
The double arc extinction chamber is shown separately in the Fig. 10.2 (b). It can
be seen that for each circuit breaker pole there are six breaks as there are three double
arc extinction poles in series. Each arc extinction chamber consists of two fixed and
two moving contacts. These contacts can move axially so as lO open or close. The
position depends on air pressure and spring pressure. The opening rod is operated by
the opening mcchnnism when It gets control signal (may be etcctrlcal or pneumatic).
This will lead lo flow of high pressure air by opening the valve. The high pressure air
enten the double arc extinction chamber rapidly. Due to the now of air lhc pressure
on moving contacts Increases than spring pressure and conta<1!1 open. The contnciil
travel through • small distance against tho spring pressure. Due 10 the motion of
moving contacts the port for outgoing air is closed and the whole arc extinction
chamber is filled with high pressure air. But during the ardng period the air passes
through the openings shown and takes away ionized air of arc. In case of making
operation the valve is turned which connects hollow column of insulator and the
reservoir. The air is passed to the atmosphere due to which pressure of air in the
chamber is dropped to atm<l<ipheric pressure and closing of moving contacts is
achieved against spring pressure.
10.5.2 Wortdng
An auxiliary compr""!''CI air syste01 ls required by this type of circuit breaker. This
will supply air to the air ~rvlor of the bre.1ker. During the opening operation, the
air ls allowed to enter in the extinction chamber which pushes away moving conracts.
The con!Jlcts are separated and the blast of air will take Ionized gases with it and
helps in extinguishing the arc. This will require only one or two cycles. There arc two
major types. • cross blast and aJCial blast.
ProlKtlon and Switchgear 10 -6 Circuit e,.akon
In blast type, the blast of air cuts IKTOM the arc. 11 is less frequently used in
CJ'O<I$
the practice. In nxtal blast type, the blast ol air is along the ore. This typeor design it
common in use.
10.5.2.1 Croat BIHi TYIM

The Fig. 10.3 shows the schematk anangemcnt of a cross blast type.
Ale aplitllfl
Mo-Ing --+--Arc
con!acl
Opef'ling
Ill!
-Nr
Fig. 10.3 Crou blut ~ circuit breaker

The Row of air Is aeross the arc. The moving contact is near to the arc splitter
.-mbly. The alr blast forees the arc on to the arc splitter plates. These pllltes will
lengthen the arc. Depending upon the breaking capacity of the breaker, the siU? and
number of plates are decided. The fixed contact is mounted at the base between the
two insulating blocks. It consists of a number of silver surfaced spring loaded copper
fingers. The arcing portion is surfaced with a silver tungsten alloy. The moving
contact consists of flat copper silver faced blade. Resistance switching is not required
as sufficient resistance is automatically introduced in the arc to control the reslrildng
transient. The cross blast breakers att commonly used in indoor circuit breakers of
medium high voltage class.
10.5.Z.2 Axial Blast TyjM

In this type the flow of blast of a.ir is along the line of arc. This is shown in the
Fig. 10.4.
Proactlon and Swltc:hgear 10-7 Circuit B,...kera
-
c:onllCI
Alt
l
Fb<od
cont1~
'
I \,.,, - -= Alrblasl
•
MoYJng
CXJOlael MOiiing
oontoel
Alt
I
Opening
(1) (b)
Fig. 10,, Axial btut type circuit bN1kor

Thett 1tt two subty~ which att shown in the Fig, 10.4 (o) ond (b) vi~ single
blut type and double blast type. The double blast arrangement Is also called radial
blast type due to the fact that the blast flows radially into the space between the
<Ontacts.
In this type air flows from high pressure reservior to the atmosphere through a
nozzle, whose design makes air to expand in the low pressure zone. It will attain high
velocity. The high speed air flowing axially along the arc will cause removal of heat
from the periphery of the arc. The diameter of uc reduces to a low value at current
zero. At this instant of the arc interruption the contact space is filled with the fresh
air. This will make possible to remove the ho! gases and fast building up of the
mdectricstrengthofthemediwn.
~ already seen during the contact d..,lng. the air from the extinction chamber Is
allowed to pus to the atmosphere. This will ttdutt the pressure on the moving
<Ontacts and will assist the closing operation. The tow operation Is represented in the
Fig. 10.S.
Pr-cllon Md Switchgear 10 ·• Circuit e ...akoro
--
ComprMMdair from
Fig. 10.S Modmc.tlonIll elt blatt clrcu~ b<takor

In air blast circuit breaker, the pressure generated in the extinction chamber is
Independent of arc current the circuit breaker is said to be of external energy source.
The air pressure in this type of breaker is oonstant which is sufficient enough to break
the rated breaking current. In this type of ci=lit breakers the braking capacity is
found by pressure of exti.,guishing medium.
For low values of currents, the ardng time does not change appre•ciably since air
pres!ure is independent of •re current. For br<aklng low current high pressure air
will be required. Due to Oils the current gets chopix'<I before reaching noturol zero.
This will gtve rise to high restrlldng voltage Md the contact space i• not likely to
break down. Therefore these high voltages must be allowed to discharge to avoid
breakdown of insulation of circuit breaker. Thus resistance S\vitching is commonly
employed in the$e breakers.
The Fig. 10.5 shows the modified arrangement for a double arc extinguishing
chamber. When the contacts are opened the air nows in the arc extinguishing
chamber. The sq>•rating nf main contlcts lead to closing of auxiliary contacts which
will connec.'1 resistance across tJ,e arc fot a short ttme. The au>ali._ry contacts are
mounted In incli~ V shaped l1'$ulaton.
Protection 1nd Swltcha-11' 10 -9 Circuit BN1kera
After the are extinction the pressure on either side of auxiliary contacts is adjusted
in such away that auxiliary conll\cts open and resistor circuit is interrupted. Ceramic
resistances of non-linear characteristics are used for resisQnce switching.
10.5.3 Compressed Air System for Air Blast Circuit Breaker
.. _
The schematic arrangement shown in the Fig, 10.6 represents compressed air
system.
-
""'"""'· eo.o...
'""'
-
• •
---
....
- ..,._
--
...., ----- -'
- -
Y>O-CK::H:> D~- -1- ~ -
.({)({)({)
' .
-- " 3 C1'f
I I I
Fig. 10.S Dtagrom of compros11d 1.lr sy.....,

The air reservoir in the air blast circuit breaker contains Air of pressure of the
O«ler of 20-30 kg force/cm2• This air pressure is maintained by these reservoirs for
4 to 12 repeated operations..
When the pressure in the air reservoir of the circuit breaker reduces below a
ceruin value say 20 kgf/crn2, the pneumatic valve opens automatlcally a.nd air Is
allowed to enter in the air .-....rvoir from compressed air system ot high pressure. Tiie
pressure ln the air reservoir is Ihm maintained at a desired value.
Pr~tlon 1nd Switchgear 10·10 Circuit Bntak.,.
The il7.C of compressor depends upon the number of circuit breakers, the number
o( makes and breaks expeeted and amount of air to be used in each m•ke and break.
The compressor feeds the air at high pressure Into the main receiver through oil filters
and water filters.
10.5.4 Advantages
"The various advantages of air blast circuit breakers are,
i) N<> fire hnzards art possible with this type of circuit breaker.
ii) The hi.;h speed opmition is achieved.
ill) The tim~ for which on: persislS Is short. ThUi the arc gets extirtguished early.
iv) A! arc ,lurnticm ts short and conststent, the amount of heat released Is less and
the cont.icr points are bumt to a less extent So Ufe of circuit breaker is
increased.
v) The exringujshing medium in this type ol circuit breaker i• compressed air
which is supplied fresh at each operation. the arc energy at each opention is
leso than that compared with oil circuit breaker. So air blast circuit breaker is
most suitable where frequent operation is required.
vi) This type or circuit breaker It almost mainttNlntt free.
vu] It provides fodllty of high speed reclosurc.
vul) The stability of the system can be well maintained.
10.S.5 Disadvantages
lhe various disadvantages of air blast circuit breakers are,
i) If air blast circuit breaker Is to be used for frequent operation it is necessary to
hove • compressor with sufficient capocity of high pressure air.
ii) The nialntenance of compressor and other related equipments is required.
iii) There is possibility of air leakoges at the pipe fittings.
iv) It is very sensitive to restrildng voltage. ThUi current chopping may O«Ur
which may be avoided by employing resistance switching.
10.5.6 Applications
The air blast circuit breakers are preferred for arc furnace duty and traction system
beeaese they are suitable foe repeated duty. These type of circuit breakers are finding
their best application In systems opcntting In range of 132 kV to 400 kV with breaking
capacities upto 7000 M VA.
Protection and Switchgear 10 • 11 Circuit Breokon
10.6 Alr Break Circuit Breaker

In air drruit breaker> the atmospheric pressure air is used as on arc exlinguishmg
medium. The principle of high reslstance Interruption 1$ employed for such type of
breakers. The length of the arc is increased using arc runners which will increase its
l'\lSistance in such a way that the voltage drop across the arc becomes more than the
supply voltage and the arc will be extinguished. ·
This type of circuit breaker is employed in both a.c. and d.c, type of circuits upto
12 kV. These ere normally indoor type and installed on vertical panels. The
lmglhcning of ore I.• done with the help of mangotk fields. Some typlcal mtings of
thi• type of c:.lrcuit breaker are 460V - 3.3 kV with current rnngo 400 • 3500 A or 6.6
kV with current ronge 400-2400 A etc.
, 10.6.1 Construction
The Fig. 10.7 shows the constructional details of air break circuit breaker.
2 2 .,
-
8
1-~"-I.
(QConUoetelooed
p,,...,,.. or ......... clt<:Ult-bte-
t. Main oontoell 5. Ne f9lillOI plotn
2. Atdng- e. c ....... _ """'""''
""""*"
"*
3. Arc """G In "" dil llClion d the llrr:Ni 7. Arc
•• Ne golllng
Fig. 10.7 Construction of 1lr 1><1a.k elrcull breaker

Protection and Switchgear 10. 12 Circuit e,.akors
It consists of two sets of contacts,
l) Moln contacts
2) Arcing contacts
During the normal operation the main contacts are dosed. They are having low
resistance with silver plating. The arcing contacts are very hard, heat resistant. They
are made up ol copper alloy. Arc runners are provided at the one end ol arcing
contact. On the upper side arc splitter plates are provided.
10.6.2 Working
As seen from the Fig. 10.8 the
contacts remain in dOS<!d position during
normal condition. \Vhenever fuuh occurs,
the tripping signal makes the drcult
breaker C01lt3Cts to open. The arc Is
cu=~. .l. . . o~-
(•) Contac:t cloNd
drawn in between the cont.acts
Whenever the arc Is struck between
the contacts, the surrounding air gets
ionised. The arc is then cooled to reduce
the diameter ol arc core. While (b) Co<ltacts-od
separating, the main contacts are

Fig. 10.8 Worl<i"IJ of air br9ak circuit
separated first, The current is then brw•k•r
shifted to arcing contains. Later on the
nrdng contacts also start separating and arc between them is for® upwards by the
electromagnetic Ierees 'ilnd thermal action. The arc travels through the arc runners.
Further ii moves upw•rds ond split by arc splitter plates. Due to all this finally the arc
gets <•xtingulshed as the "'5°>5mnce of the ore I• Increased.
Oue to lengthening and cooling, arc resishlnce increases which will reduce the
foult current and will not allow to reach at high value. The current zero points in the
a,c, wave will help the arc extinction. With increase in arc resistance the drop across it
will go on increasing.
Whene\·er arc leaves the contacts it is passed through arc runners with the help of
blow out coils which provide a magnetic field due to which it will experience a force
as given by electromagnetic theory (F t BI/). This force will assist in moving the arc
upwards. The magnetic field produced Is lnsuflident to extingubh the arc. For systems
having low inductances arc gets extinguished before ""1ching extremity of runners
be-cause lengthening ol an: wtll Increase the voltage drop whkh is insulflcicnt lo
malntaln the arc.
Protection and Switchgear 10·13 Circuit Breakera
For high induct.ince circuits If It is not exungulshed while travelling through arc
ntnners then It Is passed through arc splitters where it is cooled. This wiU make ~
effecnve delcniaatton by removing the heat from arc.
10.6.3 Applications
This type of circuit breakers are commonly employed for industrial switchgear,
auxiliary swithgear in generating stations.
10.7 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF,) Circuit Breaker

Pure sulphur hexafluoride gos Is inert and thermally stable. II Is hnvlng good
dielectric and ore extinguishing properties. It is also an electronegative gos ond hM
strong tendency to absorb free eltttrons. SF6 gas remains In gaseous state upto a
temperature of 9° C. Its density is about five times that of air and the free heat
convection is 1.6 times as much as that of air. Also being inert ii Is non-inilamable.
non-poisonous and odourless.
The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and an
ore is struck between them The eooduct!ng electrons from the arc arc captured by the
gas to ronn relatively immobile nq;arive Ions, The loss of th.is conducting electrons
developes enough strength of insulation which will extinguish the arc. Tbus SF• circuit
breakers are found to be very effective for high power and high voltage service and
widely used in electrical equipments. Only the care IO be talw1' Is that some
by-products are produced due to breakdown of gas which are hazard to the health of
the personnel and it should be properly disposed.
Several types of SF6 circuit breakers are designed by various manufacturers in the
world during the recent yea.rs which are rated for voltage< from 3.6 to 760 kV.
The property of this gas is that the gas liquifies at certain low temperature$. The
liquilication temperature =be increased with pressure This gos is commercially
manufactured in mnny countries and now used extensively in electrical industry.
111<' gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur ln Iluortee gas in a
sM?I bo•. The box must be provided with stoggcred horizontal shelves each containing
about 4 kg of sulphur. The steel box Is gas tight. After the chemical reaction taldng
place in the box, the SF6 gas obtained contains impurities in the form of fluorides such
as S,F1.,. SF, etc. Thus it must be purified before it is supplied. The manufacturing of
this gas at large scale reduces its cost.
The dielectric strength of SF6 gas at any pressure is more than that of air. \Vhen
the gas comes In contact with the electric ore for long period, the decomposition
efrects ore small and dielectric •trength is not con•iderably reduced and the metAllk
fluorides that are formed are good Insulators and are not hllnnful to the breaker,
Protection and Switchgear 10·14 Circuit Bre1ktrt1
10. 7.1 Prope11ies of SF, Gas

The properties ol SF, gas are divided as,
I. Physical properti ..
2. Chemical properties
3. Dielectric properties
10.7.1.1 Physical Properties

i) The g•s is colourless, odourless, non-toxic and nonhnrmful to health.
ill The gas is non-Inflammable.
iii) It is heavy gas having high density.
iv) Uquilication starts at low temperatures which depends on pressure.
v} The heat transferablllty is high as compared to air at same pressure .
vi) The heat content property is much more which will assist cooling c1' an: after
current zero.
vii) The gas is tlectronegati,,,e.
10. 7 .1.2 Chemical Properties

i) Th<• IP• is ch..'micolly Inert and si.ble uplO 500' C. The life o( metallic port,
contacts is longer ln SP• gas. The components do not get deterionited. Hence
the maintenan~ requirements are reduced.
ii) During an: extinction, SF6 is decomposed to SF,, SF2. The products ol
decomposition are toxic and hence p.roper care must be taken for their
disposal.
iii) The metallic fluorides arc good dielectric materials. Hence are safe for electrical
l."'quipmcnL
10.7.1.3 Dltlectrlc Properties

I) The dieleetrtc •trenght ol SF6 gas at atmo5pherlc pressure is 2.9 times that ol
air and 30% less than that of dielectric oil.
ii) At higher pressure, the dielectric strength ol a gas increases. This is very much
advantageous as smaller clearances and small size of -ccmpooents are required
for same kV. The variation is shown in the Fig. 10.9.
Iii) The breakdown voltage in SF6 gas is a function ol pressure.Tbe gas follows the
Paschen's law which Is given as • In uniformly distributed e.ledric field the
breakdown voltage In a gas isdmctly proportional to the product of gas
pressure •nd electrode gap". The parameters allecling breakdown voltagi> are
Pro4ectlon end Swltchg41ar 10·16 Circuit Broken
vii) 111• breakdown is initiated al sharp edges of conducting para having

mnxlmum stress concentradon.Cood dielectric situs distribution ls lmportllnL
viii) The breakdown value depends on the wave shape characterised by peak value,
wave front, polarity ln case or impulse wave etc. The breakdown voltages
reduces with increase in steepness and increase in duration of wave.
ix) Even with dilution of SF• with air, its dielectric strength is not much affected.
As already seen the gu is electronegative so an: time constant is lower which
is nothing but the time required to regain dielectric strength by medium alter
final current zero. This time is of the order of few microseconds in this type of
dtt\lit breaker.
10.7.2 Construction of Non-Puffer Type SF1 Breaker

The Fig. 10.ll snows the constructional details of SF• circuit breaker. It consists of
arc interruption chamber wherein fixed and mO\.-ing contacts are enclosed. The
chamber is filled with SF6 gas. The chamber is connected to a reservoir containing SF6
gas.
IMUllitod rods
boper1tlng
moWlg mombe<
a..
ouoet
Movl!lg
member
Fig. 10.11 C·onatructlon of SFt breaker

When the contacts of circuits breakers are opened. the valve mechanism allows
high pressure SF6 gas from the reservior to flow towards the arc Interruption
chamber.The fixed contact is a hollow, cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with
arc horn. The moving contact is also hollow cylinder containing holes in lhe sides to
permit SF• gos to pass through these holes alter flowing across the arc. The t!po of
fixed and moving contacts arc cooled with copper tungsten arc resistant mnteriaL The
~on and Switchgear 10·18 Circuit 8r9aken
The single Row pattern has limited quenching ability and is used for breaking
currents. 11>e four stages of puffer action explains arc quenching process in single Row
puffer type circuit breaker.
When breaker is fully closed, the pressure In puffer cylinder Pa is equal to that of
outside the cylinder. But during opening operation, puffer cylinder and moving
contact tube start moving. Gas gets compressed withing puffer cylinder (Pa > P1).
When contacts move further, arc is drnwn. The compressed gas Rows from higher
pressure r, to lower pressure r, through the no:u.le.
After further advancement the now pattern was improved. The gas from puffer
cylinder was allowed to now in forward direction through nozzle and also in reverse
direction through hollow contact tube.
Double flow removes the heat from the arc efficiently and causes lengthening of
arc. It gives the breaking capacity one and half times more than that of single Aow
type. So now a days double flow pattern is used in SF6 circuit breakers.
10.7.3 Slngle Pressure Puffer Type SF1 Circuit Bre•ker

It employs puffer principle explained earlier. The Fig. 10.13 shows principle of
operation of single pressure puffer type SP6 circuit beraker. The operating mechanl5m
(I) is instalk."e
circuit bre<tker is filled with SF6 gas at a pressure of about S kgf/cm1• 11>e breaking
time obtained with puffer type breaker is nearly 3 cycles.
l•l Broolcor tulty c1.. oc1 (b)CO<ltacUMpomH
l -C)fnde<
C Puftef Cylind•r) 5. Fixed Pl1ton
2. t.loW'!I Coo<act e. Gii trapped In before oompinlion
3. Find CGnlKt 7. ConipresMd gu betwNn 1 Md 5
•. t ..... roung- 8. TM ore bolno •>Oioguishodby..,._ odion
~lg. 10.13 Single l)l'elaure puffer type SF, tx.aor

Prolection and Swttc119U' 10·19 ClrcultBf'Uken
In this case, 8"' is compressed by the moving cylinder system and 15 released
through a nozzle while extinction of an arc.
The Fig. 10.13 (a) illll$trates fully ctosed position of Interrupter. Moving cylinder I
is coupled with mov;ng contact 2 ogainst the fixed piston 5. As a result !N,,rc is a
relative motion between I and 5 and the gas is compressed in !he cavity 6. This
trapped gas is released through a noulc hole, during ore extinction process. During
the travel of moving conlact 2 and movable cylinder I gas puffs over the arc and
reduces arc diameter by axial convertion and radial dissipation. Al current zero arc
diameter becomes too small and arc gets extinguished.
The puffing action continues for sometime even after the arc extinction until the
contact space is filled with cool and fresh gas.
10.7.4 Double Preuure Type SF, Circuit Breaker

In this type, gas from high pressure system is released into low pressure system
through • nouJe during arc extinction process.
•
.• •. P,
Ag. 10.14 Double pressure type SF, circuit breaker

In this circuit breaker. gas is made to Oow from zone P1 to P1 through a
convergent divergent nouJe. The nozzle is located such that Ilow of gas COV<'l"S the
arc. Gas flow attains almost supersonic speed in divergent portion of nozzle, thereby
gas takes away the heat from periphery ol arc causing reduction in diameter of the
arc. Finally arc diameter becomes almost zero al current zero and arc geta
extinguished. Arc space is filled with fr.>sh 51'6 gos which increases diekctric strength
of conmct spoce.
ProtectJon and Swttchgear 10. 20 Circuit Bre•k•r•
10.7.5 Advantages of SF1 Circuit Breaker

The advontages ol SF6 clrcuU breaker 41'1',
I. The size ol SF, breaker ls s111J11ler than eonventtona) circuit breaker or same
rating.
2. SF6 gas is noninflammable and chemically stable, decomposition products are
not explosive hence no danger of fire.
J. Some gdS is recirculated in the circuit hence requirement of l?S is small.
-1. Ample overload margin : For the saroe size of conductors, current carrying
ob1hty ol SF. circuit breaker is about 1.5 times thon that of air blast circuil
breaker because of more heat transferabi.lity.
5. The breaker is silent In operation and does not make sound like air blast
circuit breaker due to its closed gas circuit.
6. Seated construction avoids contamination by moisture. dust etc.There arc no
carbon deposues.
7. Minimum maintenance required for this breaker. It requires light Icundetton
arid minimum auxiliary equipment.
8. Ability to interrupt low and high f.>ult currents, mognetising currents,
cepeotive currents without excessive overvonages with small arcing ume.
9. l>mblenu connected with current chopping arc minimum.
1 O. No contact replacement required. Contact corrosion is \'e.ry small hence
contacts do not suffer oxidation,
10. 7 .6 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of this type or circuit breaker are,
I. Sealing problem arises due to the type or construction
2. Imperfect joint lend to leakage or gu
~. The presence of molsture i11 the system is very dl1ngio'rous.
4. Double pressure SF• circuit breaker are relatively costly due to type or
construction and complex gas system.
5. Internal parts should be cleaned thoroughly during periodic maintenance
under dean and dry environment.
6. Sp..'Cial facilities are needed for transporting the gas, which is very costly.
7. SF. breakers are costly as there is hlgh cost or SF, gos.
8. Since the g..:; is to be reconditioned after rvery operation, additloruil equlpment
is requ1r«l for the 8umc.
9. Arced SF• gas is poisonous and •hould not be inhnled.
Protection and Swltch~ar 10 - 21 Circuit Broakero
10.7.7 Applications
A typical SF. circuit breaker consists of interrupter units. Each unit is capable of
i111wn1pting curn.>nts upto 60 kA and voltages in the r•nge 50-80 kV. A number of
units are connected in ....O.s according to system volt-age. SF. breaktts are developed
for voltage ranges from 115 to 500 kV and power of 10 MVA to 20 MVA ratings and
with interrupting time of 3 cycles and less.
.
10.8 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
Jn vacuum type of Om.tit breakers, vacuum is used JS the arc quenching medium.
It is superior medium than any other arc quenching medium as vacuum offers highest
i1'1Sultir\g strength.
Jf we consider that the contacts of circuit breakers are opened in vacuum, the
interruption occurs at first current zero. The dielectric strength o( the contact space
builds up very rapidly at a rate which Is very much higher than that with other
circltit breakers.
When the conteets of the breaker arc opened in vacuum, an arc is produced
between the conracts due to ionisation of metal vapours of contacts, which can be
explained by field em1!41oo theory. An Intensely hot spot is created at the instant of
rontact separation because of high current donslty.But the ore is quickly extinguished
•s metallic vapours, electrons and Ions produced during the on: are condensed on the
•urfocc of the breakerThls will lead to fos1 recovery of dielec:tri< stttngth. This is an
lmportant feature of vacuum as an arc qucnehlng medium which will assist arc
extinction and restriktng of arc Is prevented. The vacuum drcuit breaker C01'5lsts of
one or more vacuum interrupter units per pole.
The vacuum S\.\.~itching devices have several merits such as high rate o( rise of
dielectric strength. silent operation, suitability for repeated. operations, simple
operating mechanism, free from explosion and long life.
The unique quality of vacuum interrupters is that the contacts are required to be
travelled by small distan<'e and less weight of moving contacts. Many repeated
operations can be performed with this type of breaker
10.8.1 Electrleai Breakdown In High Vacuum

