Theory of Machines-I

(BTM402)
Student Manual
Sr. no. Name of Experiment Page no.
1 To study various types of Kinematic links, pairs, chains and
Mechanisms
2 To study inversions of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single and double
slider crank mechanisms.
3 To plot slider displacement, velocity and acceleration against
crank rotation for single slider crank mechanism.
4 To study various special mechanism i.e. steering gear,
pantograph, hooks joint, Straight line generating mechanisms
5 To study various type of cam and follower arrangements
6 To study various types of gear trains – simple, compound,
reverted, epicyclic and differential
1 Create various types of linkage mechanism in CAD and
simulate for motion outputs and study the relevant effects
2 Creation of various joints like revolute, planes, spherical, cam
follower and study the degree of freedom and motion patterns
available
3 Computer program to find velocity and acceleration for single
slider crank mechanism.
1 Synthesis of Four bar Mechanism.
2 Location of instant center and Velocity analysis by ICR -3P
3 Velocity – Acceleration analysis by relative method -3P
4 Construction of involute profiles 1P
5 Construction of x-t, v-t, a-t, j-t curves for different follower
motions and cam profile.
 Experiment No. 1
AIM: -To study various types of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

APPARATUS : - Kinematics links, pairs, chain & Mechanisms.

THEORY: -

1. Definitions of Kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

2. Classifications of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.
3. Diagrams of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.
4. Advantages & Disadvantages of kinematics Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.
5. Application of Kinematics links, Pairs, chains Mechanism.
6. Examples of Kinematics link, Pairs, chains & Mechanisms

Kinematic Link: -A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out of which some may
have motions relative to the others. A resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigid
connections preventing their relative movement is known as a link. A link is also known as
kinematic link or element.

Examples: - A slider-crank mechanism consists of four links: frame and guides, crank connecting
rod and slider, the crank link may have crankshaft and flywheel also, forming one link having no
relative motion of these.

Classifications of Links:-

1. Binary link.
2. Ternary link.
3. Quarternary link.

Kinematic Pair: - A kinematic pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links having relative motion
between them.

Classifications of Pairs:

1. Kinematics pairs according to nature of contact:-

a) Lower pair (links having surface or area contact)

Examples- Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint etc.
 b) Higher pair (Point or line contact between the links)
Examples: - when rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball
and roller bearings etc.
2. Kinematics' pairs according to nature of Mechanical Constraint:-
a) Closed pair (when the elements of a pair are held together mechanically)
Examples: - all the lower pairs and some of the higher pair.
b) Unclosed pair (when two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity or
some spring action), Example: - cam and follower pair.

3. Kinematics pairs according to nature of relative motion:-

a) Sliding Pair.
b) Turning pair.
c) Rolling Pair.
d) Screw Pair (Helical pair).
e) Spherical pair.

Kinematic Chain: -A kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of
the links are possible and the motion of each relative to the others is definite. If indefinite
motions of other links, it is a non-kinematic chain.

Types of kinematics chains: -

1. Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain.

2. Single slider crank chain.
3. Double slider crank chain.
Mechanism: - A linkage is obtained if one of the links of a kinematics chain is fixed to the
ground. If motion of each link results in definite motions of the others, the linkage is known as a
mechanism. If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a structure. The
degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure with negative degree of freedom is
known as a superstructure.

OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION:-

1. Comparison between kinematics links, Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.

2. Type of Motion to be named.
 Experiment No. 2
AIM: - To study inversions of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & double slider crank mechanisms.

APPARATUS : - Models of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & double slider Crank mechanisms

THEORY: -

1. Definitions of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & Double slider crank mechanisms.

2. Classifications of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & Double slider crank mechanisms.
3. Diagrams of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & Double slider crank mechanisms.
4. Working & Construction of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & Double slider crank
mechanisms.
5. Applications of 4 Bar Mechanisms, Single & Double slider crank mechanisms.
Four Bar Mechanism: - A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental of the
plane kinematics linkages. It is a much preferred mechanical device for the mechanization and
control of motion due to its simplicity and versatility. Basically it consists of four rigid links
which are connected in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin joints. A link that makes complete
revolutions is the crank, the link opposite to the fixed link is the coupler and the fourth link a
lever or rocker if oscillates or an another crank, if rotate.
By fixing the link:-
 Shortest Link Fixed
 Link opposite to Shortest Link fixed

Inversions Of Single Slider Crank Chain:-Different mechanisms obtained by fixing different

links of a kinematics chain are known as its inversions. A slider crank chain has the following
inversions:-

 First inversion: - In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e. the cylinder and the frame is kept
fixed. The fig below shows a reciprocating engine.
 Figure: Single slider crank mechanism.
 Second inversion:- It is an application of second inversion. The crank and slotted lever
mechanism is shown in figure below.

