Earth Materials

Lecture 13

Earth Materials

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Hooke’s law of elasticity
Force Extension
= E×
Area Length
Hooke’s law
σn = E εn

where E is material constant, the

Young’s Modulus
Units are force/area – N/m2 or Pa
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was a virtuoso
scientist contributing to geology,
palaeontology, biology as well as mechanics
σ ij = C ijkl ε kl
ß Constitutive equations
These are relationships between forces and deformation in a continuum, which
define the material behaviour.

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 Shear modulus and bulk modulus
Young’s or stiffness modulus:
σ n = Eε n
Shear or rigidity modulus:
σ S = Gε S = µ ε s
Bulk modulus (1/compressibility):
− P = Kε v Mt Shasta andesite

Can write the bulk modulus in terms of the Lamé

parameters λ, µ:
K = λ + 2µ/3
and write Hooke’s law as:

σ = (λ +2µ) ε

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Young’s Modulus or stiffness modulus
Young’s Modulus or stiffness modulus: σ n = Eε n

Interatomic force

Interatomic distance

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Shear Modulus or rigidity modulus
Shear modulus or stiffness modulus: σ s = Gε s

Interatomic force

Interatomic distance

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 Hooke’s Law
σij and εkl are second-rank tensors so Cijkl is a fourth-rank tensor.
For a general, anisotropic material there are 21 independent elastic moduli.
In the isotropic case this tensor reduces to just two independent elastic
constants, λ and µ.
So the general form of Hooke’s Law reduces to:
σ ij = λδ ij ε kk + 2 µε ij
This can be deduced from substituting into the Taylor expansion
for stress and differentiating.

For example: σ 11 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 11 Normal stress

σ 12 = 2 µε 12 Shear stress

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law: σ ij = λδ ij ε kk + 2 µε ij
Consider normal stresses and normal strains:
σ 11 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 11
σ 22 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 22
σ 33 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 33
In terms of principal stresses and principal strains:

σ 1 = (λ + 2 µ )ε 1 + λ ε 2 + λ ε 3
σ 2 = λ ε 1 + (λ + 2 µ )ε 2 + λ ε 3
σ 3 = λ ε 1 + λ ε 2 + (λ + 2 µ )ε 3

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Hooke’s Law
Can write in inverse form:
1 υ υ
ε1 = σ1 − σ 2 − σ 3
E E E
υ 1 υ
ε2 = − σ1 + σ 2 − σ 3
E E E
υ υ 1
ε3 = − σ1 − σ 2 + σ 3
E E E
where E is the Young’s Modulus and υ is the Poisson’s ratio.
Poisson’s ratio varies between 0.2 and 0.3 for rocks.
A principal stress component σi produces a strain σI /E in the
same direction and strains (-υ.σi / E) in orthogonal directions.
Elastic behaviour of an isotropic material can be characterized
either by specifying either λ and µ, or E and υ.

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Constitutive equation: uniaxial elastic deformation
All components of stress zero except σ11: σ11

σ 11 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 11
σ 22 = 0 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 22 dσ11/dε11 = E
σ 33 = 0 = λ (ε 11 + ε 22 + ε 33 ) + 2 µε 33
ε11
The solution to this set of simultaneous equations is:
σ33 = 0
µ (3λ + 2 µ ) σ22 = 0
σ 11 = ε 11 = E ε 11
λ+µ
λ σ11
ε 22 = ε 33 = − ε 11 = −νε 11 σ11
2(λ + µ )

where E is Young’s Modulus and ν is Poisson’s ratio.