The pressure below about 10 -6 n\m of n\ercltry ere considered to be high vacuum.
11w cherged particles from one electrode moving towards other at such • pressure will
not cause collision with IM molecules of residual gas. Heoee ionlzadon by collision of
l"'r~cles is less in vacuum as compared to In the g••·
If a small gap (say 0.5 mm) Is kept between the electrodes In the vacuum and
voltage is gradually increased. at a certain voltage the gap breaks down and current
ProtKtlon and Switchgear 10 -22 Circuit Breek..s
increas..-.. rapidly. The phenomenon Is called vacuum breakdown. With pressure

remaining constant the breakdown chracterlstics are inlluenced by surface, condition
and material of electodes,
Due to high arc onergy, electrons emission takes place from surface of the
electrodes. High heat is produced and core will be at very high temperature. Few
spots having high current densities are produced. Thus thermal emission takes plaa!
from surface of electrodes which is a cause for arc formation in case of these breakers
10.8.2 Construction
The Pig. 10.15 shows the schematic representation showing the constructional
details of vacuum circuit breaker.
,,._
,::r,.-+-__ .. _,_
Fig. 10.15 Consuuctlon of vacuum circuit breaker

It consists of vacuum chamber in which fixed con~ moving contact and arc
shield are mounted. The movable member is connected to the control mechanism by
stainless steel bellows. The bellows permit the oealed mnstruction of the interrupter.
They are covered by prottciive shield . The contacts are made of large stem with large
disc shaped faces.The disc is provided with symmetrical grooves such that ~ts
of two contacts arc not along same line. This geometry fadllta~ the rapid movement
of arc Instead of ramaining stable at one point and arc remains in diffused state. The
enclosure is made up of impermeable Insulating material like glass. The m1terlal
should not be porous and should have ca~1billty to retai.n high vacuum. The
supporting end flanges a~ made up o( non~magne:tic metal
Protection ond Switchgoor 10. 23 Circuit Broakon
TI1c ore shields or v1pour shields ore suppor~ on lnsulnling housing such thnt
they cover the contact n?gion. The metal vapour released from the con•~ct surface
during ardng is condensed on these shields and is prevented from condensing on the
insulating enclosure.
The possibility of leak is eliminated due to permanent sealing of vacuum chamber.
The outer insulator is made up of glass or ceramics
10.8.3 Working
When the contacts are separated due to some abnorm~l conditions, an arc ~ struck
between the contacts. The arc It produced due to ionisation of mctol ions and depends
very much on material of contncts.
The arc interruption process in vacuum Interrupters is different from other types
of circuit breakers. The separation of contacts causes release of vapour which is filled
in the contact space. It contains positive ions liberated from contact material. The
vapour density depends on the current in the arc. When current decreases, the rate of
vapour release decreases and after current zero, the medium regains ii$ dielectric
strength if vapour density is reduced.
When current to be Interrupted is very small (of the order of few hundred amps)
in vacuum, the arc has several parallel paths. The total current is divided into many
parallel arcs which repel each other and spreads over contact surface. This is called
diffused arc which C&l\ be Interrupted ensily.
Al high values of currents, the arc gets ~trated on a small region. It causes
rapid vapourisatian of the contact surface. The interruption of arc is possible i( arc
remains in diffused state. U it is quickly removed from the contact surface. the arc will
be resrriked.
Arc extinction in vacuum breakers is greatly inlluenoed by material and shape of
contacts and technique of condensing metal vapour.The path of the arc is kept moving
so thnt temperature at any one point will not be high.
After 6nal arc interruption there is rapid building up of dleleetric streng1h which
is pecularity of vacuum breaker. They are suitable for capacitor switching as it will
give restrlke tree performance. The small currents are interrupted before natural
current zero which may cause chopping whose level depends on material of contact.
The chopping levels are affected by,
a) The vapour pressure of cathode material with increase in vapour pressure, the
chopping level is lowered.
b) The thermAI conductivity, if thermal conductivity is low and the choppmg level
Is also low. Current chopping level for some mnterials is gwen in the
Table 10.1
Proi.ction and Switchgear 10 - 25 Circuit Breakers
grown from molten metnl whkh rcleaS<"S small quantity of gas. But the process is •ery
slow. costly and commercially not leaslble. The another possible solulion to this
problem is to use zone-retlned copper which is gas free.
The metals like aluminium, copper, silver, tin etc were tested (or electrode erosion.
At high currents the cathode spots formed shows a high vapour pressure that is
supplied by vapourisation. The loss from cathode, causes gain in weight for anode
due to the condensation of cathode vapour on the anode when it is cold.
Another important thing that must be considered is that the electrodes should not
weld w;th each other and dielectric strength ol the gap must be recovered very
rapidly.
Thus the requirements to be satisllcd by a vacuum circuit breakers are
complicated. Hence no single metal is suitable for the electrodes. Thus the compromise
is made and it shows that use of dicopper magnesium (Cu2Mg), dlccsium copper
(CuCe,), ropper bismuth (CuBi} gives the satisfactory performance.
10.8.6 Recovery Strength Characteristics
11\e satisfactory working of vacuum circuit breaker is possible if the electrical
strength airer arcing is properly recovered. In this type of the breaker, the conducting
medium ol the arc Is supplied by contact erosion ond recovery of electric strength
mostly depends on <ondensation of electrode vapour.
A reduction in !\umber of vapout ions lead to improvement in recovery strength.
When pressure is reduced to such a value that the breakdown voltage is
independent of pressure that under this case, the factors affecting breakdown voltage
are the type of contacts, contact surface etc. Highly polished electrodes has good
breakdown strength.
10.8.7 Applications
In countries like India, the installation ol such breakers proves to be effective as it
requires little maintenance. They are employed for outdoor installations ranging from
22 kV to 66 kV. With limited rating ranging from 60 to 100 MVA they are ouit1ble In
many applications.
Recently Installed capadtie; of such breakers ore 11 kV, 2S kV and 33 kV.
Thus for voltages upto 36 kV, vacuum circuit breakers with single interrupter is
becoming extremely popular for metal enclosed switchgear, arc furnace in.<tallations,
auxiliary switchgear in generating stations and other indUS1rial applications.
10.9 011 Circuit Breakeni

These are one of the oldest type of circuit breakers whkh employs oil as are
quenching medium. The contacts of the circuit breakers att separated in the oil The
Protec:tion and Switchgear 10-26 Circuit Brwakers
bubbles of gas are formed which prevent tt11triking of the arc ofter the curr"'1t reaches
rA'TO point of the cycle. There ore two types of oil circuit bwal<ers.
I) Circuit breakers using large quantity of oil or the bulk oil circuit breakers.
2) Circllil breakers using minimum quantity of oil called minimum oil circuit
breakers.
Afttt the current zero, the oil moves In the arc space which is an important part of
the action of an oil circuit breaker which may be effected by,
1) the pressure developed due to natural nead of oil above contacts.
2) the pressure generated by the action of arc current itself.
3) the pressure developed by external parameters.
Thus the oil circuit b!'l'akers ore further grouped Into following ca~ories,
I) Plain break oil circuit breakers.
2) Self generated pressure oil circuit breakers (also called self bk\st oil circuit
breakers.)
3) Externally generated pressure oil circuit breakers (also called force blast oil
circuit breakers.)
10.9.1 Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker

It consists of • strong. weather tight earthed tank containing oil upto certain level
and air above the oil level. Both the fixed and moving contacts are immersed in oil
When the contacts are separated, an an: is struck between the contacts with
production of targe amount of heat, Thia will Increase the temperature to near about
SOOO"K which will vapourtee the oil Into gases such as hydrogen with small
~l'<'tT1tageof methane, ethylene and acetyl.,,.,. With the wlthdrowl of moving contact,
ore length lncttases and gos formation rate decn.i..s as temperature lowers.
iVhen distance between fixed contact and moving contact reaches ot critiol value.
the arc gets extinguished at some curmit zero.
There are two types of plain-break oil cin:uit breakers.
a) Single break oil circuit breaker
b) Double break oil circuit breaker.
10.9.1.1 Slnglt Brtak Oil Clrcutt Bruker

The single break oll circuit breaker principle is represented in the Fig. 10.16. TI>e In
and out o( the current Is through the terminal bushings. There is only one arc which
is •t~k between the fixed •nd moving contact. The current breaks at one bushing
and the moving contact is supported by th!! Olher bu•hing through sliding rontacL
Protection and Switchgear 10. 27 Clrcu1t Breakers
Cootntj
'"
Topplato
0
Fig. 10.16 Single break oil circuit breaker

10.9.1.2 Doubl• Break Oil Circutt Bruker
,.,,_
The principle of this type of circuit breaker is shown in the Fig. 10.17. There att
two fix4'<1 contacts assodated with terminal bushing which makes contacts wilh the
O!ive..-
on..."""
!VrcutNon
/T;~::Oi,_
Cl--t-•oxoc1
.,.,._
------...--- -------
------
A..:
Fig. 10.17 Double break circuit breekor
.
T ranatOl'?Mf'
Protection and Switchgear 10. 28 Circuit Breakers
movlng conmcts during normal opernting condition. The lever containing the moving
conmcis can be oper.tted wilh the help of crank.
Whc11 the contact> are separated. two arcs ore dniwn. Thus there arc two breaks in
sertes, Thi> can achieve rapid arc lengthening which eliminates the need for • speciolly
fo>t moving contact speed, But this introduces unequal voltage distribution across the
breaks with uneven sharing ol total interrupting duty. One break rnay take 70 to 80
percent ol the Interrupuag duty.
When such a breaker interrupts an earth fault, the recovery voltage is not equally
divided between the two breaks. This statement can be very well understood by
considering the equivalent electrical circuit shown in the Rg, 10.18, where C1
repr-nts capacitance between fixed and moving contacts whereas C2 represents
capacitance between moving contact and earth.
t
Gen.
wdg. l
v
v, c,l
v, c,
-- -- --
(1) (b) Equivalent circuit
Fig. 10.18
Let I be the fault current
From the Fig. 10.18 (b),
I
V1 volts
•
we,
-
I
ec (C, +C,) volts
. -~~~-~~~
Let C1 • 10 pF and C2 • 40 pP being typical values in practice .
Now , -v,v, ., (C1 +C1)

..c, c,
C1 +C1
5-.
v,
10+40
10 ·-
50
10
• 5
Prolectlon and Switchgear 10. 29 Circuit Breakers
... v, ~ 5 v,
II can be seen from the above expression that about 83% of the system volt•ge
appears across gap nnd only 17% appears across moving contact and earth. In ordtr to
equalize the voltage across the gaps, high =i•tances or capncitors arc connected
eeross them.
1
I
v, c.l 1 c,• I
Ic,I50tl~ r'· r~·-
10,.~F
j
I
v,
I
- -
Fig. 10.19 C•P"citiv• vottage grading
~~-
Let a capacitor of 50 pf be connected as shown in the Fig. 10.19.
Now.
v
_..!. •
C1 +C2 +C,
~~ ...... 10+4-0+SO
v, c, +C3 10+50
.- JOO
60
e 1.66
v, ~ 1.66 v,
Thus V1 becomes equal to 1.66 times that of v.,. U value of C3 is chosen to be high
then the difference between v, and V2 can be further reduced. If instead of capacitors,
high values of resistors are used it "ill also cause damping. The resistance values are
generally of the order of 10,000 to 100,000 ohms. The resistor selected may be
non-linear one.
10.9.1.3 Factors Alltc1tng Performance of Plane Bnak OU Ckcult Breaker

The factors which influence the perlormance of plain break oil circuit breakers are
as follows,
I) The critical length of the break
Ii) The speed of the contact movemont. In order to extinguish the arc "arlier, the
speed should be hlgh therefore double b""'k circuit breakers nre preferred.
Iii) The head of oil above the contacts.
iv) The clearance between the live contact! and the earthed pressurized tank.
Protection and Switchgear 10 -30 Circuit Br•akers
The factors which influence on incttaSed brc•king capacity are conslderablo hood
of oil and lorge etcarances. Thus for large breaking cnpocity, the cu.-uit breaker will be
huge.
10.9.1.4 Advantages of Plain Break Oil Circuit BreaOr

The various advantages of plain oil drcuil breaker are,
IJ n,., arc energy is easily absorbed by the oil due to its decomposition.
Ii) Tbe 8""" formed due to oil decompooition has good cooling properties.
iii) The cooling surfaces formed by surrounding oil Is dose to the arc.
iv) After current zero • now of cool oil flows in the contact space wtuch is having
dreleemc >trength.
v) The 011 used acts as an insulator.
10.9.1.5 Disadvantages of Plain Breal< OH Circuit lltulter

The various disadvantages of plain break oil dr<uit breaker are,
i) There is no special control over the arc other than the increase> in length by
separating the moving contacts. ~ large arc length is required for faJthful
interruption
ii) !hes.- breokt>rs hove long and Inconsistent arcing time•.
iii) These breakers do not permit high speed interruption.
10.9.1.6 Appl~ns
Such types of circuit breakers are suitable upto 150 MV A capacity and hence
installed in low capacity applications having voltages not more than 11 kV.
10.9.2 Self Generated Pressure 011 Circuit Breaker

Thi• type of circuit brc•ke"' are also called sdl blast oil circuit breakers where arc
control is provided by lntemal means. The p"'5lurc developed by the arc is used in
spe<'<ling up the movement of oil in the aintact space ot the instant after tile current
aero. Thls is achieved by S\Jrroundl11g the contact by • pressure chamber. This will
make it possible to increase the breaking capacity of such circuit breaker while the
arcing time is reduced.
The action of arc will itself set up pressure which is dependent on magnitude of
currents. Thus proper design of pressure chamber must be done in order to ensure
that pressure developed is sufficient to extinguish the arc at low currents, while it
should not be excessive which may bre6k the chamb<Jr at heavy cun"ents. Thus a wide
variety of d<Stgns are poosible. Some of them are disc:u"'>d below.
Protedion and Switchgear 10. 31 Circuit Breakers
10.9.2.1 Plain ~ploslon Pot

This is shown in th<' Fig. I0.20. It consists ol a
rigid cylinder made up ol a Insulating mat"'1<1L
The cylinder contain• the lixed ond moving
contacts. The moving contact is • cylindrical rod
whkh can pass through a small opening called
POT th-root. The motion or moving contact is vertical.
\\lherwver fault occurs in the system the
contacts will start separating with the formation
of arc in between them. The heat contained in the
arc causes the decomposition of the otl into a gas
Fig. 10.20 Plain e><plosion pot at very high pressure in the pot. This high
pressure forees the oil and gas around the arc to
extinguish it.
It can be seen that if the final arc interrupvon does not take place while the
moving contact is Inside the pressure chamber then it occurs immediately after the
moving contact leaves the pot as emergence of moving contact from the pol allows •
high velocity axinl blast of gas to release through the thrcer pmduclng rapid arc
e><tinction. At the arc extinction takes place ••ially or the arc. it Is also called axlal
explosion 'YI"'·
The major drawback with this type 15 that it cannot be used for very high or very
low fault currents. At low fault current values, the pressure developed is small thus
arcing time is increased. On the other hand at high fault currents due to very high
pressure developed there is possibility of bursting the explosion pot or chamber.
Thereforeit ~suitable for moderate shortcircuit currents only.
10.9.2.2 Cross Jet ~plosion Pot

It i.s the modification ol plain explosion pot which is shown in the Fig. 10.21. lhe
F"ig. 10.21 shows .the four slilges of operation. It consists of cylinder made up of
iNulating material. There are channels on one side which act as arc splitters. The use
of arc splitters is to increase the arc length \vhich will asstst arc extinction by
lengthening the arc.
In srago I shown in Fig. 10.21, the moving contact has separated from the fixed
contact and an arc Is formed while In stage ~ flnal arc •>xtinctlon Is shown where the
movu1g contact i.s out of the throaL
When an fault occurs. the moving contacts begin to SCJ"'rato. An arc is strtJ<k
initially at the top or pot. The gas formed e>.erts pressure on the oil when the movlng
contact moves away from the arc splitter ducts, fresh oil 1$ forced across the path of
Protection and Switchll"at 10. 32 Circuit Breaklf'I
Oil
"'"''"
I•) Cb) t•I Id)
Fig. 10.21 Crott jet explosion pot
arc. The arc is then ~ through the arc splitters due to which Its length increases
wluch causes the arc extinction.
Tlus type ol circuit breaker gives satisfactory perlonnance at heavy lault currents.
However for smaU lault current, pressure developed by gas which is function of fault
current is less and the perlormance is not satisfactory.
10.9.2.3 Sett Compensated Explosion Pot
This type is essentially a
combination of plain explosion and cross
jet explosion type. Henoe It cnn Interrupt
low •• well .. heavy •hort circuit
currents <fftttlvely. It is represented in
tile Fig. 10.22..
It consists or two chambers, the
upper chamber is the cross jct cxpl06ion
pot with arc splitter ducts, while the
lower chamber is the plain explosion
pot
When fault current is heavy, the rate
I ol generation of gas is very high and it
will acl similar to cross jet explosion pot.
When the mo"1ng contact moves away
Fig. 10.22 Self compensated explotlon pot from the arc splitter duel, the arc
extinction lab!s place.
Protection ond Swltcn~or 10-33 Circuit Breakers
When fault current Is low the rnte of gas gen<?r:it.ion is low and the tip ol moving
contact takes some time to reach lower chamber. By this time the gas builds up
sufficient pressure as there ls no much leakage. When the moving contact comes out
of throat the arc is extinguished by plain pot action.
\.Vith increase in fault current level, the operation will tend more and more similar
to cross jet explosion pot. Thus interruption of fault current is possible in the wide
r:ingc.
10.9.2.4 Oil Blut Explosion Pot
r Fl)led oontacl
It Is shown schcmntacnlly in
the Pig. 10.23. It consists of an
I intermediate contact alon.g with
moving contact. Initially the
intermediate contact and lower
moving contact move
downwards together. An arc is
struck between 1 and 2. The arc
causes oil in upper cha.1nbcr to
Holow moving be subjected to high pressure.
conlect
When the lntenncdi.ti., contact
Fig. 10.23 011 blost explosion pot has reached its maximum teavet,
the lower contacts start moving
awa)' from it and arc- is struck between 2 and 3. Since the lower contact is hollow rod
it Is shut down by pressure which was developed by first arc. But this type has a
disadvantage of long arcing time.
10.9.3 Forced Blast 011 Circuit Breakers

In the sell blast oil drcult breakers, the pressure was developed due to the arc to
force the oil across the arc path. The major d.is1dvantnge with this type is long arcing
times and lnconsistancy at lower currents as pressure developed Is insufficient to force
the oil in an: path. This difllculty is overcome In force blnst oil circuit breakers which
will not relay on the an: to generate the pressure but it is supplied from some external
source.
This can be achieved by piston cylinder arrangement. The movement of piston is
coupled mechanically to moving contacts or spring released by tripping mechanl$m.
This arrangement enables high speed ln"'rruption.
When a fault occurs. the contacts get separated and an an: is struck. TI>e p1Ston
forces a jet of oil towards the contact gap which will extinguish the are. The typical
scheme is shown In the Fig. 10.24.
Prot.ctlon and Switchgear 10. 34 Circuit Bre.aket"•
Fixed
contacl
Fig. 10.24 Externally genernod pressure breaker

11le performance of the
breaker is constant even at low 6
currents as pressure developed Seff pressure

is lnd~ent of foult current
to be interrupted. This can be
•,j••
S«'f1 from following grnph / ''
~ 2
reprl'Sm~ in the Fig. 10.25. ~
,/
Another advantage is that ''
quantity of oil required is O'-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Breaking cu1renl
reduced considerably. If Fig. 10.25 Operating ttme-breaklng c.....,t
current chopping is there charact.rlstics
while interrupting small
inductive currents then damping by resistance switching is required.
10.10 Low 011 or Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker

With the Increase in system voltage the quantity of oil in bulk oil circuit breakers
also increa5e5. It gives additional ex~. lnc:reoses the risk of lire and causes
maintenance problem. This will ma!«! necasory the design of a type of circuit
breakers which requires • low volume of oil. It is observed that oil serves two
purposes. Firstly It acts as arc quenching medium and secondly it Insulates live parts
from earth. It is found that only a small percentage (about 10%) of oil is used for an:
extinction process and major part is used for insulation purposes.
A low or minimum oil circuit breaker uses a small container having oil which is
just enough for arc extinction. The container of oil is supported on poccdain
insulators, so that required insulation can be obtained for live parts from earth. Thus
low oil clmtit breaker has add"!1 advanh\ge that it requires less space than the bulk
oil type. This is an Important consideration In la.rge installatlOM.
With respect to quenching of ore, the oU behaves ldcntlcolly In bull< as well as low
oil circuit breaker. By using sult•ble •re control devices the ore e><tinction can be
further lacilitoted in low oil circuit breaker.
Protection and Switchgear 10 - 35 Circuit Breakers
10.10.1 Construction
The Fig. 10.26 shows the conslrudional details of • single phase minimum oil
circuit breaker.
OI-
Momg
oont~
------...---...-
-------
. -------
!{;:;;;-;;;;-~- -;;;-;;;-;;;;--;;;;-
-;;;;-
-;;;-
-~- °""' -
-;-;;-
-;;-,;-
-;;-,;-
-;;-~';)
Fig. 10.26 Construotion of minimum oil circuit breaker
Switchgear 1nd Protection to. 36 Circuit Bre1k&r1
It consists of two separate comparlmft\ts which are separated from eoch other.
Doth these compartments nrc filled with the oil. The upper chamber is called the
circuit breaking chamber whlle the lower chamber Is called the supporting chnmber.
The two chambers are separated by a partition and oil from both the chambeTS are
prevented from mixing with each other. This type of arrangement has two advantages.
Firstly the circuit breaking chamber requires a small volume of oil which is just
sufficient for arc extinction. Secondly small amount of oil is to be replaced as the oil in
the supporting ch•mMr does not get contaminat<d by the arc.
I) Supporting Chamber : This is a bottom chamber which as made up of
procelaan and mounted on mctol chamber. It Is filled with oil which is
physically sepnroted from the oil in circuit breaking chamber. The oil inside
the supporting chamber and the annul.a.r space formed between the porcelnin
insulation and backelised paper is employed for insulation.
2) Circuit Breaking Chamber : ft is a porcelain enclosure which is mounted 011
the lop of the supporting compartment. It is also filled with oil and consists of
lollowing parts
i) Upper and lower fixed contacts
ii) ~1o,•ing ccntoct
lh) Turbu\ator
The moving contact is hollow. It consists of a cylinder which moves down over •
fixed pistion. The turbulator forms an arc control device and ii has both axial and
radial vents. Tbe axial venting ensures the in~ption of IO\Y currents whereas radial
venting ensures interrup
tion of heavy currents.
3) Top Chamber : II is a metal chamber mounted on the top of circuit breaking
chamber. II provides expansion space for the oil present in circuit breaking
ch•mber. II also contains a separator which avoids loss of oil by centrifugal
action ceused by cir<:ult breaker operation during fault conditions.
10.10.2 Operation
Under normal operating conditions, the moving contact and fixed contacts are In
engaged position. During abnormal conditions the moving contact is pulled down by
the tripping springs. With the separation of contacts, an arc is struck between them.
The energy in the arc causes vapourisation of oil. This will produce gases at high
pressure. This action prevents the oil to pass through central hole in the moving
contact and results in forcing series of oil through the passages of the turbulator. The
process of turbulation is one in which sections of the arc successively quenched, by
the effect of separate streams of oil moving across each section.
Prot9ctlon and Switchgear 10. 37 Circuit Breakers
10.10.3 Maintenance of 011 Circuit Breakers

The maintenance of oil circuit breller$ consists of checking or contacts and
dielectric strength of the oil. After fault has been interrupted by circuit breaker, foult
current flows for short time or lood cummts for several times. Its contacts 11111y be
burnt due to arcing. Also there may be some loss of dielectric strength or oil due to
carbonlsntlon. This will reduce rupturing ca~ty of the breaker. Thus periodic
checking o( drcuit breakers is essential after regular interval of 3 or 6 months.
Following points should be kept In mind while checking,
i) Check the current carrying parts. It they are burnt replace them.
ii) Check the dielectric strength of oil If its colour is changed then it should be
changed or reconditioned. The oil in good condition withstands 30 kV for one
minute with 4mm gap between electrodes.
iii) Checl< the Insulation for any damage. Clean the surface with removal or carbon
deposites with strong and dry fibric.
iv) The oil level should be checked.
v) The closing and tripping mechanism should be checked.
10.10.4 Advantages
The ndvontages of minimum 011 circuit bfeaker arc,
i) The quantity of oil required b small.
ii) The space requirement is reduced.
iii) The risk of fire Is reduced.
10.10.5 Disadvantages
The disadvantages of minimum oil circuit breaker are,
i) Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonisation is increased.
ii) The gases are difficult to remove from the contact space in time.
iii) The dielectric strength of the oil deterorates rapidly as degree of carbonis.ltion
is high.
10.10.6 Applications
Minimum oil circuit breakers are now available for all voltages and for the highest
breaking capacity hence preferred in most of the protection schemes.
P.-tlon and Switchgear 10. 38 Circuit Bfullers
10.11 HVDC Circuit Breaker

In a.c. circuit breakers, arc extinctlon is achleved at the natural current zero of the
a.c. waveform used. But in d.e. circuit breakers. natural 7.ttO ol voltage and current is
not available as both are continuously available. Thus lor extinction of an arc. artificial
current zero is required to be Introduced. Such an artificial current zero is possible by
connecting LC circuit in parallel with the circuit breaker. The LC circuit is responsible
to produce oscillatory arc currents having many artificial current zeros. At one of the
ortifkiol current zero arc gets extinguished.
The Fig. 10.27 shows the
principle ol HVOC circuit
-=-·0---.--1 ~----~
o.c.
To
loed
breaker. The HVOC ci=it
breakcr!snothingbutav3(Uwn
circuit breaker. The LC circuit
along with a switch is connected
in parallel with this circuit
breaker.
,,.,_LCcitaJii The capacitor C used is

preduuged capacltcr with the
..............
IOinltoduoo-
polarities as shown in the
Fig. 10.27. When the cin:uit
Fig. 10.27 HVDC cl~ult brNker
breaker starts opening, the
switch in the LC circuit gets
dosed. Due to the charged capacitor, the discharging eurrent starts flowing in opposite
direction to that of load current carried by the circuit breaker. Due to this, arcing
current starts oscillating producing many natural zeros. Thus artificial commutation
results and arc extinction is achieved.
The large transient recovery votrsge is the main constraint in HVOC circu.lt
breaker an~ circuit breaker must able to withstand It. For successful operation ol sud\
a circuit breaker, the switch in LC circuit must be a high speed switch with • very fut
response. Such systems are complex and very costly as they require costly protection
and control systems.
10.12 Selection of Circuit Breaker

The following parameters are required to be known for selecting proper rating
circu.it breaker at a given location on a power system ;
i) The maximum fault current which is to be interrupted by the breaker.
ii) The maximum current to be carried momentarily
10. 39 Circuit Breakers
previously the fault current consists of both a.c. and d.c,

As it is discussed
components and its correct calcufoHon ls very complex. A simplified method is
recommended by IEEE committee is given below :
I. To determine ftrwtly th<> required Interrupting copacity of circult breaker t...,
highest value of initial rms altomoting current for any type and location of
fault. It can be considCfed OJ three phase fault as it carries maxlmum fault
current ~cept in some coses. Thts current can be obtained by using
sub-transient ttactonct' for generators and transient reactanee for synchronous
motors while induction motors are to be neglected. Following multiplying
factors can be applied to take into account the d.c. components of currents and
decrements of both a.c. and d.c, components.
8 cycle or slow breaker 1.0
5 cyde breaker 1.1
3 cycle breaker t .2
2 cyd.. breaker 1.4
Before applying multiplying factor, all the given factors are increased by 0.1 for
the breakers on the generotor bus where 3 phase short dmJit kVA exceed
500,000.
2. To det~rmine the required roted momentary current with "- l sec or le55 of
• breaker. Tile calculation or highest value of initial mu a.c. curttnt can be
done as given In t™' step (1) except using sub-transient reoctanct'S of all U...
machines including induction motors. Multiply the value of current obtll.ined
by 1.6.
:. Momentary rated rms current of a circuit breaker = 1.5 x ;.
Example 10.1 : JI ~ratqr connectril through 5 Clj<k CB lo a trvnsfrwmer is r11W

_..
8000 kVJI with t1tt m>etanas ofX4
"
s
.
10 %, x, • 16 % and x, 100 %. II is
=
op<7'•ting at no load •nd rall'd voltage whm 3 phaS<' <lrort circuit Oct'llN bttui<rn
brtnktr and tra11sfimner. Find :
rJ sust.01nal slwrt circuit in brtaker
ii) t~ ill1t111l symmttricol rms current in brmker
rill mRXrmum possiblt d.c. coo1pon<11I of short circuit in brorktr
10} tht mommtary curmu rat111g of tire brMker
o) .,,,...,,, to bt into-rupll'd by hrMktr vi} tlr< intrm1pting kV JI
Solution: Le1thebase~8000 kVA.
8000
Suotained sho.rt circuit kVA • -x100•8000kVA.
100
as x, = 100 'lt.
Proltctlon ind Switchgear 10. 40 Circuit 8re1kers
kVA
Sustnined short drcuit current •
jj. VL
l.ct 13.8 kV
8000
Sustained short circuit current • " 334.70 A
JJ x 13.8
8000•100
Sub-transient short circuit kVA = • 80000
10
S..1b--tr3ns1<..'1\t or initial symmetrical current a SOCM>)(JOO s 3347.05 A

10.J3. 13.8
Maximum possible d.e, component " ,/2x3347.0S= 4132.73 A
Momentary current rating = 1.6 x 3347.05 = 5355.28 A
Current to be interrupted • 1.1 x 3347.05 • 3681.75 A
Interrupting kVA = .J3x368175xllB = 87999.836 kVA
10.13 Circuit Breaker Ratings
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying and
bn!aking current under normal circuit conditions and also making, c.irrying for
>pedfied time nnd breaking current under specified abnormal conditions.
The circuit breaker Is also required to perform some additional functions as the
application demands such as,
i) to provide selectivity with breakers
ii) to provide facility for remote closing and tripping
iii) to provide facility for interlocking
iv) to provide facility for indication
Some of the important characteristics or ratings that must be possessed by every
high voltage a,e. circuit breaker arc as follows,
I. R.>tc>d voltage
2. Rated insulation level
3. Rated normal current
4. Rated frequency
S. Rated duration of short circuit
6. Rated short citruit breaking current
7. Rated short circuit making current
8. Rated peak withstand current
Protection and Switchgear Circuit Breakers
9 Rated TRV for terminal fault

10. Rated operating sequence
11. R.1ted supply voltage for opening and closing devices and auxiliary circuits
12. Rated pressure or compressed gas for int~ption
10.13.1 Rated Voltage

It IS a voltage of a circuit breaker which ~(ers to higher system voltage (or \Yhic-h
it is designed. It is expressed in kV and the value is r.m.s. value. In case or three
phase cirruils it is nothing but phase to phase voltage. A circuit breaker must be
assigned two voltage ratings one corresponding to maximum nominal system voltage
.md other maximum design voltage which indicated the maximum operating voltage
which shou Id not be exceeded.
10.13.2 Rated Insulation Level

The different circuit breakers connected in power system are subjected to power
frequency over voltages due to various effects such as regulation, Ferranti effect etc.
The drruit breaker must withstand this overvoltage. This can be tested by carrying out
dlffen.'llt test& During some single phase to ground faults voltage or healthy line to
Nrth inC"rea""9. So higher values o( insulation are suggested. The insul•tion is
provided for each pole external and internal betwttn live pares and earth. It is also
provided between poles and between terminals of same pole internal and external.
10.13.3 Rated Current

It is defined as r.m.s. value of the current that can be carried by the circuit breaker
continuously with temp=iture rise within the specified limits. Some of the preferred
values of rated currents are 400, 630, 800, 1250, 1600, 2000 A r.m.s. etc. The rated
current of a circuit breaker can be checked by carrying out temperature rise tests. The
current carrying parts along with the contacts are designed based on temperature rise.
For given cross section o.f a conductor and certain value of current, the temperature
rise is dependent on conductivity of material. Hence while designing high conductivity
material mu.st be used. I( material is having low conductivity then cross-section of the
conductor is tncreased.
10.13.4 Rated Frequency

The performance or circuit breaker is greatly influenced by frequency. The
different chorncterlstks like breaking capacity are based on roted frequency. With
increase in frequency, eddy currents In the metallk parts wlll increase which will
cause more heating and rise the temperature of current carrying parts. Hence if a
circuit breaker designed for one particular frequency is used at some another
Protection and Swltchg•ar 10 ·42 Circuit Bi.akera
frequency then temperature will not remoln In spedfied limits. So the roting Is to be
changed accordingly.
The breaking time is also affect<!d by the frequency as it is associated with time lor
half cycles during arc extinction. The breaking time decreases with increase in
frequency.
The frequency has a pronounced effect on TRV and rate of rise ii TRV. So a circuit
breaker designed for one particular frequency can not used for other frequency unle$s
the results ore faithful for that frequency.
10.13.5 Rated Duration of Short Circuit

The short time current ol a circuit breaker Is r.m.s, current that it con ca.rry In a
closed position during spedfied time under given conditions. It Is expressed in kA for
a period of one second. The rated duration of short circuit Is commonly I second, Tbe
circuit breaker must carry the current equal to its breaking capacity for this duration.
This can be tested by carrying out short time current test and checked that the poles
are not getting damaged or welded. The insulation should not be damaged. The poles
must be able to withstand the mechanical force developed. The design for normal
current rating is sufficient to carry short circuit curTent for 1 sec,
10.13.6 Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current

lt is r.m ..s, value of highest short circuit cu1Tent whlch the circuil breaker is
capable of breaking under specified conditions of TRV and power frequency voltage
and expressed in kA r.m.s. at eon tact separation.
The voltage appearing across circwt breaker after arc interruption Is nothing but
Transient Recovery voltage. Tbe limit on breaking current is governed by specified
conditions of TRV and power frequency recovery voltage. This limit is determined by
carrying short circuit test. The current waveform is shown in the Fig. 10.28.
Current
x
y ••
--- ---- Joe
.••
• ·-
Fig. 10.21
11,e breaking current is expressed uy two values

I) The r.rn.s, value of • c. component at the instant of contact separntton given by
ti
ii) The percentage d,c. romponent at the instant of contact separation given by
lix;xlOO
IAC
The standard values of r.m.s. currents are 8, 10, 123, 16, 20, 25, 31, S, 40 kA etc.
In earlier days the breaking capacity Is expressed in t.fV A so that fault levels can
also be determtned. But now it is expressed In kA for specified ronditions of TRY.
10.13.7 Rated Short Circuit Making Currant

This is defined u the peak value of fi,.t cury-cnt loop ol short circuit current
which the circuit bre•ker is capable of making al its roted voltllge. There ore certain
cases under which the circuit breaker may close when fauh ts existing. Under such
cases current reaches to maximum value at peak of first current loop. The circuit
breaker should be able to close without difficulty and withstand the mechanical forces
developed during a closure. This is checked by carrying out making current tes].
Rated making current = 1.8 x J2 x Rated short circuit breaking
• 25 x Rated short circuil breaking current
J2 in above expression converts r.ms. value to peak value while factor 1.8 is
considered for doubling effect of short circuit current
10.13.8 Rated Pe•k Withstand Current

It Is defined 35 the Instantaneous value of short circuit current which drcu.it
breaker can withstand safely In dosed position. It is expressed in terms of kA
Instantaneous." The value suggested for thls current is equal to rated ~t\or! circult
making current. To test th.is peak withstand current short d_n:u:it with maximum
asymmetry is applied to circuit breaker in one phase. The peak withstand current test
is combined with short time current test. The stresses produced due to high cuerent
must be sustained by the circuit breaker.
10.13.9 Rated TRV for Termlnal Faults

The TRY wavefonn can be specified by various methods such as specifying the
peak value nnd Hme to reach It or specifying parameten1 which will de-Ode the lli\c
segment whicti will represent TRY wave, The methods are ~ivcly called two
Protec:tlon and Switchgear 10 -44
parameter and four pernmeter method. The
two parame1er method i• eepresenred in the
Fig. 10.29.
The arcuit breakers must be provided
with RAted TRV. 'Ille breaking current test is
carried out on circuit breaker with specifsed
-
TRV
TRV.
The standards provide different
parameters such as voltage, and lime to plot
lhe line >'gments. The TRV wave can be Fig. 10.29
drawn within the segment. Th~ circuit
breaker must be tested for S.C. breaking current test with TRY waveform above
st<llldatd waveform
10.13.10 Rated Operating Sequence
II represents lhe sequence of opening and doolng "!"'••lions which circuit breaker
can perform under specified conditions. A$ per specifications the drcuil breaker
should be able to perform the operating sequence as per one of the ways
i) 0 - I - CO - T - CO ui co-v= co
where 0 = Operation of opening
t = 3 minutes for cilcuit breaker not to be used for rapid
auto-reclosure
CO • Closing followod by opening
1' • 3 minute5
t' • 15 sec for circuit breaker not 10 be used for rapid
auto-reclosure
10.13.11 Rated Supply Voltage for Closing and Opening Devices
The performance of auxiliary supply circuits and operating mechanisms is
important in addition to ratings of or main circuit and poles. The supply voltage is
provided by auxiliary circuits to the trip ooiJ o.nd dosing coil which are having certain
minimum voltage below which it will not operate. For correct operation the frequency
must be properly chosen. The raled supply v<>ltag<: and supply frequency of dosing
and opening devices and auxiliary circuits is important.
10.13.12 Rated Pressure of Compressed Gas

The air blasi drcuit breaker and 10me ol the SF, breokers use pru?umatk while
10me other SF, breakers use hydraulic operating mechanisms where minimum and
Protection and Switchgear 10-45 Clreu~ 8reaktl'$
maximum values ol pressures arc specilled certain tests lll<e no load test ore carried
out with conditions of the pressures. The pressure switches .,... also fitted in the
auxiliary systems of the operating mechanism.
Some odditlonal rated characteristics are to be specified in cenaln cases like roted
chM•cteristics lor short·llne laults for dtt'llit breakers controlling ovtthead lines roted
52 kV and above, Rated line charging current for cirn1it breakers controlling overhead
lines rated 72.5 kV and above.
There are certain special switching duties like capacitor switching, reactor
swltchlng, OC switching. inducti\'e current $Witching. The stress produced ls usual
and severe. Different cin:uit breakers behaves differently. The Interruption of low
inductive currents is achieved by SF6 while capacitor current switching is done
excellently by VCB. Depending upon the type of application the following
characteristics are specified,
i) Rated out ol phase brealcing current
ii) Rated cable charging breaking current
iii) Rilled single capacitor bank breaking current
iv) Permissible switching overvoltagcs
v) Roted capacttor bank in rush overvolrages
vi) Riltc->d small Inductive breaking current
vii) Roted time quantities
viii) Repeated operating duty.
In actual design of circuit breakers following parameters are considered :
1. Current rating
2. Breaking capacity
3. Making capacity
4. Type or protective mechanism
5. Short time rating
6. Type ot mechanism
7. Accessories
8. Indtcanoes
9. Locks ond lnterlo<ks
10. Operalionol Ulc
11. Eose ol maintenance
12. Volume I weight
13. Control voltage
Protection and Switcl>gear 10. 46 Circuit Breakers
14. Availability or spares

15. Cost
Depending upon the above parameters the different cimiit breakers are designed
Icr their efficient operation.
10.14 Type Tests

As mentioned earlier th<?SC tests are carried out on lirs1 few circuit breakers to
prove the rated characteristics of the breakers. 11\e' necessary information which
includes ossigned rotinll". drawinp, reference standards, rated operottng prcuure and
voltage, support structure ere must be supplied to the testing authorities before
conducting these tests. These details are Included in the type tests report. After
certifying the breaker by carrying out these tests, there should not be any change in
design.
Type tests are classified as follows,
a) Mechanical tests
b) Tests of temperature rise, millivolt drop test
c) High voltage test
d) Bask short circuit test
i) Making test
Ii) Breaklng test
iii) Operating sequenre tests at 10%, 30%, 60%, 100% of rated breaking current
with specified TRV conditions.
e) Critical current tests
f) Single phase short circuit test
g) Short time current test
In addilion to above tests some more tests arc recommended on circuit breakers to
be used ln speclfle applications, whkh arc,
a) Short line fault tests
b) Out or phase switching tests
c) Cable charging current switching test
d) Capacitive current switching tests
e) Small inductive current breaking tests
f) Reactor current switching tests
Protection and Switchgear 10 -47 Circuit Breakers
10.15 Routine Tests

&fore dispatch of circuit breakers, these t.,ts are performed. Routine t.. t a
defined •• • test of every circuit breaker made to the same specifications. They Include
the followl ng tests.
a) Mechanical operation tests
b) Millivolt drop test, Measurement of resistance
c) Power frequency voltage tests
d) Voltage tests on auxiliary circuits, rontrol circuits
The quality of the circuit breaker can be very well checked by these tests. Also any
defects in the materials and construction is detttted.
10.16 Development Tests

These rests, ere very much essential to observe the effect of diffenmt parameters
on the circuit breakers performance. Variety of tests are performed on individual items
as well as on complete assemblies.
If a circuit breaker is tested frequently with change in ill< contact speed. then we
con see the effect of contact speed on breaking copocity. The different parameters and
their effects are tht'Orctlcnlly predicted. Full 1G1lc prototypes ore manufactured ofter
testing and measurement. The data available m the company is used by the designers
for example for the design of contacts, the configuration can be derived from available
designs or contact assemblies.
Each subassembly has certain functional requirement e.g. the contacts should give
low resistance in closed position. Therefore to verify the capability of contact
configurations, development tests are conducted, depending on functional
requirements. The modifications are done on the basis of these test results.
10.17 Rellablllty Tests

The newly manufactured circuit breakers are tested by type tests and routine tests,
But the conditions durin.g these tests are not the conditions that exlst at the Acld. At
site thA> circuit breaker is subjected to various stresses due to,
a) Variation in ambient temperetures
b) fu<tremcly low and high tempcral\lres
e) Rain moisture
d) Vibrations on neeoun! of Mrthquakes
el Dust and chemical fumes
f) Overloads and over voltages
Protect.Ion and Switchgear 10. 48 Circuit Breaker.
Also the maintenance o( the breaker may not be done by skilled persons. Thus the
performance of the breaker is tested under these adverse conditions by reliability tests.
Th>! circuit breaker is subjected to extremely high temperature created in test
chambers. The various parts are critically examined alter testing.
10.18 Commissioning Tests

These test are performed alter the proper installation o( the breaker at the site. The
nperational rendine» and proper assembly is veriAed. High accuracy is not generally
expected in such tests. The test l.>dlities available at site is also Important foctor.
Thl'SC Include following tests,
:t.) Mechanical operanon tests
bl Measurement ol travel, simultaneous touching of contacts
c) Measurement of insulation resistance and OC resistance
d) Checking the operation by energising of relays
e) Checking the operation by energising the manual operating signal
10.19 Short Circuit Test Layout

The sl,c-11·t circuit testing is l'ln expcrtmcntnl method for provlng the rnttnga of the
breaker and checking Its performance for further developments. Many of these tests
eome under type tests- By carrying out experimentation and problems related to
circuit breaking, the modem EHV (Extra High Voltage) breakers are developed.
Due to short circuits, severe stresses are produced on circuit breakers. The circuit
breaker must be capable of withstanding the stresses. The short circuit current
duration Is "bout 1 sec or 3 sec, The short time current test verify the capability of
breaker.
Due to short circuit, thcrm•I stresses arc produced on contacts and current
corrying parts, The stress is also produced on insulation. The poles and terminals
experience electro-dynamic forces.
The making capacity ch«ks the ability of breaker to dose on short circuit. The
breaker should be capable of closing effectively without contact welding. The breaking
capacity verify the ability to dear short circuits. The operating mechanism and the
interrupter should able to perform these (unctions efficiently.
The stresses developed during short circuit depend on magnitude of fault current
.ind design of breaker. Alter rurrent zero, the contact space is subjected to TRY.
Ibereforc for reliable operation and performance of circuit breaker on short ciratit,
>hort circuit testing plants arc sp«U.lly built.
ProtKtlon end Switchgear 10. 49 Clrcull Breakers
10.19.1 Short Circuit Testing Plants