Figure: Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism.

This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary
engines. In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates in oscillating
slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6).
The ram with the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The ram with
the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is perpendicular to link 4. Thus the
cutting stroke is executed during the rotation of the crank through angle α and the return
stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or 360 – α.
 Third inversion:- Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth
quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion.
 Figure: Whitworth quick return motion mechanism.
 Fourth inversion:- If link 4 of the slider crank mechanism is fixed, the fourth inversion
is obtained.

Figure: Pendulum Pump

Double-Slider Crank-Chain: A four-bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such
that two pairs of the same kind are adjacent is known as a double-slider-crank chain. The
following are its inversions:
 First inversion:- This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted link is fixed.
The sliding block P and Q in vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R
generates an ellipse with the displacement of sliders P and Q.
 Figure: Elliptical trammels.
 Second inversion:- This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion in to reciprocating
motion.The inversion is obtained by fixing either the link 1 or link 3. Link I is fixed. In
this mechanism when the link 2 rotates about B as centre, the link 4 reciprocates. The
fixed link 1 guides the frame.

Figure: Scotch yoke mechanism

 Third inversion:- The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link connecting the 2
blocks P & Q. If one block is turning through an angle, the frame and the other block will
also turn through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Oldham’s coupling.

OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION: -

 Comparison between 4 Bar, Single & Double slider cranks mechanisms.

 Type of Motion to be named.

Applications :-

 In reciprocating engine.
 In reciprocating compressor.
 In Whitworth quick — return mechanism and Rotary engine.
 In oscillating cylinder engine and crank & slotted-lever mechanism.
 In hand pump.
 In scotch yoke.
 Experiment No. 03
AIM: To plot slider displacement, velocity and acceleration against crank rotation for single
slider crank mechanism.

APPARATUS: Slider-crank Mechanism, Tri Square/Foot Scale, Stopper Screw

THEORY:

Slider-Crank Mechanism: The slider-crank mechanism is a simple four bar mechanism in

which the rocker is replaced by a slider. Thus the four links in the slider-crank mechanism are:
Crank, Coupler/Connecting Rod, Slider and the Ground link. A simple slider-crank mechanism
is shown below:

Figure: Slider-crank Mechanism

The Slider-Crank mechanism can be used whenever there is a need of converting

rotational motion to translational motion. The common applications of slider-crank mechanism
are the internal combustion engines, Bull Gear, locomotives, etc.

PROCEDURE:

 Count the number of links in the slider-crank mechanism.

 Count the number of joints in the mechanism.
 Using the Gruebler's equation: M=3(L - 1) - 2J calculate the degree of freedom of the
slider-crank mechanism.
 Now, with the help of tri square/foot scale, measure the distance between the each of the
three holes present in the crank of the slider-crank mechanism. These three holes
 represent the points where the stopper screw can be adjusted to vary the link length of the
crank.
 Now, starting with zero, with the help of the angular scale available on the crank, position
the crank with an increment of every fifteen degrees and observe the corresponding
position of the slider. Note down these values in the table available. Do this procedure for
the whole 360 degrees.
 Assuming an angular velocity of fifteen degrees per second, calculate the velocities at
each of the positions of fifteen degrees with the help of the formula: (P2- P1)/ (T2 –T1)
where,
P2 = Final position of the slider.
P1 = Initial Position of the slider.
T2 –T1 = 1 second
 After calculating the velocities of the slider at different points, calculate the acceleration
at the same points with the help of the formula: (V2- V1)/ (T2 –T1)
where
V2 = Final velocity of the slider.
V1 = Initial velocity of the slider.
T2 –T1 = 1 second
 Finally draw graphs of position, velocity and acceleration of the slider with respect to the
position of the crank.
 Apply the same procedure for the other two slider lengths.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Crank Slider Slider Slider

Sr. Theoretical results
Angle Position Velocity Acceleration
No. Pos. Vel. Acc.
(Degrees) (mm) (mm/sec) (mm/sec2)
1 0
2 15
3 30
4 45
5 60
6 75
7 90
8 105
9 120
10 135
11 150
12 165
13 180
14 195
15 210
16 225
17 240
18 255
19 270
20 285
21 300
22 315
23 330
24 345
CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS:
 Experiment No. 04
AIM: To study various special mechanism i.e. steering gear, pantograph, hooks joint, Straight
line generating mechanisms.