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

Constitutive equations: isotropic compression
No shear or strain; all normal stresses σ33 = -p
equal to –p; all normal strains
equal to εv /3. σ22 = -p

σ11 = -p σ11 = -p
⎛ 2 ⎞
− P = ⎜ λ + µ ⎟ε V = Kε V
⎝ 3 ⎠ σ22 = -p

∆V σ33 = -p
εv = = ε11 + ε 22 + ε 33
V -p

P = - 1/3 (σ11 + σ22 + σ33 ) = - 1/3 σii

-dp/dεv = K
where K is the bulk modulus;
hence K = λ + 2/3µ
εv

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Young’s Modulus (initial tangent) of Materials
Typical E
Rubber 7 MPa
Normally consolidated clays 0.2 ~ 4 GPa
Boulder clay (oversolidated) 10 ~20 GPa
Concrete 20 GPa
Sandstone 20 GPa
Granite 50 GPa
Basalt 60 GPa
Steel 205 GPa
Diamond 1,200 GPa

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 “Strength” of Materials
Uniaxial tensile Compressive strength
strength - unconfined
Soil 300 kPa 1 MPa

Sandstone 1 MPa 10 MPa

Concrete 4 MPa 40 MPa

Basalt 4 MPa 40 MPa

Granite 5 MPa 50 MPa

Rubber 30 MPa 2,000 MPa

Spruce along/across grain 100 / 3 MPa 100 / 3 MPa

Steel piano wire 3,000 MPa 3,000 MPa

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 σ
Fracture ε
Calculate the stress which will just separate two
adjacent layers of atoms x layers apart x
σ
strain energy / m2 = ½ stress x strain x vol
Ue = ½ σn εn x
Hooke’s law: εn = σn / E ε

Ue = σn2 x / 2E σ
If Us is the surface energy of the solid per square metre, then the total
surface energy of the solid per square metre would be 2Us per square metre
Suppose that at the theoretical strength the whole of the strain energy
between two layers of atoms is potentially convertible to surface energy:
σ n2 x Us E Us E
≈ 2U s or σn ≈ 2 ≈
2E x x
For steel: Us = 1 J/m; E = 200 GPa; ⇒ σmax = 30 GPa ≈ E / 10
x = 2 x 10-10 m
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 Griffith energy balance

Microcrack in lava
The reason why rocks don’t reach their theoretical strength is because they
contain cracks
Crack models are also used in modelling earthquake faulting

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 Dislocations (line defects) in shear

The reason why rocks don’t reach their theoretical shear strength is because
they contain dislocations
Dislocation models are also used in modelling earthquake faulting

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 Engineering behaviour of soils
• Soils are granular materials – their
behaviour is quite different to crystalline
rock
• Deformation is strongly non-linear
• The curvature of the stress-strain is largest
near the origin
• Properties are highly dependent on Uniaxial deformation
water content
• The constitutive relation for shear
deformation, found from hundreds
of experiments is:
εs εr
σ s = G0
εs + εr
εr is the reference strain
Shear deformation
GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
 Constitutive equation for soils
Soils are fractal materials
There is a lognormal distribution
of grain sizes (c.f. crack lengths
in rocks)
Suppose we subject a soil to a
simple shear strain. The shear
forces applied to each grain must
be lognormally distributed since
they are proportional to the grain replacing G and µ by their
surfaces. So the shear modulus definitions in terms of shear stress
and rigidity must be related by a σs and shear strain εs :
d
power law:
dσ s ⎛σs ⎞
G = c µd = c⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dεs ⎝ εs ⎠
where d is the fractal dimension
of the grain size distribution constitutive equation for soils
GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
 Constitutive equation for soils
d
dσ s ⎛σs ⎞
From fractals: = c⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dεs ⎝ εs ⎠
εs εr
Integrating and setting d = 2: σ s = G0
εs + εr
This is the same as the empirical constitutive equation!

This is a hyperbolic stress-strain relation (i.e., like a deformation stress-strain curve)

It may be interpreted as saying that the shear modulus G = dσ/dε of a soil decays
inversely as (1 + τ) where τ = εs / εr is the normalised strain

Note that the stress-strain behaviour of soils cannot be linearized at small

strain

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Liquefaction of soils: phase transition
This aspect of soil behaviour is
completely different from
crystalline rock

Soil liquefaction: Kobe port area

Motion on soft ground to strong
earthquake is fundamentally
different to small earthquakes
because sediments go through a
phase transition and liquefy
Stress-strain curve of a soil as
compared with that of a crystalline
rock – note different definition of
rigidity

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Constitutive equation: viscous flow
ε
Incompressible viscous fluids
For viscous fluids the deviatoric stress
is proportional to strain-rate:
•
σ ij' = 2η ε ' ij
where η is the shear viscosity 1/2η
σ

Viscosity is an internal property of a fluid that offers resistance to flow.