'There nre th!\.'<! types of testing statinns which are•• follows,
a) Field typ<? testing stauon where power required for testing is taken directly
from large power system and the breaker under tests is connected.
b) Laboratory type testing station where the short cirruit generators provide the
power for testing. The breaker may be tested dtrectty or indirectly.
c) Composite testing statiot1 which is a combination of field type testing stArion
and laboratory type ie.;ting station.
10.19.2 Layout of 1 Short Circuit Testing Station
It is represented in the Fig. 10.30. The short drcuit gencrntors provide the power
required. There mny be two or more generators though in the figure shown it ., only
ooe. Three phase Induction motor drives the g.;nerator and impulse cxdtation is
provided.
~"'·----·-
011¥•_.,___,,
M #
""'"
---
j----
1J. IJ. IJ. l.r - ....
···f- •••r-•f-......
II 11 11 f- II
-· - ~-·
••<>••-f·'~· --
+1
II 11 II II 11
11 11 II II I
I I I 11 J I I ' 11 4 : t l•Clto'f"
II 11 II It ti
ti
..
II 11 II II
II
'' .
11
..11 If
Fig. 10.30 Layout of short circuit test

11
~dlon and Switchgear 10. 50 Circuit Brealutrs
For odjusling mngnitud• of short drcuil current, vuiable sertes resi.tors and
readOrS are provided, The master circuit brenker has higher capaclty than the breaker
under test If breaker under test fails to operate. then master breaker operates to
prot<!<t the circuit. Making switch is a closing device specfolly designed wluch con
clooe at desired moment and carries the mal<lngcurrents.
The test voltages are obtained by transformers. These single phase units are
connected in various ways to get different test voltages. This also includes some
equipments necessary lor measurement, record and control, and auxiliary equipments
with a sequence switch to ob!<linsequential openotion.
10.19.3 Short Circuit Generator and Drive Motor

The circuit breakers under test are supplied power with this generator. The
generator must withstand high reactive power surges for short duration. Their design
is therefore somewhat different from conventional alternators.
The generator is driven by a three phase induction motor mounted on same shaft.
The impulse excih\tion is provided by separate d.e. converter. The short circuit current
at lagging power factor have a demagnetizing effect which reduces e.m f. So the
voltage before the short cirailt will be less. Thus the geneT•tor field current is boosted
by Impulse excitation. The firld current ls incrcoued to about 10 rimes its normal value
at the tim•• <>f short citcult. The arr3ngemciit of drcult Is shown In the Fig. 10.31.
8VS
v T S R
u, z.,
x, v, w,
•
I Mlldog ctn:u
'I
' ~
y
x, 1z.
u v, • w,
10.19.11 Sequence Switch

During short circuit testing. many operotions are performed In a sequence and
total time is very less to perform manual operation. A sequence switch performs the
sequential operations es it is a drum switch with several contacts which is rotated by
a motor. Due to rotation of drum. control circuits are opened or closed M per specific
sequence. The sequences for breaking capacity test in one test are as follows which
takes nearly 0.2 seconds.
l) Drive motor or short c:ircuit generator made o((
u) Impulse excitation switched on

iii) M•ster circuit breaker clceed
1v) Oscillogram dmdt conn«ted
v) Make switch closed
vi) Circuit breaker under test opened
vii) Master circuit breaker opened
viii) Excitor switched off and its field supressed
10.19.12 Different Me•surements

Since the test events tolc.<s v~ short time, all meuurements must be recorded by
ooollographs. Ught beam osdllograph which are easily operated arc used for slow
v•rying quantities like current, voltage, contact travel or trip signal etc. TRY
phenomenon requires only 1 msec. For recording such fast quantities. CRO is used.
The following quantities are recorded during the test.
i) Short circuit current in nch phase
ii) Voltage across each pole before, after and during short circuit
iii) Fluid pressure
1v) Cont.let travel speed
'') Generator voltage
VI) TRY
vu) Current in trip circuit
10.20 Indirect Testing

It is possible that the short circuit power that am be obtained from the testing
station may be insufficient to "'5t a breaker or high apadty. Even a single pole of a
EHV breaker cnn not be tested by direct meons.
Protection and Switchgear 10 -53 Circuit BreakMs
The EHV circuit breaker consists ol many an: interrupter units which are
separately tested called unit testing. If one unit ts tested, tile capacity of complete pole
and breaker is determined. This method of Unit Testing is adopted internationally.
Synthetic testing is another popular method which permits testing of breaker.
10.20.1 Unit Testing

The modern EHV circu_it breakers contains two or more similar interrupters per
pole. These interrupters operate simultaneously and share the voltage across the pole
equally. The breaking capacity is also equally shared. The results obtained on one unit
can be extended further for total apacity of breaker. This is known as unit testing or
element testing. It is internationally accepted method.
During the application of unit test. the voltage must be reduced by a factor b so
the corresponding Impedances are also reduced by b to get test voltage across the unit
by Iollcwlng expressioo,
I
where m • number o( units per pole and one unit b test«!
. ·-
a• -
m
n
where n units are tested
m
LA:t us consider the examples of a 3 pole, 220 kV breaker with 3 units per pole
220 • 127 kV
Voltage ocross one pole • J'j
a •
1 .
m •
m• 3
··- I
3
: . vcnege required for testing one unit • a x voltage per pole • 127 • '3I • 42.33 kV
l. and C of the test drcu.lt is •lso reduced to get same natural frequency as that or
direct testing.
In direct test,
Natural frequency, fn •
2x JLc
I I
In unit testing.
f. = 2x J aLx ~ = 2~ J LC
The natural frequency of TRV remains unchanged. Time sale also remains
unchanged.
-·
Test
Fig. 10.33 (a) Porollel current Injection method
..' ,,
"'
____ _. - -~ -- - - - - -- - --- - --- .... .. -1
...................... - , - I
v
Arc"°"-/
Fig. 10.33 (b) Parallel current Injection method wavefonno

ln this method the voltage circuit (2) ls effectively connected 1.n parallel with
current circuit (I) and test breaker before .min curmit le In test breaker cu~>nt is
properly simulated.
Protection and Switchgear 10 - 57 Circuit Breakers
are in opposition. The stresses produced in the synthetic test and those in actual
network must be same but it is not the actual case because or several factors like high
current, high voltage. lnstont ol applying volt.>ge etc.
10.21.3 Brown Boverl's Synthetic Testing Circuit

This circuit is shown in the Fig. 10.35. The short circuit current Is supplied from
low voltage circuit. The restriking and recovery voltage is supplied by different high
voltage ci rcu It.
HIGHCURREl'IT CIRCUIT---- ----HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT
"T
- 'c
co
s
1
_J!.
•1:-+-==-r-~-
'•
F
~
..L Cs
'-Oit•
0,.
V 8
_1' Re
..
Fig. 10.35 Brown.Soverl'o synthetic l•otlng circuit
The high current circuit on lell side ronslsts ol short circuit generator C, short
circuit transfonncr wlth resistor Re tllld capacitor Cc which controls 1'at1.1rll1 frequency
o( current. The short circuit power i5 supplied nt voltages Vs which corresponds to
about 30 kV which is smaller than recovery voltage required (or iesting. The recovery
voltage Is supplied by high voltage circuit on right side.
I
The test breaker and auxiliary breaker S, are opened together. Before the current
•
interruption takes place in breaker 8, the spark gap is triggered by control S. and
voltage V is applied to breaker 8. During final current zero only current iH /lows
through breaker B. Previously is = ic + iH which is interrupted by S, and breaker B.
But now breaker B has to interrupt only iH. Hence restriking voltage across breaker B
is given by HV circuit.
Review Questions
I Sl11lr lht- n'Yl11;re1t1l"t1t1 cf" cirnttl ~ Mil c.tpii:m tlw bait oclfon of c;rc1tit break.tr.
2. Stott 1ht rta,sifolio" of tirtwil blWlktT twtd on di/Jntnt foe.ton.
J £.xpli.tin t'-i• C0'1$tr11c-tlon nnd uJOrl:i-"f of •ir ~ ttrtUil btwaktr.
4, Wr1tf • n~1' 011 air btosJ cimol bt'ftlktr-.
S £xp"1111 pl11i11 tlrtak oil ci'rcu1'1 bmrltT.
6. Exptrln tvl'th tlM• l1flp of IN'J'IJ sirtdt tht amstrwctht md ~of mit1l1t11'm oil tirr111t brt'l'lt.tr.
PrC>toctlon and SWitch- 10. 58 Circuit Breakera
Wl•t aw ;ts .tn.H~ .nil difodPllntagrs,. mnrpami to bulk oil drc.wit bmlktT 1
J txp"'"' "' t1ntf rrou 1f1 '1111 pt.ainjtt txpl<lf''o"pot.
ll \\1'1111SF•XO'fISprtfrrttd111 Cttfllit brttrkffl 7
9. ~Vt1h.' 6t "°"(Hf flitltttt~ proptrriN of SF•• gt11.
Ill. Fvp1;Jo1 tJw nM11rwt• Md uiorkirig of SF, tircitil bmttrr
I J, Y\flldl art lldcwnt"S" ,.,w di#dtlflntRgrJof SF, brti1ktr 1
J2 (..ypktu1 tlK conflnKflDl'I. ruorl:ing, odmntlfgtJ 111d tltt tliudwnt.gtt I{ NC'llUIW c.ircuit brroktn.
13. t.xpfu111 thr GIT utltTnlpllOn t4':i11g pl1ter '" ~C'utlm.
14. tltt' ~
Wltat n" tlpplialtions of voc1111m circ.uil ~)
15. ~p4ifiu tM p.m:n;;s- of uc n:t1nttion in t~cu11m.
•
16. w,,,," llOlt on
j) Unir ttst1ng n> Syntlrtic tmrng
17. ~ribt ll:ort cirnrit WI 1'tyoul far a circuit br(Wirr.
JS. ~Vl1fJI tJrr tht Ji/fownl rat;ngs of cimtlt bmlkt,;: ? E.xplttin tmy ant in ktttil 1
19. Wrw 11 rrtllt on HVDC orcuit brMkrr.
aaa
Power System Earthing
11.1 Introduction
The eorthing or grounding is nothing bul the connecllon ol neutral poinl ol the
supply system to the general mass of earth in such a woy lhat immediate disdlargv of
electricity can take place without danger.
When grounding is provided then it ensures the safety of personnel againsl
electrical shocks and avoids accidents. The equlpmenl is also protected against
lightning and voltage surges. The voltage stress on lines is reduced along with that on
the equipments with respeet to earth under abnormal conditions. With earthing, the
earth fault currents a« controlled for protective reloys.
There are IWo ways in which the tbree phase syst•ms can be oporated. 1)...., are
viz. with isolated neutral and wllh earthed neutral
But presently isolated neutral syslem is not used as with such system during foult,
large transient voltages with magnitude several times that ol normal value is
produced which may cause breakdown of insulation. This results in damage of the
concerned equipment and interruption of the supply syslem. lnspile of this the
advantage of this sysh?m is under earth fauh on one ol the phases, the remaining IWo
healthy phases will continue supplying load for a shorter period.
11.2 Ungrounded or Isolated Neutral System

A$ lhe name indiates, the system neutral is not connected to the earth In this
system. Thus the neutral Is isololed from lhe earth. A simple Isola!«! neutral system is
shown in the Fig. 11.1.(a)
There is always capacitive coupling between conductors and earth which causes
capacitive currents to flow in the system. The line conductors have capacitance
between one another and to earth. The capacitance between conductors is represented
in delta while capacitance between conductor and earth is in star for 3 phases. A$ the
grounding characteristk:s ol the s}-stem are little affected by line capacitances. they can
be negleeted, ·
(11 . 1)
Protection and Swkchgtat 11 • 2
'""
lee
-.
Fig. 11.1
TI>0 C.lp•citonce to earth of each phase i$ uniformly distributed along its entire
length and for all the calculations thi$ capacitance is grouped lo fom\ a single
capacitor conoected between each phase and earth.. These currents lead thetr respective
voltages by 90" as shown in the phaser diagnm. Fig. I lJ {b)
For n J"'rfectly 1.-nsp<)S<•d line
Fult!ht to line v,
-. (~n101etricully bpaC\.."CI) the Cilpaciti,,c
currents ltto Ive 01nd '• ar,\ t.'(l\t,11 in
magnitude 41nd Jispli.'C\"d rr(l(l1 l',1ch
other by on angle of 120" In balanced
load condttien wtth symmetrical
spacing between conductors, the
potential of neutral will be equal 10
that of earth as shown in the Fig. 11.2.
Fig. 11.2 Pot•ntlal of each phaae to •ar1h The charging currents lac, lye and
belort 11ult foe arc balanced and their resuttant is
zero and no current nows to the earth.
R B Now let \IS consider the earth filult on
Y pbase My Of point I'. The
corresponding phase wtll be at earth
Neutral T potential while the remaining healthy
phases acquire line value from phase
E•l1h volllge value as shown in the Fig. 11.3.
The capacitive current will not
flow in this phase. Tbe potential of
neutral is not zero but ii is snifled
Fig .• 11.3 from e.irth pot<.'lltiol position to
po>ilion shown in the Fig I I .J.
Protection and Swltchsaear 11 -3 Power System Earthing
The circuit diagram and lhe corresponding phasor di.igr.1m during the fault is as
shown 1n the Fig. 11.4.
Ge:netetor
1•1 Clrcvtt ~,.,,, (bl PNsor d;.gram
Fig. 11.4
Under fault condition. the capacitive currents are unbalanced and the fault current
flows lt\rough. the faulty line, into the fault and returns to the system via earth and
through the earth capacitances C~ and C8• The current in Y line has two components
one rltC and other lee and the respective vollages driving these currents are VRv and
Vva and the phnse diffe~ between currents and voltages is 90" due tc capacitive
ruitu"' of the Impedance ol the circuit. The vector sum of l11e and foe glves foult
rurrent 1,.
Volt•g< IQ l'l\rth of R ph•9'! • .fj . v R
Voltage 10 earth ol B phase = J3 · V 8
v.v Jlv-
We have, = ·x;;z = Xe
Similarly we have,
,,- f''
----------------I
2 ' luc • Vvo • .fj V-
' '' Xac Xe
''
' Bolh V- and Xe are equal
'' ' and the l'auh current Is given by
'
1.::.:....;i::::,.i_ J.'' vector sum ol lac and foe ns shown
in lhe Fig. 11.5.
Fig. 11.5
Protection and Switchgear 11 ·4 P- Sptom Earthing
From the diagram,

COOi 30" • (I • I Ti
IJtC
1, ./3
-
2
a I•c. T
Ip • ./3 · IRC
Ip ~ ./3 . ./3v- Xe
3V-
... 1, =
Xe
From the above equation, it can be seen that the current flowing through faulty
phase is three times the normal line to neutral capacitive current flowing in each
phase or the healthy system.
The following observations can be _, from the above analysis
I. With an ungrounded neutral system. If there Is phase to earth fault then the
voltages or the healthy phases with respect to earth rise from normal phase to
neutral value townrds full line value which may result in insul.ation breakdown.
2. The capacitive current in the remaWng healthy phases Increases to ./3 times its
normal value.
3. The capacitive current in the faulty phase is 3 times its normal value.
4. A capacitive current llows into the earth. If its magnitude is in excess of 4 to 5
amperes then it i& sufficient to maintain an arc in the ioniz.ed path or the fault.
Thi& current ca.n remain even alter clearance or loult. This phenomenon of
pers1St:ant arc Is coiled arcing ground. The •ystem capacity will be charged and
discharged in cyclic order due to which high frequency transients may occur
which will cause hlgh voltages of the order of 5 to 6 times the normal value
may be present which results in insubtion breakdown. This may cause another
line to line fault because of insulation breakdown either on same circuit or on
anothtt circuit. Thus a minor fault also results in insulation breakdown and
interruption of supply.
Due to unbalance in capacitive currents during loult, discriminative type of fault
indicator can not be installeil. But the neutral shi~ indicator may be lnserted in the
•)'>tern which only indk•tes the O<X:\UTft1« of earth fault but does not give Its
location.
Ptvbic:Uon end Swttchgear 11·5
The advantages of OO!ated neutral includes the operation of w '}'Stem with single
line to ground fault Aleo the radio interference is minimiud due to absence of zero
sequence currenta.
In summary, the ungrounded system does not provide protection against earth
fault to adequate level with chances of Insulation breakdown because of which a
phase to phase fault may occur. Due to all these reasoos this system is not commonly
used in practice now a days. The earthed neutral system has many advantages due to
which it is preferred in modem power system installations.
11.3 Earthed Neutra.l System

In this system, the neutral is earthed either directly or through resistance or
roctance depending on the requirement. Thus the system neutral can be grounded
efhctlvely or non...,ffoc1ively. In eff~tlvely grounded system, tM neutral is grounded
directly and hence It is called toUd grounding. Following me1hods ore adopted for
non...,ff~ively grounded systems.
i) Resistance earthing
ii) Reactance earthing
iii) Arc supressloe coil or resonant earthing
iv) Voltage transformer earthing
v) Earthing t<ansformer
The advantages of neutral earthing are as follows,
i) The arcing grounda are prevented from occuring by employl.ng suitable
swlt.:hgears.
II) As the neutral poll\t is not shifted in this system, thus the voltages of healthy
phases remains nearly ccnstanl
iii) The static charges which are induced are grounded immediately and are thus
prevented from causing any disturbance.
iv) The faulty part of the system can be isolated from the remaining system with
the help of earth fault relays.
v) The magnitude of transient voltage is small in this system.
vi) The discriminative type fault indicator can be Installed on such systems.
\il) This system is more reliable, provides safety to personnel and equipment with
reduced operational and maintenonce cost than ungrounded system.
ProtKtion and Switchgear 11 • 6
11.4 Solid Grounding
ln this method or corthing, neutral is dl=lly cenoectcd to earth by • metallic
ronn..>clion or a wire or negligible resistance eod reactaece. The charging cu"""'ls now
through lh<' cystern under normal rondilion similar to ungrounded system.
Because of the connection of system neutral pcbu 10 earth, ii always remains at
t-ar!h potential at all operating conditions and under faulty conditions voltage o(
healthy phase will not exceed.
The sohd grounding is represented in lhe Fig. 11.6.
-
Iv
t1 I•• lly
-- --
; ' QC.,
L__ --~- ---~~'-:_1~- _I
(•) (b)
Flg. 11.6 Solid earthing

\o\'hc:never there is earth fault
on any one phase (phase B In this
case), the phase to earth voltsge of
•• foulty phase Is zero wh,le voltoge
'' to enrth of 1hc remaining two
''
hc.1lthy phases will be normal
phase voltages as neutral in this
rose is not shifted. The phaser
diagram corresponding to this
condition Is shown in the Fig. 11.7.
,, ly
Let the capacitive currents
Oowing in the healthy phases be Ia
and I,. the resultant capacitive
current Is vector sum of la and ly.
Flg. 11.7 Phasor dl1gr1m
The nltcrnator In addition to
o.1p.wih\c current atso provides the faull current 1,. This current nows from fault
pcl1nt lhmui(h faulty phase and then return to the alternator througt' earth and MUtral
Protection and Switc:htjl!at 11 - 7 Power Syslam Earthing
connectlon. The resistance of earth fault is negligible. The magnitude of fault current
after the nnnlysis Is given by,
3V P"
1, =
z, z,
+ + Zo
This current Is mainly dependent on zero sequence impedance of the source of
power and that of phase conductor upto fault point As the resistive component of
zero sequence impedance is normally negligible, the fault current which is large can
be assumed as lagging the faulty phase voltage by 9<1'. From the phaser diagram, it
can be seen that 1, and le are exactly opposite due to which capacitive current is
neutralised by high fault current which eliminates the possibility of arcing grounds
and cvcrvctteges. The discriminative types of swltchgears may be used in this method.
Followins are diSl>dvantages of thi• method,
i} Due to high value of fault currents. the S)"'lem may become unstable •nd there
will be greater lnterferenct" to neighbouring circuits. Thus this method IS
employed where system impedance I$ sufficiently large to limit foult current.
ij) With high vetoes of fault currents, circuit breakers are difficult to handle and
heavy contacts are to be provided in the circuit breakers.
The above disadvantages can be overcome by employing high rupturing capacity
and high speed circuit breakers along with fast operating relays.
This method is used in high voltage systems with voltages below 33 kV with tobl
capacity not exceeding 5000 kVA for the economic reasons.
11.5 Reslstanc:e Earthing

In the ca..,. where ii Is neces!lary to limit the fault curront then the curNnt
limiting element must be Inserted In die neutral and earth. One <lf the woys of
achieving this ts the use of resistance earthing where one or more resistances are
connected between ~ttal and earth. The resistor may be either or wire or water
oolumn resistances for voltages of 6.6 kV and above, Metallic resistors do not change
with tjme and requires little maintenance. But owing to its inductive nature they have
disadvantage with overhead lines exposed to lightning as impulses or the travelllng
waves are subjected to positi,•e reflection and cause stress on insulation resulting in its
breakdown, Liquid resislors are free from these disadvantages and hove simple and
robust construction.
As shown in the Fig. II .8(a) let the earth fault occurs on phase 8. The
corresponding phasor diagram Is shown In the Fig. I l.8(b). The cepacnivc currents la
and ly now through the healthy lines. The fault current not only depends on the zero
sequence lmpt.'<lancc of the soerce but atso on the reslstantt In the earth drcult This
fault current con be resolved into two components one inphasc with the faulty phase
Protection and Switc!?Q!ar 11 -8 Poww Syswm Earthing
voltage and other logging the faulty phase voltage by 90". This lagging oomponcnt of
current is in phase opposition to capacitive current and it changes with change In
value of earthing resistance. Thus the value or this resist.tnce Is deslgnt'<l In such a
woy th"t during foult on any phase, a current equal to full load curren! of largest
alternator or transforTnCr flows In earth resistance whkh will keep the ovcrvcuages
within limits. With fault current fogging component equal to cap<ldttve current the
system operation rs similar to solidly earth system and no transients occur due to
arcing ground.
- _,.,
>
• ' 7 ti __ .-,I
-- !
,I
1
-
IF
Fa.Iii-
,I~
11
T
;
..
...
y.
I
y
(bf - c11og....,,
Fig. 11.8
With high value of earthing resistance and low value of reactive CUITent than the
capaottve current then SfSlem oondltlons approeeh to that of ungrounded 1y1tem with
chances of transient .,,;tt
voltages to occur. The line to earth voltage of the healthy
ph•St'!I at the time of fault is little more than line to earth voltage of the solidly
grounded system operating under similar conditions. The duration of this voltage can
be reduced by using suitable protective switchgears to avoid any harmful effect that
may be caused.
The value of resistance to be inserted in earth circuit is given by,
R VL
; ,/J.J
where VL : Line to Line voltage