APPARATUS: Models of the mechanisms.

THEORY:

1. Steering Gear Mechanism:

The steering gear mechanism is used for changing the direction of two or more of the wheel
axles with reference to the chassis, so as to move the automobile in any desired path. Usually the
two back wheels have a common axis, which is fixed in direction with reference to the chassis
and the steering is done by means of the front wheels.

In automobiles, the front wheels are placed over the front axles, which are pivoted at the points A
and B, as shown in Figure. These points are fixed to the chassis. The back wheels are placed over
the back axle, at the two ends of the differential tube. When the vehicle takes a turn, the front
wheels along with the respective axles turn about the respective pivoted points. The back wheels
remain straight and do not turn. Therefore, the steering is done by means of front wheels only.

Figure: Steering gear mechanism

Types of Steering Gears:-There are two main types of steering gears:

1. The Davis steering Gear

2. The Ackerman steering gear

Davis Steering Gear: The Davis steering gear is shown in Figure. It is an exact steering gear
mechanism. The slotted links AM and BH are attached to the front wheel axle, which turn on
pivots A and B respectively. The rod CD is constrained to move in the direction of its length, by
the sliding members at P and Q.

Figure: Davis Steering Gear.

These constraints are connected to the slotted link AM and BH by a sliding and a turning pair at
each end. The steering is affected by moving CD to the right or left of its normal position. C ′D′
shows the position of CD for turning to the left.

Ackerman Steering Gear :

An Ackerman steering gear has only turning pairs and thus is preferred. Its drawback is that it
fulfils the fundamental equation of correct gearing at the middle and the two extreme positions
and not in all positions.

Figure: Ackerman Steering Gear

This steering gear consists of a four link mechanism ABCD having four-turning pairs. Three
positions of the correct gearing are-

1. When the vehicle moves along a straight path, the longer links AB and CD are parallel and the
shorter links BC and AD are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle, as shown by
firm lines in Figure.

2. When the vehicle is steering to the left, the position of the gear is shown by dotted lines in
Figure. In this position, the lines of the front wheel axle intersect on the back wheel axle at I, for
correct steering.

3. When the vehicle is steering to the right, the similar position may be obtained.

2. Pantograph:

A pantograph is an instrument used to reproduce to an enlarged or a reduced scale and as

exactly as possible the path described by a given point. It consists of a jointed parallelogram
ABCD as shown in Fig. 9.1. It is made up of bars connected by turning pairs. The bars BA and
BC are extended to O and E respectively, such that

OA/OB = AD/BE

Figure: Pantograph

Thus, for all relative positions of the bars, the triangles OAD and OBE are similar and the points
O, D and E are in one straight line. It may be proved that point E traces out the same path as
described by point D.
From similar triangles OAD and OBE, we find that

OD/OE = AD/BE
Let point O be fixed and the points D and E move to some new positions D′ and E′. Then

OD/OE = OD′/OE′
A little consideration will show that the straight line DD′ is parallel to the straight line EE′.

Hence, if O is fixed to the frame of a machine by means of a turning pair and D is

attached to a point in the machine which has rectilinear motion relative to the frame, then E will
also trace out a straight line path. Similarly, if E is constrained to move in a straight line, then D
will trace out a straight line parallel to the former.

A pantograph is mostly used for the reproduction of plane areas and figures such as maps,
plans etc., on enlarged or reduced scales. It is, sometimes, used as an indicator rig in order to
reproduce to a small scale the displacement of the crosshead and therefore of the piston of a
reciprocating steam engine. It is also used to guide cutting tools. A modified form of pantograph
is used to collect power at the top of an electric locomotive.

3. Universal or Hooke’s Joint

A Hooke’s joint is used to connect two shafts, which are intersecting at a small angle, as
shown in Fig. 9.18. The end of each shaft is forked to U-type and each fork provides two
bearings for the arms of a cross. The arms of the cross are perpendicular to each other.

Figure: Universal or Hooke’s joint.