Viscosity is measured in units of Pa s (Pascal seconds), which is a unit of
pressure times a unit of time. This is a force applied to the fluid, acting for
some length of time. A marble (density 2800 kg/m3) and a steel ball bearing
(7800 kg/m3) will both measure the viscosity of a liquid with different
velocities. Water has a viscosity of 0.001 Pa s, a Pahoehoe lava flow 100 Pa
s, an a'a flow has a viscosity of 1000 Pa s. We can mentally imagine a sphere
dropping through them and how long it might take.

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Experimental techniques to study friction

Shear box Direct shear

Triaxial test Rotary shear

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 Experimental results
ß At low normal stresses (σN < 200 MPa)
a Linear friction law observed: σS = µ σN
a A significant amount of variation between rock types: µ
can vary between 0.2 and 2.0 but most commonly
between 0.5 – 0.9
a Average for all data given by: σS = 0.85 σN

ß At higher normal stresses (σN > 200 MPa)

a Very little variation between wide range of rock types (with
some notable exceptions – esp. clay minerals which can have
unusually low µ
a But friction does not obey Amonton’s Law (i.e. straight line
through origin) but Coulomb’s Law
a Best fit to all data given by:
a σS = 50 + 0.6 σN
GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD
 Simple failure criteria
(a) Friction – Amonton’s Law
1st: Friction is proportional normal load (N)
Hence: F = µ N - µ is the coefficient of friction
2nd: Friction force (F) is independent of the areas in contact
So in terms of stresses: σS = µ σN = σN tanφ
May be simply represented on a Mohr diagram:

σS
µ= tan φ
µ
p e φ
slo φ is the “angle of friction”

σN

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Field observations
ß We are concerned with friction related to earthquakes, i.e.,
friction on faults
ß Faults are interfaces that have already fractured in previously
intact material and have subsequently been displaced in shear
(i.e., have slipped)
ß Hence they are not “mated” surfaces (unlike joints)

Joint Fault

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 Summary: Byerlee’s Friction Laws
ß All data may be fitted by two straight lines:
a σN < 200 MPa σS = 0.85 σN
a σN > 200 MPa σS = 50 + 0.6 σN
ß These are largely independent of rock type
ß Independent of roughness of contacting surfaces
ß Independent of rock strength or hardness
ß Independent of sliding velocity
ß Independent of temperature (up to 400oC)

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Experimental results of triaxial deformation tests
Differential Stress
(σ1 - σ3) Total
Axial
Modes of brittle fracture in a triaxial system
Stress
Confining σ1
Pressure PC σ1 σ1 σ1 σ1
PC Hydrostatic
PC applied in
all directions
prior to the
differential
loading.
PC PC = σ2 = σ3

σ3 σ3

σ1 σ1 σ1 σ1

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 Actuator
applying
To AE transducer
axial load

Thermocouple
Fluid outlet fitting
feedthrough

Top wave-guide

Pressure Vessel

Load Cell

Insulating filler Top steel

Fv520 piston

Top pyrophillite
enclosing disc
Alumina coil
support

Alumina Disc

Rock Specimen

Pore fluid inlet

Fibrous alumina
insulation

Bottom steel
Fv520 piston

Bottom
enclosing pyrophillite
block Bottom wave
guide

Pressure fittings
Bottom plug

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 Experimental results
Schematic
stress-strain
curves for rock
deformation
over a range of
confining
pressure

Dependence of
differential
stress at shear
failure in
compression on
Strength of Westerly granite as
confining
a function of confining
pressure for a
pressure. Also shown is
wide range of
frictional strength.
igneous rocks

GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD

 Simple failure criteria
(b) Faulting – Coulomb’s Law
σS = C + µi σN = σN tanφi
C is a constant – the cohesion µi is the coefficient of “internal” friction

Tensile fracture Shear fracture

σS µi φi
p e
slo

σN
(σ2 = -σT) C µi = tan φi
σT – tensile strength
φi is the “angle of internal friction”
GNH7/GG09/GEOL4002 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE HAZARD