: Full load current of largest oltemator or transformer
The advantages of this system ere as follows,
I) Tho discriminative type of swltchgeors may be uHd foe prottttion.
2) The h•zard! due 10 arcing grounds are mlnlmlzed.
3) The lnRuence on neighbouring communication dmllts Is mlnlm!Zed due to
lower value of fault current flowing 'through earth as oomparcd to that in case
of solidly grounded system.
ProtKtlon and Sw1tcha•at 11 . 10 Power Sy1tem E•rthlng
t>Olated neutral system along wilh reduced possibahty o( nrcang grounds •nd
nun\Cl'Ous other advantages,
It ooouists ol a coil called Peterson coil or Ground fault neutrali7...,r or arc
supression coil whose function is to
make arcing urth faults sell extinguishing and in
the case o( sustained faults to reduce the earth current to low value so that system can
suppl)' power with one line earthed.
This system works on ttW'" principle that \Vhen inductance and capecnaece are
conoccted In parallel, resonance takes place between them and because of the
cl'llltactcristioi: ,,f resonance, the taul1 ('Urrent ls eedeced or ('.t11 be nl"l1tr\1l1J.:ed
The system with fault on ph•"" IJ Is shown 1n th<' fig 11 10("). The """''('Onding
rh;wr diagram Is shown an the Fig. 11. JO (b)
I •v tc
Faul
'''
-! '
/'
\- -- - - - ,_ -- -- -- __ ,,t
j
,,
(a) Circuit Representation (b) Phasor diagram
Fig. 11.10 Resonant grounding

An an: supresslon coil is an ieon-cored reactor similar to oil Immersed trans(onner
CX>lln«ted between neutral ol •ystem and ceeth. This roll Is provided with number o(
tappangs so that It can be tuned with the capacimnce whach may vnry due to varying
operational conditions.
As the system operation 1$ similar to isolated neutr•I system, the phase to earth
voltage of healthy phase is J3 times the normal phase voluge and the resultant
capacitive current ls 3 dmes the oormal cluirging current of one phase. The resultant
capacitive current will lead by 90" with fa&llty phase voltage while the fault current
lags by 90" with faulty phase voltage.
Now we have, Ip = le at eesoeance
v,,. . I 3Vp1o
tF • XL ~ c• Xe
Protection and swttc.hgear II· 11 • Power Sptem Earthing
... -·
v""
X1.
3 Yph
Xe
Xe
XL.
T
I
.,L •
3WC
1
L =
3u>2C
lhere is one problem with the above method. As the operating conditions vary,
the c•pdatanre of the network also vary. This can be overcome by using a tapped coil.
The .ippropnate t>pplng Is required to be wed lor each ol the change an the network
ronditM)l'b. Ttw current rnth1g O( the roil is givt'n by,
3v,.,
1"
• Xe
Tbe time rating
of coils used in syslll'ms where earth faults are located and
removed is around ten minutes. In other systems continuous time rated roils are used.
The an: supression coil is shown in the Fig. II.II.
C.T
Fig. 11.11
The roil i• tapped in order to .. lect the reacta.nce depending upon the length of
transmission line and the capacitance to be neutrallud. The arc supresston coil is
connected between neutral and ground.
1,
1he reactance of the roll can be evaluated by using the e•pression L •
3.. c
Prol9ctlon and Switcn11oar 1t -12 Pow.r System Earthing
The rating of the coil is continuous and equol to lhe maximum earth foul! current,
If o double phase to ground fault or another ground fault occurs, the current nowing
through the coil is more. This can be prohibited with closing of a circuit breaker after
certain time lag. The earth fault current nows through the parallel circuit by passing
the arc supression coil. Here the drc.u.it breaker Is nonnally open and closes after the
closure of relay tripping circuit by passing arc supression roil
This method of neutral grounding is used in medium vol~ige overhead
traMmission line which arc connected to system generators through intermediate
power transformers. This is because the hlgher insulation requirement on lhe
apparatus essocteted with arc suprcsslon roll grounding system Is easily incorporated
in power lmnsformers than in generntors. Also the overhead lines are usually
subj;,cted to earth faults due to lightning. Hence protection is required.
11.8 Voltage Transformer Earthing

In this system of earthing. the neutral point is earthed through a single phase
voltage transformer. The system thus acts as an insulated neutrnl system. A very high
reactance earthing is provided due to the voltage transformer.
The connection diagram is shown In the Fig. l l.12.
Suroe
'I
I °('•"o'
,-4-'llSlll'-~+-1rr--
1A I ly
ly
Fig. 11.12
The voltage transformer shown ln the above figure measures the voltage so that
earth fault on the system is Indicated. The travelling waves passing through the
machine winding are reflected through voltage transformer. A surge divertor is used
between neutral and earth to avoid the rise of voltage.
The voltage transformer is used normally ln generator circuits which are directly
connected to step up transfonners. The generator circuits are physically isolated from
the main distribution system. The electrostatic capacity of the circuit Is negligible as
the interconnecting cables between the generator and transformer windings are
normally short. The risk of overvcuage condilions arising due to arcing ground is
eliminttted.
ProCac:tion and Switchpar 11 • 13 PowerSpwm Earthing
11.9 Earthing Transformer

When the transformer! or generators are delta connected or if the neutral points
are not a«essible then artl!iclally the neutral earthing point can be creai..d with the
use of star connected earthing transfonncr. Such transformer has 1'10 secondary. Each
phaH of primary has two equal parts. There are three limbs and ""ch llmb has two
windings providing opposite Oux during normal condition. Such a transformer I•
R y e R y B
p -
-_o-
(1) Winding of an •arthlng tranafomMr (b) SctMmatlc arr..-.,gement of

winding of•n •nterconnec .. d aw
conntelt-d ••rtNnt trensfonn.,.
Fig. 11.13
One set of windings arc connected In star providing the neutrol point. The other
mds of this set of windings are connected to the second set of windings as shown In
the Fig. 11.13. The directions of the currents In the two windings on each limb att
oppo1ire 10 each other. The •mall excillng current Is circulated In lhe windings during
normal ope?11tion. Under faulty condition, the transformer offers a low impedance
"""' to the Oow of zero phase sequence currents. The value of fault curttnt Is limited
in some cues by the U$CO of a resistor In series with the neutral earthing connection.
This Is necessary in S}"tems with operating voltage between 2.2 kV and 3.3 kV.
n.- transformers are of sho.rt time ratings in the ra.nge of 10 seconds to I minute
Hence the siz.e of these transformers is small ns compared to power lTansformers o(
same rating. II Ille earthlng transformer Is not available then a star-delta transformer is
used.
Ptotoction ond Swltd!s!!at 11 • 1•
11.1 O Resistance of Grounding Systems
The ground resistance o! an electrode sysrem is nothing but the resistance between
the system of electrodes and other inlinitely large electrode in the ground at infinite
spacing. The ground resistance is also- decided by soil resistivity which is
electro-physical property. The soil resistivity depends on various factors such as type
of soil, moisture content, dissolved salt etc. It is also affeeted by grain size and ils
distribution. The temperature and pressure are the other factors which have influell(e
on soil resistivity.
In practice it is not possfbie to have homogeneous »Oil. The epparent resistivity is
h•n« defined for an equivalent homogeneous soil.
The moisture content in the soil is a.lso a variable factor which changes with
5et\SQ11s. With increase in moisture content, resistivity of soil reduces. To overcome this
difficulty, the grounding systems may be installed near to the permanent water level
so that d1e change in resistivity due to change in seasons is minimized.
With decrease in temperature, the soil resistivity increases and the discontinuity is
observed at freezing poinL The quantity or salt dissolved in the moisture reduces the
resistivity appreciably. Various salts have difforent effects on the soil resistivity. With
finer graining. the raistivity of SOii reduces whlle the large value ol pressure
decreases soil resistiviry.
The vnri•tion o( 11<nl resistivity with moisture and .. it content Is shown in the
Fig. 7.14 (•)and (b).
I
Resistivity
t
RasistMty
p(O-m) o(O-tnJ
l•I
-(%) -
(b)
Percentage_..
of salt
content
Fig. 11.14 Vwlatlon of aoll rul1tlvity with mol1twe ind 1aH content
Protection and Swill?l!jj!ar 11 • 1S Poww System Eorthlng
Realatance of Grounding Point E.lectrode

Consider a hemispherical electrode buried ln the soil as shown in the Fig. 11.15 (a)
which Is •implest possible form of electrode.
t
V,e.l
v
(a) (b) ·-
Fig. 11.15
The total resistance in this case can be divided into three parts which ore viz.
I) resistance of conductor ti) contact resistance between the surface of electrode and
main body of earth which is negligible iii) resistance of body of earth surrounding the
electrode whidl is the main part.
Let I be the current dissipated by the electrode. This current spreads out radically
In the earth. At a distance x from the centre of hemisphere the current density is given
by,
i • I
2,,,.2
The electric field strength e due to current density i is given by,
• pI
e = p1c-
2x-x2
The line integral of the field strength e from the surface of sphere of radius R to
the distance x gives the voltage V.
'
V = Je.dx=J-P_.,e.._
2nxl
' I
---
2n C x
l[l l]
e e
The variation of e, V and i with respect to distanO? xis shown in the Fig. 11.15 (b).
The voltage between the hemlspherlcal electrode and a point at infinity Le. x • oo
is given by,
v • pl
2.c
Protection and Swltch{l!11t 11·18 Power System Earthing
The earth resistance is therefore given by,
vI 2•C
R • -•- "
11.10.1 Generalised Equation
Consider a system with two electrodes hav,ing their potentials as V1 and V2. Let V
be the potential at any point in the medium having resistivity as p. Let '+' be
electrostatic potential.
l BV
The current now nonnal to surface at any point of the electrode is - .-
P en
Total flow of current from th<- electrode in the outword direction Is,
1JJ'1van·ds
-;; s p1IJa'an·ds
+'
Here ds is an element of the electrode surface.
If Q is the charge on this electrode then 6y .Gauss theorem.
-n:~ -ds •• •Q
The total now of current ls given by,

I • 4nQ
p
If C is the capacitance between the electrodes in air then
.,,, - 'i'2 ; v, - v,. Qc
R Ls the resistance between the electrodes which is given by,
R • V1-V2
I
.2(..L)
C 4nQ
• ..L
4.C
Suppose C is the capacitance of the single electrode with the return electrode at
infinity then R is the resistance of earth for single electrode.
If we consider a sphere of radius S then the capacitance of sphere In alr ls equal to
radius S.
R • _£_
4xS
If this elecrode is hemispherical and buried with its lower hall In the earth then
the resistance is given by,
R • .s:
2cS
Protection and s·wttchgear 11 . 17 Power Syslem Earthing
ln general the equation for any electrode is given by.
R c L
2ttC
where C is the electrostatic capacity of the electrode along with its image above
the surface of the earth. The combined electrode is considered as in air.
11.11 Resistance of Driven Rods

The most simple and cheap form of
electrodes is nothing but driven rod. It ts shown
in the Fig. I l.16 with its length as I and dlamcter
d with its im'1gc. lt can be considered equivalent
to an ellipsoid or revolution with a mriior axis
v~ry much large as compared to minor axis.
The cap•city of rod and its image is
c .__.!!__ R_!_
I 2111-41 /,,_41
cl d
l
--1 d 1--
TI1c earthing rcslstance of driven rod is given by
R• e._111 41
Fig. 11.16 2nl d
Poe the cylindrical rod with hemisphere end
the above expresslon becomes,
p 21
R = -/11-
2n/ d
An alternative expression (or the resistance or driven rod is obtained by using
uniform current dissipation method and Is given by,
R • L(1,.81-1)
2nl d
From the expression ror resistanceof driven rods, it can be sC<"n thnt, the earthing
resistance is inversely proportional to length /.
Generally resistance of single rod is not sufficient. Hence number of rods are
connected in parallel. It is necessary to minimize the overlap among the areas or
influence of the rods. This ts possible by keeping Jorge distance between the rods. It is
difficult to achieve this in practice and approximate method is used.
Protection end Sw1t<:hg!ar 11 • 11 PowerSyatem Earthing
Jn lhis method, o rod is repteccd by hemispheric electrode h'1ving same resistance.

If n rods are connected in parallel then their resistance is greater lh•n ( ~ ) of that of a
single driven rod due lo the mulual screening.

The screening coefficient 'I for n electrodes in parallel is defined as.
Resistance of one electrode
'l = (Resistana? of n electrodes in pareUel) • n
11.12 Grounding Grids

The low ground resistance in case of high voltage substalions can be obtnined with
the use of interconnected ground grids- In n typical grounding grid system, a number
of interconnected bare solid copper conductors are buried al a deplh of 0.3 to 0.6 m
and spaced in a grid pattern, It provides common earth for all devices and metallic
structures in the substation.
At each of the junction point, the conductors are bonded together. This system is
usually supported by a number of vertical rods about 3 m long at some jolnts.
If • is cross-sectional area of copper, in circular miles. t is the fault duration in
seeonds, Tm Is the maximum allowable temperature and T, ls the ambient temperature
then 111<> size ol grid condU<.'Ol'I eequtred whldl prevents !using under the fault
current is gi\rcn as,
a e 761
1 In 234+Tm
234 +To.
If lhe grid depth is less than 0.25 m then the earthing resislan<e of the grid is
given by,
R•£f!+£
4 v• L
Here R • Cnd resistance in ohms
a = Ground area occupied by grid in m'
L = Total length of buried conductors in m
Bui when the grid depth is gre•ter than 0.25 m then earthing resistance is given
by,
R. p t•-b[1+-;:-;pjl
,j20A l+h 20
A
l
ProtectJon and SwitehR••r 11 . 19 Power Sy11em Earthing
TI•c effective grounding of the equipment is possible through the grid. Also the
'olta11c !lr.tdinnt at the surface of the earth can be conlT"Olled at safe value for human
contacts \Yitll the addition O( ground rods, the ground resistance further reduces when
soil resistivity in the upper layer is more than the soil underneath
.
11.13 Design Principles of Substation Grounding Syst.em

The most Important factor in the substation is its grounding. The system neutral is
connected to the ground through grounding. The dlsch•rgt' path for surge arrestors
and s.1foty of operating personnels can also be achieved through grounding.
The grounding gives low resistance path to earth and reduces rise In ground
potential which Is depersdent on magnitude of fault current and resistance of
grounding system. The low resistance for substation ground can not be obmlned in
deserts arid rocky areas.
The convenient way for getting proper ground connection is through grids. If the
ground rods are used in addition then it reduces the ground resistance. Depending on
the size of the substation, nature of soil and the grounding resistance required, the
size of grid and number a.Jong \\'ith length of driven rods can be deternuned,
Under the fault condition. the potential of eorth and its gradient over the surface
out from the electrode Is dependent on the ground resis~1nre. The systems with high~r
values for maximum ground rault current, it Is not possible to have lower vn1uc§ for
ground resistance so as to have nse in grounding system potent"') to safe value.
The practical solution for grounding nt substation yards Is through grid or mot.
The grid consists of a number of meshes and connected to several earth electrodes
driven at intervals.
The total number of electrodes required is determined by using the expression
L-
N umeer of e1ectrod
· es : Maximum Fault Current
500
The grounding resi>t.1~ for • grounding grid or 11\3t is calculated from the
following expression,
o =p'+P•
•-g 4r L
Here pf is resistivity of soil in 0-m, L is total length of buried conductor ht metres

and r is radius of circular plate in metres.
The size of grounding conductor should be appropriate so as to have therm.ii
st.lb11ity for ground fault current and it should be mechanically strong. The minimum
c<OM 5""tlon lor the grounding conductor havlng required thermal stability is
determined from 1he following e•presslon,
Protection and Switchgear '1-20 Power System Ellrthlng
where 111 is f:iult current i.n amperes while t ls time i.n seconds for the operation of
protective relays Including drcult breaker tripping time. C is a constant. Its value is 711
fllr Sf\."CI hnvin,g temperature rise of 400"'C while for copper with temperature rise of
3()()'1C, its value is 165.
The minimum •iZC requlred for proper mKhankal strength In case or steel is
61 mm'. FM copper it Is 107.2 mm' while in case of aluminium It Is 195 mm1•
In case nl grounding conductors made up of steel, Its size should be checked for
corroslo». If the soil Is moderately or severely COfT08ive then the steel strip or
mlnirnum thickness 6 mm and minimum cross section area should be 200 mm2.
The earthing grid system is normally extended over the total substation yard and
in few cases, several metres beyond it The grounding conductors should hove low
impedance. They should be able to c:any prospective fault current without getting
(used or damaged. They must take ao:ount the future expansion of connected power
system.
,_., Examp•e 11.1 : Dctcnr1i1fe tJie inductJri'Jaof PdcfS()tt coil to bt connected between tire
neutral nnd gro111rd to Mutroliu IM charging nmml of werhead line hav;ng tire line
IQ vo1111d caµacilam:r of 0.15 ,.F. If IN st1pp/y frttruntcy is Sil Hz and the Dp<!rating
wltnge is 132 kV, Find llJC kVJI rating of tltt cor1.
Solution : hi case of Peterson coil we have,

I
L •
3,,,•c
(.&) • 2 n r ~ 2 )( • x so. 100 )c • = 314.159 r/s
c- 0.15 µF • 0.15 x 10-• f

1
I. •
3x(314.159)' x(O.ISxlO-<)
I. • 1
0.0444 • 22.51 H
v'...
kV A rating of coil = rot
Prote<:tlon ond Swltchll!or 11 • 21 Pow., Sr1t1m E1rthlng
v,,.. • Js . 132JiO'
• 76210.23 Y
(76210.23)'
kYA roting of roil = 821·29
314.159x 22.51 =
,,... Example 11.2 : In a SO Hz 0tttthl't1d line, lht capacitancr of OM line to enrlh was
1.6 JIF. It wos d«ided I.a use an earth fault 1~utrtiliuT. Oilr:ulatt Ilic reactana to
nt"Ulrnliu lht capoatana of i) 100% of th< lengt/1 of "'" 11) 90% of the le1111th of 11.,
line iii) 95% of I~ length of I~ lint.
Solution : ro • 2 • f • 2 • x 50 • 100 • • 314.159 r/s
C = l.6µF= l.6x 10-6F
i) fur 1()0% length of the line
\Ve have inductance of Peterson coil given by,
L = I = I = 2.11 H
3«>2C 3(314 .159)2(t.6x10 .. )
The inductance required to neutralize is 2.11 H
XL • 2 • fL • m L • (314.159) (2.11)
Xe= 663.14n
il) Capacitance for 90% of the length of the line ls
1.6 x 0.9 = 1.44 µF= 1.44 -c 10-6
I 1
l_nd uctence, L = • ~~~=---~~
3.,>c 3(314.159)' (l.44•tO .. J
... L•2.34H
Inductive Re~ctance, X1 •co L • (314.159) (2.34) • 736.82 n
iii) Cepacltance for 95% of the length of the line is,
1.6 x 0.95 = 1.52 µF = 1.52 x 10·.
1
Inductance, 2 2·22
L = 3 o>2C = 3(314.159)' (t.52x to-') H
L=2.22H
Inductive Reactance, Xe • m L = (314.159) (2.22) = 698.()4 n
Prot1c:llon and SwltchQ!or 11 • 22 Power S~atem Earthing
Review Questions
J l:l·11lffi11111 br,ij 1solatt'd nt11tl'IJI syunti
2 Wf1at "" lhr odr1intasrs of nrvtral Mrthlng 1
J State tlit ntt'thods ltdopkd fw nctt>efltdit~ty gro11ndtYI l;'Stt'IM.
4. ~\"fiat do yttu ,,,.....,. 6y t/fc(tir:rtly ground1.-'tland nori-fjfectmrlygrovn.JtJ systmtS ?
S Wrltl• n 1101r 011 sdlil f'O"ndillg
6. £.rp/11111 tN.istona twrth'Jt8·
7 WJu1t lft~ tlN• ddrw1tf'SfJ oJ mktonctNrl11ing ?
S I 11>11• m1rt1111tt t'tJl1h11'$ rs Mlt11t1\'ll l
9 Writ,• a 11011" on t'l"':fo(Mlnt tteNtnd1n:<
JO 0.-rn\" tlii- txprr'l>iof1 far tit< MK'tlllltt (I/ the Pct"'1CN1 eot1.
IJ £.rpla111 ''"' r11Qrb·nx of arr S11prrssKJncall.
12. Write slrort not.-s on i) roltagt tmnsforrner rnrtliing ii} &trt.hiltR tn.nsfcwmrr.
?J. What art tl1~ twriou.sf«torJ on Z'hidt 5'Jil rtsisJiiitt.v Mptnds ?
14. Wr1t1" n 11ott on grourtdutf SridJ·
15. E.xpl11i11 lltt ptittC'tplts of dnig,, of Jub!lt•tion RN>1tndlng.
J(J A .13 k\1, J /lhflSc', 50 Hz oa-rlwd r;,.,. SO hr lorig ''"' • °'fW'lirtt« tr1rtl1 tin,. ~uni Jo 0.01' ]'F
1'4'' k111.
(6,75 l'I, 169.3 kVAI
J7. 111 i? 50 H:, o:""""1td liw. rlt.- mpoc{tnna of""" /Irie to tWrth tilW 1.5 JtF. It tt105 dc"Cldl'ii to U$f o:n
c'drtl1 fault nn1trolr:n. Otlcu.la~ tN MIC'hlrlCt' to 1aeutn1lkr llw atp«ita1t(t of i) IOCNl. cf tbt
lt'ngtli of tlk• linr ;;) ~ of tM lnigth of tbe line iii) 95% of tllr lmffh of tlte li11t
«n 2.25 H (iii 2.5 H (iH) 2.37 Hl
1S Ot.-t,.r,,1111t the ml1.e of Mk"Hnct' to br am11tc.tnl 1n tlv trntral ronntttio11 to 111"11tmli2 tht
tllfltK.tt<llfrecurm1t of• ~ liM to ground arpadtana of tndt /,n, n.Junl to O.OJS ,,;, Tiv
fn.'q111•nr11 1s 50 H-z.. (22.6 H)
DOD
Protection Against Overvoltage
12.1 Introduction
The voltage waves having magnhudc more 1han ils normal value and \vhich
rem:ains (or ti very shon duration are called O\'ervoltage surges or transient
overvoltnges. For nny electrical equipment, Its insulation requirements are decided by
these transient overvoltages.
The overvoltages in the system occur due to various reasons such as lightning
surges, switching surges. faults and travelling waves. There is high rate of rise and
high peak value in transient overvoltages which is dangerous for the Insulation and
henee proteetlon is required against these overvonages,
12.2 Lightning Phenomenon