 The motion is transmitted from the driving shaft to driven shaft through a cross. The
inclination of the two shafts may be constant, but in actual practice it varies, when the motion is
transmitted. The main application of the Universal or Hooke’s joint is found in the transmission
from the gear box to the differential or back axle of the automobiles. It is also used for
transmission of power to different spindles of multiple drilling machine. It is also used as a knee
joint in milling machines.

4. Straight Line Generating Mechanisms:

One of the most common forms of the constraint mechanisms is that it permits only relative
motion of an oscillatory nature along a straight line. The mechanisms used for this purpose are
called straight line mechanisms. These mechanisms are of the following two types:

1. in which only turning pairs are used, and

2. in which one sliding pair is used.

4.1 Exact Straight Line Motion Mechanisms Made up of Turning Pairs:

Figure: Exact Straight Line Motion Mechanism

The principle adopted for a mathematically correct or exact straight line motion is described in
Fig.9.2. Let O be a point on the circumference of a circle of diameter OP.

Let OA be any chord and B is a point on OA produced, such that

 OA × OB = constant

Then the locus of a point B will be a straight line perpendicular to the diameter OP. This may be
proved as follows:

Draw BQ perpendicular to OP produced. Join AP. The triangles OAP and OBQ are similar.

OA/OP = OQ/OB

or OP × OQ = OA × OB

or OQ = OA ×OB/OP

But OP is constant as it is the diameter of a circle, therefore, if OA × OB is constant, then OQ

will be constant. Hence the point B moves along the straight path BQ which is perpendicular to
OP.

1. Peaucellier mechanism :

It consists of a fixed link OO1 and the other straight links O1A, OC, OD, AD, DB, BC and CA are
connected by turning pairs at their intersections, as shown in Figure. The pin at A is constrained
to move along the circumference of a circle with the fixed diameter OP, by means of the link
O1A.

Figure: Peaucellier mechanism

In Figure,

AC = CB = BD = DA ; OC = OD ; and OO1 = O1A

It may be proved that the product OA × OB remains constant, when the link O1A rotates. Join
CD to bisect AB at R.

Now from right angled triangles ORC and BRC, we have

OC2 = OR2 + RC2 ...(i)

and BC2 = RB2 + RC2 ...(ii)

Subtracting equation (ii) from (i), we have

OC2 – BC2 = OR2 – RB2

= (OR + RB) (OR – RB)

= OB × OA

Since OC and BC are of constant length, therefore the product OB × OA remains constant. Hence
the point B traces a straight path perpendicular to the diameter OP.

4.2 Approximate Straight Line Motion Mechanisms:

The approximate straight line motion mechanisms are the modifications of the four-bar chain
mechanisms. Following mechanisms to give approximate straight line motion, are important
from the subject point of view :

1. Watt’s mechanism:

It is a crossed four bar chain mechanism and was used by Watt for his early steam engines to
guide the piston rod in a cylinder to have an approximate straight line motion.
 Figure: Watt’s mechanism

In Figure, OBAO1 is a crossed four bar chain in which O and O1 are fixed. In the mean
position of the mechanism, links OB and O1A are parallel and the coupling rod AB is
perpendicular to O1A and OB. The tracing point P traces out an approximate straight line over
certain positions of its movement, if PB/PA = O1A/OB. This may be proved as follows :

A little consideration will show that in the initial mean position of the mechanism, the
instantaneous centre of the link BA lies at infinity. Therefore the motion of the point P is along
the vertical line BA . Let OB′ A′O1 be the new position of the mechanism after the links OB and
O1A are displaced through an angle θ and φ respectively. The instantaneous centre now lies at I.
Since the angles θ and φ are very small, therefore

arc B B′ = arc A A′ or OB × θ = O1 A × φ ...(i)

OB / O1 A = φ / θ

Also A′P′ = IP′ × φ, and B′P′ = IP′ × φ

A′P′ / B′P′ = φ / θ …(ii)

From equations (i) and (ii),

OB/O1A = A’P’/B’P’ =AP/BP

or O1A/OB = PB/PA
Thus, the point P divides the link AB into two parts whose lengths are inversely proportional to
the lengths of the adjacent links.