A lightning stroke on any overhead line or on outdoor equipment causes
lightning surges. Before studying the protection against ti- lightning surges, let us
smdy the mechanism of lightning.
An electrical disc.harge in the air between clouds, between the separate charge
centres in the same cloud or between cloud and the earth is nothing but lightning. It
produces the large 5J>"rlt accompalli<>d by the lighL Th;s discharge of electricity
through the air from the clouds under turbulent ronditions is always abrupt and
discontlnucus. The serious ha1,.rds moy take pleee sometimes I( this discharge
tttmiMte 01"1 the earth,
Th•re ore various thrones which explain the potentials required for lightning
strokes, are built up. However we will assume thnt because of some process taking
place In the atmosphere under the turbulent conditions there is accumulation of
charges in the clouds, With the dielectric medium as the air the cloud and the ground
form plates of a capacitor. If the lower part of the cloud is negatively charged, the
earth is positively charged by induction.
For lightning discharge to take place, it requires hreakdown of air between the
cloud and the earth. With increase in the charge, the potential between the cloud and
the earth Increases. AJ o result of this the potential gradient m the air increases. The
(12 • 1)
Protection and Switc-h9ear 12. 2 Protection Against Overvolta~
potcnliol grndlent required for the breakdown of air is JO kV/cm pcok. Uut there••
large motsrure content in the air and because of lower pressl1re al high altitude, the
breakdown of air takes place at 10 kV/cm. The process o( lightning discharge is
.-
.....
-
..... .. ; .
'77'7:,,..,'7'7l>?'.'7:,,..,'7'777,,
• • • • •
..
. . . .. .
;
-. . . ... .
~
.
- .---'
• .•
;.- .. .. . •
'
l<t
- .-
--
-s:«:
.... ---
- -
-
- -- - •.
•. '
•
• • • • •
• • • • • ..' .. -. ' ' . ••
•
(d} l•t
'
Fig. 12.1
When charge increases there is difference in potential between cloud and earth
which also increases resulting in increase of potential gradient of air which is
noo-unlfonnly distributed. The potential gradient is more al the centre of charge in the
cloud. This gradient appears •l"tOSS some part ol the air and when ii is more then
breakdown strength of air, this olr breaks down. A streamer c•lled pilot slreamcr or
leader streamer starts from cloud towards the l!ilrth and carries the charge with It as
shown ln the Fig. 121 (a). TIU the time the cloud through which this stream is
initiated supplies enough charge to maintain the potential gradient at the tip of the
leader streamer above the breakdown strength of air. the leader streamer continues to
travel towards the earth. iVith the loss of this gradient, the streamer stops without
reaching to the earth. The charge dissipated without forming the complete stroke. The
lightning stroke may start with the potentials or the order ol S• 106 v 10 20• 10• V
between cloud and earth while the current of the leader stre<tmer is low, typically IOM
than 100 A and its propagoHon velocity Is 0.05 'Yo or thot or velocity or light.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 3 Prot.c:tion Agolnst Overvoltoge
Mnny times the streamer travels towards the earth until it '" reached to the earth
or some object on earth. As the initial streamer moves towards earth, it is
accompanied by potnts of luminescence which travel in jumps giving rise to stepped
leaders. In one step the dislan<e travelled is about 50 m while the velocity of stepped
leader exceeds one sixth of that of light. The stepped leaders results in first visual
phenomenon of discharge.
The elcctrostanc field and potential gradient at earth's surface is high as this
streamer reaches IQ the earth. When it becomes sufficiently large Ulen a short upward
streamer called return streamer rises form the earth as shown In the rig. 12.1 Cc).
When the contact tlf leader ls made \\ itJ1 the earth then a sudden spark n111y be
1
appeared Thls contod is similar to closing of n switch between two opposite ch.,ges.
the downward lender wllh negative charge and upward streamer with positive charge.
Due to this sudden sparks appearing which causes the most neutralisation of negative
charges on the cloud. This is called lightning. Any further discharge from U1e cloud
must be ongirwred fonn other portion of IL
When lightning occurs then it is associated with high current followed by lower
current ior significant duration as the charge in the cloud is neutralised. The upward
stttJmcr carries high current with a speed of propagation of about 30 m/ usec which
is foster than the speed of the leader streamer. The current rises sharply within
rmcroseconds and then decays slowly compared to its rise. This Is similar to discharge
o( a c.npadtor through J circuit but ii is not periodic. The experiments conducted in
the laboratories show that when the charge in the channel is near exhaustion, there is
smooth transition in current into its low value which is assodeted with the remaining
charge in the cloud.
When Ilic stf<"'mcr reaches the earth and much of charge in the cloud from which
it was originated, is neutralised then potential pertaining to point of charge centre
reduces. Rut there may exist high potential between this onginal charge centre and
other charge centres, Due to this. there mny be discharge from other charge centres
into the ""'!lion where the le.lder streamer was "rig.inated Thus subsequent dilldlt1rgcs
rakes pince alongwith the original stroke to the earth. Many strokes can be observed
which contains more than one current peak which are called multiple or repetitive.
Scpatt1re peaks are termed as components.
In summary we can say that lightning is a phenomenon of breakdown of air and
discharge which CM be seei;i by eye as a single flash but contains number of separate
strokes that travels with same path practically. The variation ol time interval between
them is .from 0.5 msec to 500 msec. 87 % of the lightning strokes originate from
neg;irively charged douds while remaining 13 'Y. originate from positively charged
clouds. Lightning disduorge current magnitude hes an the range of 10 kA 10 90 kA.
Protection and Switchgeor 12 ••
Some values for the lightning stroke are given below in the Table 12.1 (or the
inform•tion:
v.-_ 200 W(peok)
Q.nent 10 I090kA(disclwge)
-
Cluf'llion 10 ta sec
S" 1CJll kW
E'*VY 22 ~Wh
T1bl1 12.1
We should also con51der the case or statically induced charges and various
lightning strokes. ~Vhen • charged clouds come above the conductor, the charges are
statically induced on the conductor which are released by travelling either side in the
form of travelling waves when clouds go away from their place. These surges are not
prevented by earthwire.
It can also be S<!Cn that the paths travelled by lightning strokes are unpredictable
in certain cases. Usually these strokes try to travel and reach to the earth. These
strokes are Interrupted by lightning rods, trees, toll •nuctures etc. But somt'tlmes
these strokes does not obey any rule and travels horizontally in all sorts of haphazard
fashion.
B type strokes originate due to sudden change in charge between two clouds. As a
result of this there is sudden change in charge in other (third cloud In Its vicinity)
cloud which discharges to the earth. This B type strob does not hit lightning rod or
earth wire. Thus overhead lines can not be protected against such strokes.
12.2.1. Waveform of Lightning Current

A generalized waveform lor
I lightning current is shown In the
Fig. 12.2.
Croat
II consists of n peak Vlllue
called crest. The time taken by
the wave to reach this peak is
called front time. The time span
£rom origin to a point where is
the voltage or current has
decayed to one hair of its peak
value is represented by T1
Fig. 12.2
-
Time
Protection and Switchgear 12. 5 Protection Against Overvottage
Time T1 varies from I to 10 µstt while T2 varies lrom 10 to 100 I'S<-'<· 25 % <>I the
lightning strokes carry current less thon 10 kA. 86% >trolws are with currents less
than 50 kA. In case or I I'll. strokes the current lies m between SO and 100 kA.
White 2 'ro strokes carry cuereet in between 100 and 150 kA. Only 0.5 '). strokes carry
currents more th<>n 150 kA whereas the measured highest value is 400 kA. The total
duration or lightning in some strokes may be up to l second.
12.3 Types of Lightning Strokes

There are two main types ol lightning strokes that appear on various equipments
on the power system. They are viz. Direct Stroke and Indirect Stroke. Direct stroke
m>ly .lppear on line cond\1ctor,. on tower top or on the ground wtre indirect stroke
nrny nppcar on overhead hne conductors.
12.3. 1 Direct Stroke on Overhead Conductors

These strokes are most dangerous as their e((ects are most severe and harmful. ln
this type of stroke. the discharge or the current path is directly from the cloud to the
overhead line. From the line, the current path may be over the insulators down the
pole to the ground. The voltage set up is in millions which can cause nosh over and
puncture of insulators. 11\e tnsulators 1nay get shattered till the surge is sufficiently
dissipated and 11 travels to both sides. The wave may reach to the substation and
damage the equipments because of excessive stress produced.
II a overhead line conductor is struck by lightning then the rise in voltage at the
point Is given by,
V, • 1-.•!:fz
1...,.. r current In the lightning stroke
z, ; surge impedance or the line.
22t.
The term is used in the above expression as the charge on tht" conductor flows
to the both sides of the conductor in the form of travelling waves.
II we consider z,: 1000 n, l""""Q 40 kA as representative figures then voltage
developed will be,
1~)
V, : ( 40xJO' )( • 20x 106 ; 2x 101 volts
This Is the amount or voltngc thnt Is produced during • stroke, If this lightnlng
stroke "ppcnrt at a point a"'"Y from a substation or g~rating station then tl\i8
overvoltage and the current nows along the line In both the dir«tfons shattering the
Protection and Switchgeair 12 -6 Protection Agai115t Ovorvoll>lge
insulators and even wrecking poles until the energy present is dissipated completely
in the paths towards earth. II it oocws near a plant or substation then the damage is
sure. But these types of direct strokes are not frequent in oa:urrence.
Due to this lightning stroke, neighbourinj; lines are also subjected to overvoltages
due to elc-ctromognetic coupling. Tbese high voltag<!s may cause flash over in case of
insulators,
All high voltage overhead tines are protected from lightning strokes by use of
~•rth condoerors. With the use ol ovethead network ol earth oonductors, the outdoor
switchyards are protected.
A direct stroke is shown in the Fig. 12.3.
•
• •
• • •
•
I
I
I
Fig. 12.3
The cloud will induce opposite charge on the overhead line by induction. When
the potential between the <loud and line is more than b,...kdown strength of air, the
lightning discharge takes place between cloud and the line.
There may be other type of direct stroke that may occur on the overhead line
which is illusrrated in the Fig. 12.4.
This type of stroke is produced because ol sudden change In charge conditions In
the clouds. Consider, lor example, three clouds viz. cloud I, cloud 2 and cloud 3
having positive, negative and positive charges respectively. !I cloud I is shifted
towards cloud 2 then discharge may lake place between them and charge on them
will be neutralised. Thus charge on clouds I and 2 may be disappeared quicldy. As a
result charge on cloud 3 is suddenly free as its bonding with cloud 2 has been broken.
Due to this, rapid dischatge from cloud 3 may take place to the earth ignoring tall
objects. Thus proh.'Ctlonagainst these strokes ts difficult while protection against other
type ol direct stroke is possible as the direct stroke we have discussed above will
occur on tall objects,
Prol.ectlon and Swllch119ar 12. 7 Protection Against Overvollllgo
c~~u ..... . ...... ... ..

z~ ~C~2
- - --
+ • +
~ + + + C~3
-+. i' + +
OirGd $110k•
I Ov1tho1d lloe
I Support
I
Eat1ll , ,
Fig. 12.4
12.3.1.1 Director Strei<• on Tower
If there Is a direct lightning stroke on the tower then Its voltage i• lncecased. Its
value Is given by
V _., = Voltoge surge between top of tower and earth

LT = Inductance of tower
RT = Resistance of tower
•
For example ;r we consider R • 10 11 • i • 30 kA, *~

current flowing through tower because of stroke.
10 kA Iµ>
L = 10 µH
V"""'' = ( 10 ) ( 10 ) + ( 10 ) ( 30 ) = 400 kV
This is the voltage that will appear between top of tower and earth. If this voltage
is more than impulse flash over level then flash over may occur between tower and
hne conductor.
Due to this travelling waves may also be formed in both the direction• of
conductor which may reach to subst.ition equipments to cause their damage. A direct
•trokc on the ground wire in its middle span may also cause a fl.uh over between line
conductor and cartJ,\, irc or line rondi1ctor and tower.
1
Protection and Switchgear 12. 8 Protection Against Ovorvoltage
12.3.2 Indirect Strokes
The cffeet ol indu~I strokes ls slmilllr lo that ol direct strokes. Their effect is
more ...,, e re m case ol distribution lines than in case or high voltage lines. These
strokes are due to electrostatically induced charges on the conductors due to presence
of dw'l\C<'h.ngc in the immediate vicinity ol line which rt$ullS in indirect stroke. It
is shown m the Fig. 12.5.
+ + +
+
... ,
Induced
charge
•+ ------
_
+
• •
+ •
,
Fig. 12.5
Consider th.11 a poslnvely charged cloud Is above the line. It induc;es negative
ch.>rge on the hne by electromagnetic induction which 15 pttSent in that portion or the
line which is under the cloud while the other port.ions ol line are positively charged as
shown in the Fig. 12.5. The induced positive charges slowly leak to the earth through
the insulators. whenever there is discharge from the cloud to earth or lo another
cloud, the negative charge Oil the wire is isolated as it can not move quickly to the
earth over the insulators. Due to this, negative charge goes along the line in both
directiorui in the fonn of travelling waves. Maximum surges in a transmission line are
caused by indirect lightning strokes. TI1c same action ""'Y take place but with
opposite charges if the cloud is negatively charged.
12.4 Effects of Lightning

Beco""" of direct or indirect type o( Hghtnlng strokes. • st«.'P fronted voltage wove
is produced on the line. Its peak value may reach to about 2000 kV in about 1 µsec
while It dec.iys lo half It. pcok voluc In about S l"(.'C. lk'C.luse ol this voltage.
tr•vclling wove. are initiated along the line In both thc directiOn<I. The velocity of
these travelling waves depend upon the inductance (L) and capacitance (C) ol the
trnnsmwion line. The harmful eHects of lightning are discussed below.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 9 Protection Against Ovarvoltage
i) The tra\•elling ''''1\1tS which ar~ generated on aCC'O\ml of lightning surges

shauer the insul•tors and may even wreck poles.
ll) I( tl)cst 1.ra\f\:l1ng \\'Aves reach to vv.irds the war1din55
ol generator or the
alternator then it may cause its appreciable damage. The inductance associated
with the windings opposes the sudden change in charge through ii. Because
of this. excessive pressure may be developed between lhe windings which also
cause insulation breakdown. After insulation breakdown, the line voltage mny
be sufficient to maintain the arc which is produced resulting in ultimate
damage to machine.
iii) When the arc is initiated due to lightning stroke then 1t wiU set up disturbing
oscil.lations in the line. Due to this other equipments connected to the system
may be damaged.
12.5 Protection Against Lightning
Proper protection mu>t be provided to the power stations. substations, overhead
transmission lines from the direct lightning strokes while the eleetricat apparatus must
be protected from indirect strokes in the form of travelling waves. Already we have
seen that the lightning strokes can cause severe damage than other types ol switching
surges or transients. Hence protection against Lightning strokes is an important
consideration in the system design.
Commonly used equipments for protection against lightning strokes are as given
below.
1. l!arthing screen,
2. Overhead ground wires
3. Lightning a~h!f8 or surgt diverters,
To protect lhe generating stations and the substatlons from di""'t strokes, cnrthing
screen is used. Overhead ground wtres protect the overhead t:ransmisslon line from
direct lightning strokes. The protection against both kinds of strokes direct and
indlrect in the form of travelling waves is provided with the help o( lightning
arresters.
Sometimes lightning oe earth rods arc mounted on tall buildings. "These rods arc
connected to the earth. On the sharp points of this rod, positive charges are
accumulated which attracts the lightning strokes. 'The earth wire placed above the
overhead line is grounded at every tower and positive charges art" accumulated 01'
this wire. The negabvely charged strokes arc attracted by earth win. Ii this wire is
not present, there would be Rash over in the line ., lightning strokes will strike
directly on the hnc.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 10 Protection Agaln1t Ovorvoltage
TI1c earth w1rt' does not provide 100 % protection as weak strokes nnd ll type o(
strukt'S are not attractt.-'d by this wire. The earth wlre is " good solution for the most
dangerous direct strokes, II has • shielding angle which is the angle made by
outermost conductor in the line at ~ ground wire. This dngle should be as Jowcr as
possible to give more protection. Whatever line conductors come under the shielded
zone ore well protected against direct strokes. This angle is normally between
30"1040". Its typical satisfactory and economical value is 35°.
12.6 Protection of Generating Stations and Substations Against Direct

Strokes
Ceneratly the generating st.1hons ere housed in big b\11lding-swhile the subst"tions
arc housed ill switchyard or outdoor. To protect these structures from direct strokes,
three important requirements viz, interception, conduction and dissipation must be
fulfilled. JI requires an object in good electrical connection with the earth having low
impedance path to attract the leader stroke. It also requires a low reslsraece
connection with the body ol the earth.
For having • good electrical eonnection, the upper portion of metal structure may
11,: used. Instead ol this, a separate metallic system called shield mounted on the
>tructurc or near to it may be used. The total switchyard Is provided with earthed
ovt~rhead shielding screen.
The v.1rthh1g screen consists of a network of copper conductors mounted all over
the electrical equipment in the plant or substation. This shield is uppropriately
conMcted to the earth on atleast two points with the help of low impedance path.
Occurrence of any direct stroke is directly diverted to the earth as the shield provides
low resistance path. Thus the costly station equipments are protected from damage.
This is designed In such a way that out of IOOO strokes, 999 will be diverted to earth
through this shield while only I stroke may strike on the protected equipment which
;,, called 0.1 % CXJ'O"U~.
Transmission line conductors arc protected with the help of overhead earthed
shield. >\ vertical line lf drawn from the earth wire and angle ci is plotted on its both
sides then this angle a is called shielding angle while envelope within angle 2 a is
called zone ol protection. The clearance between line conductor and overhead
shielding should be more than minimum clearance between phase and earth.
Lightning mast is an independent structure which is installed at specific locations in
the switchyard.
In outdoor swilchyards, lightning masts are preferred up to 33 kV. With increase
in vohnge, it becomes tall and uneconomical. In this case. overheod shielding wiees are
employed as height ol the structure required ls less.
Protection and Switchgear 12·11 Protection Against Overvoltagt
12.7 Protection of Transmission Lines Against Direct Strokes

The transmlsston lines ore effectively protected agalnsl direct lightning strokes
with the use of ground wires. The ground wire is a conductor which runs in parallel
with the line ronductor. lt is placed at the top of tower structure. For horizontal
configuration of line conductors there are two ground wires whereas for vertical
configuration there is only one ground wire.
The ground wire is made up of galvanised steel or recently ACSR conductor of the
same size as that of line conductor is used. The material and size ol conductor
required for ground wire needs more mechanical considerotions in its design rather
than th<• electrical. With the help of simple and econoinlcol methods, the effective
reststaoee of the ground wire con be decreased.
The use of ground wire is to provide shielding of line conductors against dlrect
lightning strokes. Al$o whenever a stroke appean on a tower, the growid wire on
both sides of tower provide parallel paths for stroke reducing effective impedance and
the potential at tower top is comparatively less- As the ground wire and power line
conductors are coupled electrically and magnedcally, chances of failure of insulation
are significantly reduced.
For the >akc of simplicity and understanding, one ground wire and ~ conductor
I• shown In the Fig. 12.6.
o...-grounc1..n
.. ---------------------------- ----
Pillh
of WOke
Llnol.,_
"""""'
-
to ground
Ground
R,
T ,..
Fig. 12.&
Protection and Swftc~ar 12. 12 Protection Against Ovorvoltago
The height or ground wire is ouch that prnct.icnlly all the lightning strokes arc
lntereepted by them. 11\e:ie ground wires arc enrthrd at rvery tower or pole through
tow rt>i,istance.
Whenever any S1roke strikes on the line, It will be lllken up by ground wire. The
heavy current flows to the ground from the ground wire. The extent to which
protection is provided by the ground wire depends on footing resistln<e or the tower.
Let us consider this resistance as So.1)' R1 and the lightning stroke current is say •siroi.:,.
then potential of the tower top V.,,..., with respect to earth is given by,
\'To-u = 1..-:, ·R1
Thi~ ls the appro)(imate voltage between tower and line conductor which also
eppears across string or insulators present on the tower. Ii this voltage i• lt?SS than
thllt required for iMuL1tor flash over then no damage or hllrmful effect> can be
observed. But 1r its value 1s greater then insulator Oash over may take place resulting
In its damage. Hence the footing resistance of the tower •hould be kept •• low as
possible ro limlr the value of voltage which will avoid flash over of insulator.
It is important to consider that the voltage to which the tower is ralscd durlng
lightning stroke, is not dependent on the system voltage, Hence the design of
transmission line agai.'lSt lightning for specific performance has nothing to do with the
system voltage.
12.7.1 Requirements of Ground Wire

Tbe requirements for the design of the line against lightning strokes arc given
below,
I) TI>c ground wires used (or protection or transmission line should be
nwchonlcall)• strong and should be suitably located to provide the protection.
ii) There must be sufficient clearnnce between poi.,,rer line conductors and ground
wire (or the given system voltage.
iii) The footing resistance or the tower should be as low as possible and
economically justifiable.
The first requirement is met by use of galvanised steel wire or ACSR wire and the
protective angle or shielding angle decides the location of ground wire for effective
shielding. Protective angle is the angle between the vertical line paosing through the
ground wire and the line passlng through the outermost line conductor. It is shown
in the Fig. t2.7.
Protection and $w1tchgear 12 -13 ProtecUon Against Overvoltage
''
~ Power
conductor
Fig. 12.7
If two or more than two ground wires ""' used then the protective zone belwttn
the two adjacent wires can be mken aJ ~kircle with diameter as a line joining the
1wo ground wires. Experlmeni. by reseArCh sclentisi. show thot a single wire
providt'S effective shielding to a Une conductor that 1.,,, below o quarter circle with its
centre at the height of ground wire and radius equal to hclght of ground wire from
the grcuodlevel. The proved shielding angle for adequate protection is about JO" for
plaln •=• while it decreases by an amount of slope of hill in case of hilly regions.
'The second requirement of sufficient clearance between tower and conductor is
met by suitable design of cross ann in such a way that when a string of insulators is
given a swing of about 30° towards the tower structure then the air gap between the
conductor and tower structure should be in such a way as to withstand the switching
voltage (normally four times line to ground voltage) that may appear on the system.
The clearances between conductors can also be adjusted by adjusting the sag in such a
way as IO avoid the midspan flash overs.
The third requirement is already discussed eorlier. For 66 kV line, the standard
ecceprebte value of footing iuistantt is nearly 10 fl. It increases as the system voltage
rises. For e llne with operating voltage of 400 kV, Its typical value Is 80 n. The tower
fOOllng resistance Is its value when measured at a frequency of supply whkh is SO Hz
in our country. The performance of the line in context with lightning stroke depends
on impulse value of r<.'Sistancc which is a function of soil resistivity. crltlcal
breakdown gradient of soil, length al1d type of driven grounds ond magnitude of
stroke current,
Protection and Switchgear 12·15 Protection Against Overvoltage
Towor re -~ ~
•tluctu
/ (•) Slngle patah4 """tj"""'"'
Leg ~
olio-
(b) llcMJbl• ...,.. ... contlnuou•

ana~nl
(c) Radial arrangement
)(--)z(
(Cf} RedW Md continuou.s 11tf"1n91!'ment
Fig. 12.9 Various counterpoises amongements

The ground wire in addition to
gi,,e protc~C'tio1l against direct
strokes also prcvid .. electrostatic
screening by reducing the voltage
•
induced in the conductors by '
c, :;::
discharge of u neighbouring cloud. ''
(~)v
Consider C'x as apadtallC'C of v
cloud to line whlle Cv
cJpocilonc(• of line to ground as
shown In the Pig. l 2.10.
.,
Cy=='.== (~) v I
The voltage across the line ond Flg. 12.10
the ground is ( Cx C: Cv ) V. V is
the cloud voltage, As the ground wire is above the line conductor, there will be
appreciable increase in Cv which results in reduction or line Induced voltage.
Protection •nd Switchgear 12·16 Prot.ctlon Agalntt Ove<vo~g•
With o singl<l ground wire tho induced voltage is reduced lo hall or that without
ground wire. With two ground wires, this reduction is about one third while for three
ground wires, it is one fourth. These results are at favourable conditions of good
earths and low impedance of earth connection as obtained by conducting experiments
in the laboratory. The ground wire is also helpful in attenuating any travelling waves
which m•y set up in the lines by acting short circuited secondary of line conductors,
12.7.4 Advantages of Ground Wire

i) Direct lightning str0ke$ oo the transmission line are well protected by ground
wire.
Ii) There is damping effect of the ground wire on the disturbance travelling along
the line as it acts as a short eireuited secondary.
iii) l'or external fields, it provides electrostatic shields to certain extent which
reduces the voltage induced in the line conductors due to discharge of a
neighbouring cloud.
12.7.5 Disadvantages of Ground Wire
i) It requires extra cost
ii) lt may be possible that due to breaking or ground wire and foiling on the line
co1lduc1ors can cnua.c • dl.rt.."Cl short-clrcult fault. But this situation 18 r11re to
occur as mechanically strong galvanized steel stranded conductors are used.
Due 10 this the ground wires bear sufficient strength.
12.7.6 Use of Ground Wire
Ground wires are extensively used for protection against direct lightning strokes
for voltages ranging from 110 kV to 500 kV. They are used on all the important
transmission lines and on all sections of transmission lines running through regions
whlch subject to frequent lightning storms.
12.8 Protection of Transmission Line by Auxiliary Devices
The alternative WO)' of protecting tronsmlsslon line against lightnlng is by making
use of auxlllary devices. In these
ways of profection, discharge path
is controlled and some device is
- String
of insulators used to extinguish the arc so
formed. 11\t' most commonly used
Une conductor
device is protector tube which
consists of fibre rube wilh an
electrode in Cilch end. It is shown
in the Fig. ll.11.
Fig.. 12.11
Protection and Switchgtar 12 • 17 Protection Against Overvoltagt
It is mounted below each line in such o way thot the upper electrode i> connected
10 horn which is arc shaped at appropriate distance below the line forming a senes
gap with It. The lower electrode is effectively grounded.
With the appearance of the surge on the line the series gap is spanned. An arc is
formed between the electrodes in the tube. Some of the fibre of tube walls is
vapourized due to heat in the arc. The natural gas from this reaction violently enters
into the arc to deionize 11 whkh prevents restriking of the arc after first zero point o(
the current.
12.9 Protection of Electrical Apparatus Against Travelling Waves

(Indirect Strokes)
The earthing screen and the ground wire discussed earlier provide protection
•g,1inst direct lightning strokes but does not provide any protection against travelling
waves which may reach the electrical apparatus. The lightning arresters or the surge
arresters are tf)e one who provide protection against the travelling waves,
There are basically two main sources of causing overvoltages viz. external
overvoltages mainly due to lightning nnd internal overvoltagcs due to switching
operations. The protection against external overvoltages due to lightning con be
provided by methods whkh • ..., known as shleldlng methods.
The shielding methods do not allow an arc path to form between line and ground
thus giving protection in line design. For protection against internal overvousges
non-shielding methods arc employed which allow an arc path between line and
ground. 111~re is special provision of extinction of arc in these methods.
Use of ground wire for protection ~'at has been described earlier is a shielding
method while use of spark gaps and lightning arresters are non-shielding methods.
Sometimes the non-.hielding methods are also used for giving protection against
external overvolteges.
The non shielding methods arc based on the prindple of insulation breakdown
When the ovcrvoltage is incident on protective device, • p;irt of energy content in it Is
discharged to ground through the protective device.
The breakdown of insulation is function of voltage as well as time of its
application alongwith shape and size of the electrodes used. More steeper is the
voltage wave, the larger will be magnitude of voltage required for breakdown as
expenditure of energy is required for breakdown of dielectric in any form requires
time. This energy criterion for different insulators can be compared with the help of
term called Impulse ratio wluch is defined as the ralio of breakdown voltage due to
impulse of sp,><:llicd shape to the breakdown vouege nt power fn.oquency. l'or sphere
Protection and Switchgear 12 - 19 Protection Ag1inst Overvoltlge
The m~t commonly

,
, .. ...... employed protective device
IMlal ,' ......... against travelling waves is a
' '•
~k ,' surge dlverter which is
\ ,/ ,,.,--......__·-;;.:··-----------
connected between line and
earth at the substation. The
Residual
voft<'Q• travelling waves are diverted to
the earth with this divcrtcr.
The tr.welling voltage wave
after reaching near the dlverter
(•I 1 - 5parks O\'Cr at a certain
prefixed voltage. It is shown in
the Fig. 12.13 (a) and (b)
I respectively.
This provides a conducting
path of low impedance between
line and earth. The residual or
disd\.irge voltage will be
(b)
·- controlled lo a safe value which
could be wlthstond
Insulation by the now of
by
Fig. 12.13 current to earth through surge

impedance of the tine.
It is clear that the path ol low impedance exists only when overvoltage occurs in
case of surge diverter while it comes to normal state immediately to offer high
impedance for normal working system voltage.
12.10 Requirements of Surge Dlverter

The ldc"I surge dlverter has lollowing requirements.
I) It should not carry any current at normal system voltage l.e, its breakdown
votengc should be above any normal or abnormal fundamental frequency
voltage that may occur on the system.
ii) The transtem ''oltage wave whose peak value io; greater than the spark over or
breakdown voltage of surge dtvcrtcr should breakdown as fast as possible to
provide pa.th for surge to ('.,rth
iii) After the bre~ikdO'.\"f\. the surge divcrte, .:iould be c.tp..1blC' ell C;irr~:l"&
discl1argl' current '"' •lhout c.lan\agt..• to it and the voltage should nc>t be more
than its brcakdc,,vn value.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 20 Protection Against Overvoltage
iv) When the tronsient voltage reduces below ilJ breakdown value, the power
frequency current nowing through the dtverrer should ht> interrupted as
quickly as possible.
12.11 Operation of a Typical Surge Diverter (Lightning Arrester)

The basic form of any type of surge
dlverter is shown in the Fig. 12.14 (a).
It consists of • spark gap which Is in
........ series \Yith a non linear resistor. The
'
' terminal of the protected equipment is
•'• ___ Spoil< connected on end of the diverter. The other
••
•• gap end or the diverter is solidly grounded
' through non-linear resistor.
The length of a spark gap is set in such
_...____ Nonlinear a way that the normal system voltage is not
..alo< sufllcient to initiate arc across the gap while
~---
' very high voltage will cause break down ol
nlr Insulation and arc is Initiated.
T
The non-linear ""'istor bears n property
Fig. 12.14 (a) or decrease in ii) resistance •• the voltage
increases and vice versa. The vclt-emp
characteristics for a non linear resistor Is shown in the Fig. 1214 (b).
Under normal condition.. the dtverter
is off without conducting any current or
I
v
very small negligible current due to
capacitive effect (Non-linear resistor
offcrw very high l'\!Sistllncc to this current
hence It is negligible) Hence the gop Is
not conducU11g.
Whenever high voltage occurs, there
is breakdown or air Insulation initiating
the arc. Thus a low resistance path is
offered for the surge to the earth.
I- Excess charge on the line because of
surge is condu~ to the earth through
Fig. 12.14 (b) the arrester which prevents the surge
being st'nt back on line.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 21 Protection Against Overvoltago
As there Is breakdown of •pork gop due to over voltage, the ore would be short
cimiit on the systern and may cause power (ollow current in the dlverter. After the
surge is over, the resistor offers very high resistance to prevent the cffo;;t of short
circuit which makes the spark gap non-conducting.
It should be observed mat the arc in the gap should immediately cease alter the
surge is over to avoid the current flowing through gap and resistor which would be
damaged otherwise. The voltage drop across the arrester should be less than the
breakdown strength of the insulation of the equipment to be protected.
Presently following types of •urge arresters ore commonly used.
1. Valve tyl"' or gapped silicon·cnrbldc surge on~ters consisting of silicon
carbide dlscs in series with spark gap units.
2. Zinc oxide gapless arl"eSters or metal oxide arresters. These are gapless and
consisting of ZnO (Zinc Oxide) discs in series. These arresters are having
good volt-amp characteristics. The energy absorption level is also high and
these arresters are preferred for EHV and HVOC installations.
12.12 Classification of Surge Arresters

Based on current. voltage and energy capability the surge arresters arc classlfled ..
follows.
1) Station type surg• • ..,..,.t•n11 :
This type of arrester has the highest capacity for energy dissipation while lowest
level of protection. The peak discharge current that can carry is 10 kA while its
voltage range for operation is 3.3 kV to 245 kV (rms). They are employed normally in
large power stations and substations.
2) Line type surg• arresters :
These arresters are mainly used for protectlon of l3rg• transfonners. Intermediate
sub stations and medium and lnrg~ power stations. They 're smnller than station
transformers. The standord discharge current earrted safely by them is about 5 kA
while tho workJng voltage n11ngc is 3.3 kV to 123 kV (rms).
3) Oistributlon type and secondary type surge a1tt1t•rs :
These type of arresters are used for protection ol distribution transformers in
distnbution circuits mounted on poles. The standard peak discharge current for its
operation is 2.5 kA and 1.5 kA. While its voltage range is up to 3.3 kV (rms).
There arc three general types of surge dlverters with each having its field of
application. They ore
I) the rod i;•p
Ii) the protector tube or Expulsion type lightning arrester
iri) the convcntionol valve type lightning arrester.
12.13 Terms and Speclflcatlons used In Surge ArTesters

Following terms and specifications are generally used in reference with surge
arrester.
i) Non-linear resistor :
This is o part of arrester offering low resistance to the flow of discharge current of
the surge limiting the voltage' across arrester terminals while offering higli rt..-sisla~
to thl• flow of pow<'f frequt'fq currents (inorcrative for normal power frequency
•olt.1i;c).
ii) Rated voltage of the arrester :
It is defined as the maximum permissible power frequency RMS voltage between
the line terminal and earth termiaal of the arrester as specified by the manufacturer at
which surge arrester can perform its rared duty. Generally for all other equipments
rated voltage is between phase to phase while for surge arresters it is between phase
and ground.
iii) Follow current :
It 1s defined as the ct1rrenl tl>.11 flows from connected power liOUl'CC through
lightning nrrostcr following the passage of the discharge current.
iv) Nom1al disc::harge current :
It is defined as that current which is flowing through the surge arrester after the
spark over. It is expressed as crest or peak value for a specified wave. These values
are given for various types of lightning arresters described in previous section.
v) Discharge current :
The surge current which flows through the arrester after the spark over is called
d..:harge current.
vi) Power fr•qutncy sp<uk over voltage :
It is defined as the rms value of power frequency voltage that is applied between
line and earth terminals of the arrester causing the spark over of th<: series gap.
vii) Impulse spark over volt~e :
The highest value of the voltage attained during an impulse of given polarity of
specified wave shape applied between line terminal and earth terminal of an arrester
0.-lore the now of discharge current is called impulse spark over voltage.
viii) Redidual or discharge vo)tagt :
It is defined as the voltage which appears across line and c.irth terminal during
the flow or passage of disdtarge current.
Protection ind Switchgear 12. 23 Proto<:tlon Against Overvolt.tge
iJC) Rated cum!nl :
It is the maximum impulse current at which the peak discharge residua! voltage is
dc-t~rmined.
x) Coo.efficient or Ea_rthing :
It is defined as the ratio o( highest rms voltage or healthy phase to earth to the
phase to phase normal voltage. Mathematically it is given by.
Highest rms voltage of healthy phase to earth
Coefficient o( earthing = x I 00
Phase to phase normal rms voltage
12.14 Hom Gap Arrester

This type of arrester has two hom shaped metal rods separated by a small
distance. One end is connected to the line while the other is connected to the
earth, It IS shown in the Fig. 12.15.
- Toh
.,,,..........,
-- -
Clw:>ke
._ ___,
-=--~~
b
•
Hom
ltto
Fig. 12.15 Horn gap arrester
The horns an?constructed in such manner that the distance between them
gradually increases towards the top. The horns are mounted on porcelain Insutatoes.
The reststaece R limilS the follow current to a small value. The choke connected
between equipment to be protected and horn gap is designed in such a way as to
oflcr small reactance 111 normal power frequency while high reactanee al transient
frcquMC)'. Hence the choke does not allow any traNilmts to enter the apparatus to be
protected. By u•ing the cho"" the steepne$$ or the wave incident on the equipment to
be protected is reduced, While the choke also reflects the voltage surge back on to ll>e
horn. The gap between the horns is adjusted in such a way that normal supply
voltage -..;11 not be sufficient to initiate are across the gap.
Under normal conditions. the gap is non-conducung whenever there is an

0' en euage on the system and its value Is more th•>n breakdown value ol gap, sp.irk
over t.llo place across smnll s•P·The arc formed m•y be mnintalned b)' the normal
voltage also. The heated air around the arc and the magnetic c((ect o( the arc cause it
to move up in the gap. The arc acts like a flexible conductor. Tile arc moves
gradu.•lly through positions a, b, c respecllvely. At some position (say c), lengthaling
of arc takes place as distance between the horns is too large. Thus the voltage is not
enough to maintain the arc and it is extinguished. The excessive charge on the line is
tlwrefO<e travelled to the earth through the arrester.
12.14.1 Advantages
I Alter the surge is over, this type of arrester does not cause short circuiting or
the wstem us the arc is cleared by itsel(.
2. Otc follow current is maintained 10 a small value with the help o( sc.ries
resistance.
I. II the gap is bridged due to some external factors (such as birds) the device
\•,iill not work proper Iy.
2. The setting of horn gap is required to be changed due to corrosion and pitting
'vh1ch can affect its performanre.
3 The lime required for its operation is relatively more (about 3 seconds) than
n'ttl>t fast opernnng devices,
4 It "' harmful to employ this type ol arrester on il!Olated neutral system.
Due to above llmltntlons, the hom gap arrester Is rarely used in practice. Al!o it
ha!' low rehab1fity and hence used as secondary protection.
12.15 Rod Gap Arrester or Spark Gap Arrester

It is the simplest, cheapest and most rugged form of surge diverter used for
protection of insulators ln line, equipments and bushings. It is shown in the Fig. 12.16.
P~ refer Fig. 12.16 on next page.
l1w conducting rods are provided between the line tenninal and earthed terminal
or the insulator with an adjustable gap. The medium present in the gap is air. The
rods are t>ithcr square or round \\'itJl daameter approximately 12 mm and bent at right
ong1es Orle rod is connccred to the line drrult while the other rod is connected to
the earth The gap between the rods may be in the form o( horn• or aremg rinp
Protection and Switchgear 12 - 26 Protectioo Against Overvoltaga
Under nonnal e>perating

conditions the gap is
I non-conducting When the high
voltage surge Ol'CUrS on the line,
there is spark over In the gap and
current In surge is diverted to the
earth. Thus excessive charge on
the line is passed to the earth
through this arrester. The
nmein - volt-time cha:rncteristics (or a rod
microseconds
gap is shown in the Fig. 12.17.
With the given gap and the
Fig. 12.17
wave shape of the volrage, the
time required for the breakdown varies Inversely with the voltage. The time for flash
over for posirive polarity is less than that for negative polarity. Upto certain extent
the nnsh over voltage depends on the length of grounded rod. There is considerable
diller.>ncc bctwem positive and negative nash over voltages for low values of this
length If the length is about 1.5 to 2 times the gap spacing Ihm it is surficient to
reduce this dillerence •ppllably. The gap setting is In suth a way that Its breakdown
voltage should be more than 30% below the voltage level of the equipment to be
protected that it can withstand.
12.15.1 Limitations
Following are limitations of rod gap arrester.
I. 'Precise protection is not achieved and is not reliable so it can not be used as
main protection against surge in high voltage systems. But as it is cheap II can
be a good choice for seeond tine of defence.
2. It gives protection against waves with comparatively small sloping front. Also
the breakdown voltage varies with polarity, steepness and waveshape. The
perfonnance is affected by polarity of surge.
3. The rods ""'Y get damaged due to excess heat produced by arc. This iJ an
imporr.mt consideration In high voltage systems.
4. The perlonnimce is allcctcd adversely due to climatic conditions such os
humidity, temperature pressure.
5. The power frequency follow current is not interrupted by this type o( arreseer
and it contlnuos, to now even af1er the high voltage surge is over, Thhl creates
• line to ground (or earth fault) foult which is to be interrupted by drruil
breaker. Thus !M operation of rod gap results in interruption of supply and
breakers must operate to de-energize the clrcuit to clear the flash over. The
Protection and Switchgear 12. 27 Prottctlon Against Overvolt1ge
ere ~t up across the gap due to surge current ion1iies the surrol11,ding alr
which affects the insulation strength of the gap. Also sufficient time must be
provided for deionization of ore path before the reclosure of circuit breaker for
rcstortng supply. Hence it is generally used as back up protection.
There are some improvements in rod gap sud> as fused gap and control gap
which are also used in practice sometimes. The fused gap is simply a rod gap along
with a fuse in series with it to cut the power follow current. But it requires
replacement and maintenance of fuse. Also for its effective operation It requires
proper co-ordination between blowing of fuse and adjacent relay timing.
TI1e control gap consists of n double gap arrangement to get sphere gap
cNirncterislics. Compared to rod g;ip its volt-rlme characteristics are better. It can be
used with or without IUSL"">and used as a bock up or secondary protection.
12.16 Multlgap Arrester

It consists of a series of metallic cylinders
l.lne made up of alloy of :tine generally insulated
from one another and separated by small air
t gaps as shown in the ~lg. 12.18.
0 Cylinder I is connected in series with the

line while cylinder 3 is connected lo earth
2 through a series resistance. The series resistance
limits the arc. The protection against travelling
Shunt
te1'$tano& 0 waves is reduc..>d due to series resistance. To
overcome this difficulty shunt resistance is
3
included in some ol the gaps.
Under normal operating conditions, cylinder
2 is at earth potcntiol and It es not possible lo
breakdown the series gaps by normal voltage.
When overvoltage occurs, there is
breakdown of the gap between l and 2. The
teege current wiU pass through the gaps instead
Fig. 12.18 of choosing an alternate path through shunt
resistance. and will divert to the earth.
After the surge is over, there is no arc In between 2 and 3, the power follow
current is limited by shunl and series resistances as t}ley are now In series. The
current is not enough to maintain arc in the gap between I and 2 and normal
rotlditions are reston.-d. These errestcrs aro used (or system \'Oltotgcs upro 33 kV.
iii) ·n,~ Internal S•'P inside th~ tube.

tv] It has •n open vent at the bottom for rcle••ing th~ gases.
It conslsts of • series gap in series with internal gap inside n fibre tube. This gap
tn the fibre tube is made up of l\VO electrodes. The upper electrode is connected 10
the series gap while the lower elcctecdc is connected to the earth. One such arrester is
placed under each line conductor. lt is required that the breakdown voltage ol the
tube should Ix- less than that of the insulation for which It is used.
Wht.'ncver Ovee voltage occurs on the line, theee is breakdown in the series gap
and nrc i~ (oml<.'d bctwet.)f'I the elecrredes in the tube. Thus providing ;. low
impedance path ror light11lng current to earth,
Tho he.11 produced by the arc vnpourizes some of the organic material in th'1 tube.
The resulting natural gas builds up high pressure in short ome and expelled out
through the bottom vent after producing lot of turbulancc In the tube. After the gas
leaving from the tube violently, it carries ionized air around the arc.
Due to this strong de-ionizing effect, the arc is extinguished \vithout resttiking
n1.lk.ir\g current zero, The arc extinction time is about Otte or two half cycles which is
very short interval for protective rela)'S to act~ Hence circuit breakers remaln dOS{.l(J
uud lh1c ts kept in operation, A(ter the expelling ol gases and urc supprt55ion, the
tube is ready for new operanon. The power follow current is 5'lf<•ly intemtpred by
this type of arrester.
With each operation of
the tube the dlameter of the
fibre tube is increased as
I
Positive
some part of fibre lining is
vapourized every time which
polenly lowers msuleuon
voltage characteristia< of tube. Th<!
In kV
volt-time ch3rx·tcrisl1cs are
better than rod g•p type end
ore shown in the Ag. 12.20.
fX'CCSSi\re current nowtng
through the tube may cause
its bursting while a small
Fig. 12.20 current will be insufficient
tor producing necessary pressure to extinguish the arc. AISll as the gas producing
material is utilized each time when arrester operates, there is limiration of number of
cpcratlcns whic:h can be safely carried by thlS arrester. Since there is Ki\K't"tll~
disct\:"rge, it Ill> not suitable for mounting near other equ1prnc1'1~.
Protectlon and Switchgear 12. 30 Protection Against Ovtrvoltage
12.17.1 Advantages
I) Thev are cheaper and can be installed easily.
2) They are capable of interrupting power follow curreru immediatelv, after the
suri;e is over,
1) The volt-amp characteristics for this arrester is poor and hence can not be used
for protection of expensive station equipm<mts.
2) It can nnt be mounted In •n endooed equipment b<'C.lUS<' of dl!ICharge of gos
dunng its operation.
3) It con ~form limited number of operntions ., snmc of the fibre IS ,i,,cd In
every operation to produce gas for extirlguishing the arc.
ThCSC' type o( lightning arresters ere used on transmission towers near to the
stations in certam cases to make the station lighbling arrester free from its duty to
certain extent by reducing the magnitude of surgos coming on the line.
They are also used for protection against surges for transformers in rural areas as
they are cheap than valve type arresters. Tbese arresters ore also employed in some
spt.oelal cases Sl•c-h JS 1r.,nsn1is.sio1l towers with more height '"'llcrean there are more
chances of lightening strokes.
Expulsion typt' arresters arc either transmiMion type used for transmission line
insulotors or distnbution type for the prot<ction or distribution transforrner and
sJnlllar apparatus on distribution networks.
12.18 Valve Type Lightning Arrester

It is rut expensive surge dtverter also known as non-linear S\trge drverter. The
details of this arrestor are shown in the Pig. 12.21. (See Fig. 12.21 on next page)
As shown in the flgure, there arc two M5emblies viz.
i) senes spark gaps
ii) non linear resistor discs made up of material such as thpitc or m.itrosil in
series.
The non linear elements are in series with the gap. Both these assemblies are
contained in tight porcelain container for relU..ble protection against moisture, humidity
and condensanon.
Protection and Switchgoar 12. 32 Protection Against 0VtfVoltaga
The mterrupting Colpoclty o( the &pork gops unit Com 00 lncrcesed with the h<!lp of
i:rold•"!l l\'$1Sto,... Under normal working conditions, tho leakage current ;, olwoys
tess than 0.1 mA approxtmately which now through the resistors. This is surfiaent to
maintain the enclosures at specified temperature above ambient 54,1 as to prevent the
~((cct or moisture into enclosure.
12.18.2 Non Linear Resistors