2. Tchebicheff’s mechanism:

It is a four bar mechanism in which the crossed links OA and O1B are of equal length, as
shown in Figure. The point P, which is the mid-point of AB traces out an approximately straight
line parallel to OO1. The proportions of the links are, usually, such that point P is exactly above
O or O1 in the extreme positions of the mechanism i.e. when BA lies along OA or when BA lies
along BO1.It may be noted that the point P will lie on a straight line parallel to OO1, in the two
extreme positions and in the mid position, if the lengths of the links are in proportions AB : OO1 :
OA = 1 : 2 : 2.5.

Figure: Tchebicheff’s mechanism

 Experiment No. 05
AIM: To study various type of cam and follower arrangements.

APPARATUS: Cam and follower arrangements.

THEORY:
Cam & Follower :- A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion to a follower
by direct contact. The cam may be rotating or reciprocating whereas the follower may be
rotating, reciprocating or oscillating. A cam and the follower combination belong to the category
of higher pairs.
• A driver member known as the cam.
• A driven member called the follower
Types of Cams:
 According to shape
1. Wedge and flat Cams: - A wedge cam has a wedge W which, in general, has a
translational motion. The follower. The follower F can either translate or oscillate.

Figure: Cam and follower arrangements.

 2. Radial or Disc Cams: - A cam in which the follower moves radially from the center of
rotation of the cam is known as a radial or a disc cam.
3. Spiral cams: - A spiral cam is a face cam in which a groove is cut in the form of a spiral
as shown in fig. the spiral groove consists of teeth which mesh with a pin gear follower.
4. Cylindrical cams :- In a cylindrical cam, a cylinder which has a circumferential contour
cut in the surface, rotate about its axis.
5. Conjugate cams :- A conjugate cam is a double – disc cam, the two discs being keyed
together and are in constant touch with the two rollers of a follower. It is used for low
noise, high speed and dynamic loads.
6. Globoidal cams :- A globoidal cam can have two types of surfaces, convex or concave. A
circumferential contour is cut on the surface of rotation of the cam to impart motion to
the follower which has an oscillatory motion.
7. Spherical cams :- In a spherical cam, the follower oscillates about an axis perpendicular
to the axis of rotation of the cam.
 According to Follower Movement
1. Rise-Return-Rise (R-R-R) :- In this, there is alternate rise and return of the follower with
no periods of dwells. Its use is very limited in the industry. The follower has a linear or
an angular displacement.
2. Dwell-Rise-Return-Dwell (D-R-R-D) :- In such a type of cam, there is rise and return of
the follower after a dwell. This type is used more frequently than the R-R-R type of cam
3. Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return (D-R-D-R) :- It is most widely used type of cam. The dwelling
of the cam is followed by rise and dwell and subsequently by return and dwell.
 According to Manner of Constraint of the Follower
1. Pre-loaded Spring Cam
2. Positive-Drive Cam
3. Gravity Cam
Types of Followers :-
1. According to shape
 Knife-edge Follower
 Roller Follower
 Mushroom Follower
2. According to Movement
 Reciprocating Follower
 Oscillating Follower
3. According to Locating of Line of Movement
 Radial Follower
 Offset Follower
 Experiment No. 06
AIM : To study various types of gear trains – simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic and
differential

APPARATUS : - Models of Gear train system.

THEORY: -

Gear Train :- A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to
another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain large speed reduction within a small
space. The following are the main types of gear trains:

(i) Simple gear train

(ii) Compound gear train
(iii) Reverted gear train
(iv) Planetary gear train

Simple Gear Train :- A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one
gear to another is called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear axes remain fixed relative to the
frame and each gear is on a separate shaft.

Train Value = Number of teeth on driving gear / Number of teeth on driven gear

Figure: Simple Gear Train

Compound Gear Train :- When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more
gears rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In
this type, some of the intermediate shafts.

Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on
driven gear

Figure: Compound Gear Train

Reverted Gear Train :- If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound gear coincide; it is
called a reverted gear train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in simple lathes where
‘back gear’ is used to give a slow speed to the chuck.

Figure: Reverted Gear Train

Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number of teeth on
driven gear

Planetary Or Epicyclic Gear Train :- When there exists a relative motion of axis in gear train,
it is called a planetary or an epicyclic gear train (or simply epicyclic gear or train). Thus in an
epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears also moves relative to the frame.

Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axis of which are connected by an arm a. if the arm ‘a’ is
fixed, the wheels S and P constitute a simple train. However, if the wheel s is fixed so that the
arm can rotate about the axis of S, the wheel P would also move around S. therefore, it is an
epicyclic train.

Figure: Planetary Or Epicyclic Gear Train