The non-linear resistors are made of an inorganic compound viz. Thyrite or
MetrOS11. Th<SC discs ore in series to form a block. \\'ith the increase in applied voltage
and current, the reststrmce decreases quickly. 11'c residual voltage is hence maintained
though current is high within limit The l\Ofl•linear resistors have the property or
pr"0\·1ding high resistance to current flow of normal system voltage but low resistance
to Ilew O( l1igh surge currents t.e, Its resistance decreases With iO(l'<.'<.lM' 10 CUm..."flt and
viee versa. Hence tt\r power follow C\lmmt after the surge 1J over can be easily
tnteerupred with the help o( resistor blocks by spark gdps at first current 7.CrO
12.18.3 Working
Under normal operating conditions, the system voltage is not enough to cause
breakdown or air gap assembly. Under the condition or over voltage. there is
breakdown or series spark gaps and the surge current quickly reaches to ground
through non linear resistors. 'Ibe non--linear resistors will offer very small resistance
to the flew of surge current 'vhose magnitude is large. Thus the surge ts pre\ented
rrom «ending bock over the line. Alter the surge is over. the resistor blocks ollers
h1gh n.~istru'k.-e to tl'c flow of power follow current and the current L-. interrupted.
All\!r oppro.iching towards the equipment to be pr<>leelcd , the •urge Like> nround
0.25 ~9l'C tn reach m thl.• .irrt.'Stcr
and tl1c whole Upt'rntion of
I arrester takes plaCl' in a very sh(>rt
intcrv"I of time tn t1bout 20 to 30
usec, Tho arc is extinguished at
first current zero by cooling and
lengthening or arc and also the
voltage and current are almost in
phase.
The volt-ampere characteristics
c..n...-- o( valve type lightrung arrester is
Fig. 12.22
sbown ii' tJll Fig 1 l.22.
1
Protection and Swftcngear 12 -33 Protection Against OVervoltage
Tl·•c elosed curve represents tlw dynan•k ch.imctcrlstics rorrespond lnK to

epplkarton o( voltage surge while the dotted line $ho\ving static c.ha.racteristics. The
horizontal tl\11gent drawn to the dynamic characteristics gives the voltage known as
residua! voltage and is the peak voltage during discharge of surge current,
Depending upon the type ol the arrester i.e. either line type or ~talion typo
discharge voltage varies from 3 kV to 6 kv. This voltage is also affected by
m•gnitudc and waveshape ol discharge current
The Impulse rollo ol unity is obtained for tlus arrester according to design ol spark
gnps. Hence high values of surge currents can not bt• Interrupted, The irnpulsc
br<'Jkdc>Wt\ stn._--ngth is smnllcr than tcsidual vnl101ge \Yhich decides the protection level
for Insulation co-ordination.
The volt-current relationship for one type of thynte disc (non-linear resistor) is
given by,
\I -= K l''I
v
Resistance or the arrester =
I
K 1•
I
:
,~
K 2 Ki-JI
Typical values of K and pore 4650 and 0.12-

Wilh N number o( thyrltc dtscs,
Resistance, R = ~ = NK J-il
I~
12.18.4 Advantages
i) The operation o( th.is errcstce is very fast within a fr:,ctior'I of second.
ii) They are suitable for dfoctivc pn)tl'Ction ol transfonncrs and cabl.-. ag.>inst
swges.
i) Very steep wave front typ<' ol surges are not betog protected by these
arresters. Fortumtely the lightning surges on the tr~nsmission systen1 are
attenuated as they travel over the line towards the substations and they are
within the reach of protection circuits in the substations. But proper care
should be taken to prevent surges of severe intensity and efficient fonn o(
shielding should be used.
ii) The perfom••~ ol tlli• type ol arrester may be nlrectc'CI 11 there " <>0tty ol
moisture in the encloeure. ·n,is problem an be S()lvt:d by ~alang the coeeemer
herrnerically or cnctoeures are filled by inert ga~ and <nntab' $()11\e form of
Protection and Switchgear 12. 34 Protection Against Ovo<votta~
dc-humidifl.r or allowing the leakag<> current to pass to maintain the

tc1nperatt1rc wlthln lim1ts.
12.18.6 Applications
The valve t>'pe arrester is clt\ssi(ied in following types.
ii St•tion type :
These arresters are efficient and expensive which are used for protection of
important equipments with rating from 2.2 kV to 400 kV and higher. It has highest
capability for dissipation of energy.
ii) Line type :
The term .. LU,c"' i.; misleading as the:se arresters are not used for protection of
hn..-.. Unlike station type, these are al"° used for protection of plants and sub;totloru
"'hirh 4're comparatively less importa.nl and economy is to be ach_1evcd. They are used
uptn 66 kV except in some coses beyond it. They ore smaller in cross section, weight
and rost th.'n statlon type. They provide protection against higher surge voltages than
>lotion type but have less surge current capacity. Typical ratings of these arresters are
upio S kA to use ln targc transformers and intermediate substations,
iii) ArnsteT for protecting Rotati_ng Mach_ines :
These are specially used for protection o( generators and motors with voltage
range from 2.2. kV to 22 kV.
ivl Distribution type 11rrt5tCT :
These are gen.:rnliy used for protection of pole mounted distribution substations
°'''dart> available in the voltage rllng<.' from 2.2 kV to 15 kV.
v) Stt011dary arresters :
These are used for protection of low voltage apparatus with the range of 120 V tu
750 v.
12.19 Metal Oxide Lightning Arresters
This is a new type of lightning arrester developed and used. It consists of
»on-Rnear resistor block and main element of the arrester is metal oxide or normally
zinc oxide (ZnO) which is economical compared to thyrite arresters. 11\ere are no
series gap and its degree of non-linearity is more than that of thyrite arrester,
The ZnO type of arrester provides better surge protection wilh more stable
protccbon ch.i•actcr1stlcs and has simple construcdon simllnr to valve type but the
val\ e tlen1~t ts n dcose c<~rotmlc body made up o( ZnO and other metallic oxides.
Protection and Switchgear 12-35 Protection Against Overvoltllge
12.20 Location of Lightning Arresters

The lightning nm.'111Cl'5 are normally located near the equipment to be protected.
Because of thls, the chanooi of surges to enter the circuit between the protective
equipment (nrmter) and the equipment to be pro~ ore reduced. Scc:ondly ir there
is distonce between orrester and prot1'cted equipment then • steep fronted wave after
being incident on ligh~iing arresters. after sp.>rk over at the appropriate sparkover
voltage, entel'5 the transformer after travelling over the lead between two and suffers
reflection at the terminal. The total voltage at the terminal of transformer is sum of
incident and reflected voltage which is approximately twice the incident voltage. I( the
arrester is not at correct location then transformer may experience a surge of twice the
magnitude that on arrester. With L as the inductance of the lead between arrester and
equipment, the voltage incident at transformer terminal is given by,
V: IR•Ldi
dt
di
• Rate of change of surge current
dt
U a cspscltor is connected at the terminals of protec1ed equipment then steepness
ol wave Is reduced which decreases rote di/dt which result! In less distribution or
stress "" winding of protected <'quipment.
The location of an arrester
in a substation depends on
t.O what Is the probability of
Ilasbover on the line per ooe
hundred kilometers in a span
of one yoar. The typical
probability curve of peak
impulse current is shown in
the Fig. 12.23.
The crest or peak value o(
,_ surge and the characteristics
of arresters are also important.
It will not be economi<AI and
Fig. 12.23
ncc""'5ary 0190 to instaU one
arrester near to each equipment in the subsution. The optimum use of arrester to
serve the lnt<:nded purpose Is to install It at me entty of lnromhig line.
For Indoor substations, the ""!Uiremcmt of lightning arrester Is comparatively less
as equipments there are connected by cables which attenuate the surges. Hence the
Protactlon and Switchgear 12 ·36 Protection Against OVlttVoUag.
duty oi arrester 1,, case of medium voltage range indoor substation u reduc:.!d
ronslderobly.
12.21 Rating of Lightning Arrester

The discharge current in the surge is very large which is passed through the
arrester. Bui the lime of discharge is less hence the energy dissipated is small. Hence
the important factor ln selection of lightning arrester is the line to ground voltage that
the arrester is subjected during operation for any condition.
Generally 5 % allowance is taken to consider the no-load condition of the line and
sudden loss of load on generators. Thus an arrester of 105% rating is used on a
system where line to ground voltage may -m
line to line value during ground fault.
Tbe roted vouage is maximum permlssibk? rms value of power frequency voltage
which u supported by !he arrester ac:rc><s its line and earth terminal• while still
cnrry.ng O\tt c((cc-tivcly nnd \Yithout damage the autom ..1ti<" extinction o( folio\\" up
cerreru
The voltage rating of the arrester must be greater than normal phase ro ground
voltage- to avoid high current flowing through arrester causir1g terminal overloadtog.
Jn order to get the mnxlmurn voltage wtUch can occur on system phases and ground
during fault on one of the phases, it is required to know system highest voltage and
<0-l'ffidalt oi earthing.
Tbe highest volmge of the system is nonmUy taken as 110 % of eormnal system
volloge
N1>\\. COCI ~ncI C."T\t o r ea rtl\Ing • High<strmsvoltngcofhcalthyphosetocorth

Pha>c to phase normal rms vohoge
Voltagl' rating of arrester • Highest phase to phase rms voltage
>e coc((ident o( earthing
Voltage raring of arrester • 1.1 K Phase to phase rms voltage

x coefficient of earthing
For effectively earthed system, the co-efficient of earthing is 0.8.

If system voltage is 400 kV,
.. Rating of arrester = 1.1 x 400 x 0.8 = 352 kV
For non~(fcctivel)' earthed systems., biolatcd or unearthed neutral system, O\tTCStcna

are roted ot 100 "• of system highest volt•~·
t( phi~ 10 phase rms voltage • 400 kV with lsohatcd ~•r unearthed neutral system
Rati·ng of arrester a: 1.1x400 • 44() kV
Pr<>toctlon and Switchgear 12. 37 Proi.ction Against Overvollage
The nominal dlschargc current must have specific wave shape and crest value to
dnssily an-ester with reference to its durability and protection chnracterlstics. Oilfo..,nt
ratings are tabuLlted as below. The wave shape lor these ratings Is 8/20 µ.•.
Sr. No. Current Rating (!<Al AppUc11ion
10
' Prolec:liof1 ol l'npottaot and main powet and
substations in areas which are prone lo tightning
~ more tequencty with system vol1agn
abotete66 kV.
2 5 Protection ol OChef power end subslatioM with
sysiem degn ebove 66 kV
2.5 Ptotoctionol ltnd substations wtiere divertltfS of
' hifill*' ~
~-22kV
.,.. unec:onomlQll with •Yt-lem
• 1.5 P.-
-ry
ol rwol cll11illullon 1ygtom wf1e<1 - lo
IO - _,,.,. mO<O lroQuon11y lor
proteaJnglmll rranaformerawfth system volleget
not ~ 1han 22 kV
Table 12.3
As per American practice, the wave shape is specified as 10/20 us.
The power frequency spark over voltage should be l.6 times the rated voltage of
arrester to il"'Oid frequent sparking over of arrester due to Internal over voltages of
insufficient magnitude. The maxlmum impulse spark over voltage is the magnitude of
1 /50 µsec voltage wave on which the arrester sparks over 5 times out of S. The
residual or diochargc voltage depends , !or type and nominal voltage of arrester, on
waveform gmdl•nt (dl/dt) and magnitude of current. For determining this vollllge, It
Is re<'Ommendcd to U><' a current wave denoted by 8/20 µS<.'<:. The disch.1rge voltages
ore flXcd lor a current of 5 kA or 10 kA. Maximum discharge current Is referred to •
wove shape gi•·en by 5/20 usec.
12..22 Tests on Lightning Arrester

Various tests are performed on lightning arresters to evaluate its performaO<l'.
Some of the tests are listed below :
!. 1 /50 impulse spark over test
2. Wave front impulS<? spark over test
3. Peak diocharge residual voltage at rated dlveetee current
4. lmpu(.., current wlthomnd test •
S. Switching impulse voltage test
6. Peak di.ochorge residual voltage at low current
Prot.<;llon and Switchgear 12 ·38 Protec.tJon Against Overvolt•9'9
7. Oit<'hArgecapacity of durability
8. T"Rllmisslon line discharge tesl
9. Lnw current long duration test
10. Power duty cycle test
II. Pressure relief test
12.23 Surge Absorber

The steepness of wave front travelling W<lVCS can cause damage to the
o(
apparatus in addition to magnitude of wave. Mere steeper Ls the tT.lvt>lli.r\g wave, the
damage to the apparatus is more. Thus ID reduce the steepness of wave front of the
surge, surge absorber is used.
11'c st1rge absorber ls a protective de\fice which can reduce tile steepnessof wave
front of a surge and absorbs energy <'Olllained in travelling wave. Though surge
diverter and s-urge absorber climi:natr the surge. tM way in which it is done LS
different in two devtces, lhe surge dlverter diverts the surge to the earth while surge
absorber absorbs energy contained in the surge.
A capaclrcr connected between line and earth a.n reduce the steepness of wave
front. Simolorly as the lmpc'<lance o( capacitor ;, Inversely proportional to ils
f~u<'llC)', It gives protection against low voltuge high frequency waves. Thus 11 can
be considered that the linco are COl\lledM to tho earth so for as discharge at high
frequency is considered.
The capacitor is used for th<! protection o( transformer winding to make it free
from very high stresses that may be set up in the turns. A pure capacitor can not
dissipate the energy in wove front or in high frequency discharge but it just reflects
the energy away from the equipment to be protected while the energy is dissipated In
the resistance of line conductors and earthing resistances. With a. series combination of
resistor and capacitor, a part of energy is dissipated in the series combination in
addition to prevent it from approaching ID the equipment. The arrangement is shown
in the Fig. 12.24 (i) and (ii). At normal powtt frequency, the reactanee of capacitor is
high and practically no current nows to the ground.
The surge absorber may al!o 00 in the: Corm slmilar to air cored lrtlnsformcr '''ith
low lnduelllnce prlmory and single turn 5Mrt circuited secondary 1t1 net for energy
dissipation. When the travelling wave is Incident on the absorber, a part of energy is
dissipated as heat due to tr•nslormer action and by eddy currents. [k>cousc nf serits
Inductances, the wave front steepness is red~.
Protection and Switchgear 12. 39 Protection Against OVO<Volt.ogo
Unt--.-1-c-1 Tran1tormtr
I --c
I
(ij (II)
Fig. 12.24 Surge absort>er using capacltor

In onother type or surge absorber, • parallel c:omblnaHon of resisb'.ln<c and
hlduct.lll<'C is used as show» tn the Fig. 12.25 . This comblnatton is placed in snies
with the line steep wove fronts or high frequency dbchorgcs to find the inductive
path to have more reactance and arc forced through resistance where they are
dissipated. The power frequency currents find inductive p.11h or minimum impedance
( X, ; 2 • ( L Le. X,"' f ) and pass through it without much loss.
The Ferranti surge absorber consists of
inductive coil magnetically coupled but
R
not electrically to a metal shield and the
steel tank containing iL The roil is
Line _.CJ_
L ~'-•-'_•,,._•o_""_"_'~ cylindrical and currents are induced in
metal shield. The absorber is encloi!ed
cyllndrn:al boiler plate tnnk and i• vacuum
Flg. 1 2.2•• tmpregrwted.
·- ... -· It is simih'r to tran~fonnet
with short circuited secondary The
inductor is primary while metallic shield acts as short circuited secondary dissiparor.
The energy is dissipated as heat generated in a disslpator due to transformer action. It
Is used for the protection or transformer. ft is shown in lhe rig. 12.26.
Due to filter effect. the high frequency currents arc prevented from passing freely
through the absorber, The energy transferred through mutual induction is dissipated
in the form of heat in the disslpator.
Meell- ------ Metal thietd

Line o
Uno -· --Jlr-rnimrT-i:-__..·
T
(I)
~:r~::n=, (II)
Fig. 12.26 Ferranti surge absorber
12.24 Summary of Protective Devices Against Lightning Surges
Sr. No. Device Fltkl of appUcatlon
I Rod gap type 8Ull*!g lnS:UIM)r. Support ln$Ulator. Ac:1'0$& Ins~

S"*>g
3
Overhead earthed on;iund
wlrff
Vet'ticll mat-ti
-
Abo¥e Olf8fftMd lr~Aion
SubMlllb•
Unet , In the tub$tation
• EoMod llghtnlng rodt Abo¥il 1111 ~ °' a1ructure1
--
5 lightning Of aurge ann11Ma tncot1•'111 Ina In aubltntlonl. Nol\r termlnall or
~ end geMf81Drl, Pol• mount~ di&tnbuhOn
e Surge absorblirs ....., n:ICilli'lg mechll'lff. or 1wild'l0t&r, ActOll tenet
T.i.i.12.3
Review Questions
1 f;t'plltin lhf! pf1c•1ti11uritQ'I of lighlnilf8 llddlaJ-g..
2. W1w:rt QN ttir1cu1s typt-S of lightningdrotn l EqUin dttwt irr detail.
J, i\ltaol urC' ti,.. l1t1rnif11l l'if«I$ of ~./ltnr11t llrota OR 1Mitiitl!IKW1 nirupnitnl.J ?
.f W'JmJ -~ l'OTiQCtS '1'!11/niJ aj prof«tOf ~ "t'U1t-11'$ JtroU$ 7

5 Hmu do cVJrtl1ins :c,n-.·tt ond $'°"'"" wit'r.l ~ pnlftttiorl a,ta1t1M d1nxt U,~litn111g .i;tr ... ., 1
6 WJJal 1~ d lll"f<tt' dtt'l•rlt'r 1 Whitt IJ Wk ~ of upt'NllHJ" of J11r1~r d11A'rh.,. 1 l-lt1Ut ''"' they
tlM•,{i.<tl '
i °'' tl>r foll.owcJfl ty,a of .,""'cm
Wnl<" th>rr 1i.11t1'11
1J Horn R"J' t1rr1'5/1., 10 11."11,. #n'aln ,;u M11ll1J:"P ""•'''""

w> [.rpuffmn (VJW nrf'hlrr tJ) V•ll"I" t)'P" ~ln
Protection a.nd Switchgear 12. 41 Protection Against Overvottage
8 £xplR1n ctt1trly l10t1' ratin~ cf ligl1tnrn3 ltfft1.fn tS ltl«ttd Haw tl1t l«.ntlora of ligl111111r~ MrrsttT
u 1h-1Jl.J !
9 (\·pJ11111 ,,,... fallo1'1itr,~ ''rmJ rrlntf\l to tht l1glttn1n1 armt11
o) ~tC'11 t'Oltrr.~tt b) Follow nirmrt r> 0-ld~r currtnl
ti) Powtr fa·111r••nty 11'1(lrk oa-r ml4~t rJ lntpMI# lf'l"rk owr ('Olta,~1·
p RtJH11W i'Oltnsr S' RAtrd ,,,,..._.,.,
IQ WMt " hltvt'I" footi11s. ""'1ta.ncr ·' l-llwf •'1' IN ,,.,,Jtob IO m/U(~ thd Milftnllct' 7
11. ho'Pwr "a $rou1td tti;r,• 1 Dilr1w its loartMM Wlftll rdptd to tltt tint toitducto,1,
12. £rpt;t111 ""'' Qf1':ral/o11 of wrrhwJ typtf (Jj '"'11' •*""'''•

13. Whal do yo "'~"'11 by rotffidA!11t of omJrmg !
14 •\l'Jsat ary tlJt Mic rn111in.,,,(lftl af a goo.t liglltning •ndi" !
aoa
Rs. 190!-
1 se' hi ••Jl-Jlq ~

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2 9 Univetsal Relay Tcwque Equation ····-~-----··· 2-28

4.1 Oostance Rela ................................................................................... 4-1

...................................................... - ··-·-·--·· 4--10

4.32 Torque Egieon

5 I lnl!Qduc;tm ,, ''o!'QO'"ot'ol'I!' ::tees:lnrnn"teee••te••211 err n Inn

5 2 t z flbm" ptwe Fam

514 ProtllCllOn Against Unbalanced Loading 5-30

8 2 Phaso Comparison Melhod ol Carrier Current Protection................... 8-5

9.1 Introduction ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, .. """""""""" """" ,,..,, """" "'"" 9-1

9.21 Z trh> i ofT!!!Wnn

9.3 O.C. Cirouit Break:irlg _9-A

s. 11.2 lorW!lan hr eorm .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . &-37

10 9 12 cntp BtW OI Ciroct Bma\W 1Q..11

10 9 2 Sell r.aoe1 f'res511re QI Cmrl&rake( 'JQ.30

10.21 Types of Synthetic Test Clrooits 10..54

1.2 Functions of Protectlvo Rel•ylng

1.3 Protective Zones

.....,._ "°"'9e' ' ~ - - - .. - '

1."4 Primary and Backup Protection

a po!Sob1hty ol severe damage to the system.

1 A.1 Concept of Backup Relaying

Fig. 1.s 8ackup rel•ylng

1.5 Nature and Causes of Faults

A power system consbts oi generators, transformers, swib:hgear. transmission and

,.,....,, ~.. It Raiptuftltation -..occ:vnnoe

21 u-. tu u;.. f\.-l.1 •

1.8 F•ult Cur,..nt C•lculallon using Symmetrical Components

Ptotect!on end Swltcll9Ulf 1 • 10 Proi.ctlveR~lng

t.7.2 Selectivity and Olsertmlna11on

1. 7 .3 SPffd and Time

1.8 Claaslficatlon of Protective Relays

1.8.1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays

1.8.2 Induction Type Relays

1.&.3 Dlrectlonal Type Relay•

1.8-4 Relays Based on Timing

1.8.5 Distance Type Relays

1.8.6 Dlfferentl•I Type Rel•ys

1.8.7 Other Typea of R.elaya

1.9 Termlnologlea used In Protective Rel1ylng

..., ..... C(Jj1

Fig. 1.9 Topplng f0< current 1ettlng

= 4 • 0.2 = 0.8 seconds

14. Trip Cimait: The opening opcnlion of circuit btt•X.-.- tS controU..'CI by •

1.10 Instrument Transformers

1.11 Current Transformers (C.T.)

A 1r.nslom1cr Is • dev1oe whlth COl\Sists of two winding> c.11led primary and

Ao•••lt* o( fh'l' "''in.• h..'' Ing .11n\.&ll

1.11.1 Working Principle

<;,, hne cum'l\t IS 135 A.

1.12 Conatructfon of Current Tranaformara

1.12.1 Wound l)lpa Current Tran1fonMr

Fig. 1.13 Wound cype currtnt trtnslO<mef

In • IOI\ \'olt4j\t' "'ound type current tronslormt>r, tho '<'rond•ry wmdmg is

(bl Rl"I! 1<1 llldlum

Flo. 1.14 Stemplnga for cumont 1r1narorm.n

fig. 1.15 Ber type current transfonn«

The in>ulo~nn on dw bu type primary Is bftkell1ed paper tube or • r..~in dll1'dly

1.13 Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be Open ?

ll"'lttall} opp<»e pnm•ry aml"'ft' tum• ~Jn<'Szero. As there " no rounlfr mm 1.

1.14 Potential Tr•naronnera {P.T.)

..- : !/ >«<>nd.>ry has less numb<tr of tums and

"""ond.ry i• •I"'•>.. l!l"Undl'<I lor ~1.ty

Fig. 1.1e Pottntlal transf0tmer