WorldOil's

Cementing oil and gas wells

. . . including casing handling procedures

BY
GEORGE o. SUMAN, JR. .AND RICHARD C. ELLIS

Acknowledgment
This handbook is the result of a comprehensive
study of cementing oil and gas wells including cas-
ing handling procedures. The authors' basic work
was sponsored by AMF Tubescope, Inc.; Bakerline,
a division of Baker International Corp.; Dowell
Schlumberger; Oil Tool Division, PENGO Industries,
Inc.; Lynes, Inc.; Texas Iron Works, Inc., and Varco
International, Inc. The authors wish to express their
appreciation to these companies for their sponsor-
ship and for the complete freedom allowed in
preparation of all material. Thanks are also due
the sponsors and many other manufacturers for
providing information and illustrations, and to those
in industry who reviewed the manuscript and con-
tributed many helpful suggestions.

Copyright@ 1977
All rights reserved

WOl'ld Oil P.O. Box 2608 Houston, Texas 77001

Tableof Contents
CementingOil and Gas Wells Handbook
Part 1-Basic functions of cement are
given, with concepts to consider in mud,
pipe and hole preparation to prevent
job failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Part 2-Casing inspection and pipe
handling methods, including thread
make-up control, hydrostatic testing,
landing practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Part 3-How basic cements and additives
can be tailored to give desired properties
for completion and remedial operations. . . .22
Part 4-Practical interpretation of
rheology, annular displacing forces.
How to avoid bypassing mud during
primary cementing
Part 5-Guidelines for downhole
equipment use, stage cementing
methods, new concepts for cementing
large diameter casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Part 6-Liner applications and equipment
used for installation. Common problems
to avoid while pumping, displacing
cement
Part 7-A review of cement plug
placement, tubingless completion
techniques and the art and science of
cement squeezing
Part 8-Methods for evaluating primary
cementing effectiveness plus a wrapup
of several new tools to improve
completion operations
.32
About the authors
GEORGEO. SUMAN, JR., attended the
California Institute of Technology and
50 the University of California (Berkeley),
graduating with a B.SM.E. in 1952. He
spent two years with Aramco in Saudi
Arabia and 18 years with Shell Oil Co.
working primarily with drilling, comple-
57 tion and stimulation design and applica-
tion. In 1978 he formed Completion
Technology Co. which is actively work-
ing with a number of client companies
in improving well reliability and profitability. Mr. Suman
66 has authored many technical papers on well completion and
drilling techniques and he holds numerous patents and ap-
plications in these specialties. He is a member of API and
SPE and a registered professional engineer in Louisiana
and Texas.
RICHARDC. ELLIS graduated from the
Wisconsin Institute of Technology in
1962 with a B.S.M.E. and from the
University of Wisconsin in 1968 with
the M.S. in mining engineering. He
spent nine years with Shell Oil Co.
working on design and application of
artificial lift, sand control and well
completions for primary, waterflood
and thermal recovery operations, both
onshore and offshore. His latest assign-
ment with Shell was production engineering section leader
for the Western U.S. and Alaska. Mr. Ellis joined the staff
of Completion Technology Co. in 1976. He is a member of
SPE and a registered professional engineer in Texas.
 Cementing oil and gas wells
... includingcasinghandlingprocedures
Part 1-Basic functions of cement are
given, with concepts to consider in mud,
pipe and hole preparation to prevent
job failure
George o. Suman, Jr., President and
Richard C. Ellis, Project Engineer,
CompletionTechnologyCo., Houston
10-second summary
Opening article discusses basic cement properties in
relation to ability to support casing loads and prevent
damage or joint loss. Mud selection, and procedures to
prevent differential pipe sticking during cementing are
given, and examples of casing defects found in new pipe
are shown to encourage careful pre-job pipe handling.
FROM THE COMPLETIONSPECIALIST'Sviewpoint, proper
primary cementing should be the operator's main concern.
Poor displacement efficiency which leaves a substantial
volume of mud at the cement-formation interface can
lead to just about every completion and production prob-
lem in the book-oil and gas can be lost from the pay
zone, stimulation fluids and enhanced recovery chemicals
can bypass the formation, extraneous fluids may be pro-
duced and the borehole may not be properly supported.
It is important to plan for the primary cement job long
before casing is run into the hole, to avoid common prob-
lems such as improperly conditioned mud and stuck pipe.
And the casing string itself should be carefully inspected
and handled to avoid damage that can cause failure in
otherwise properly designed strings.
This article introduces critical concepts to consider in
preparing for the primary cement job, including discus-
sions of:
~ The function of the cement sheath in supporting
the formation and protecting the casing from various
WORLD OIL 1977
About the series
Field engineers and others who handle casing and
cementing for present-day wells are responsible for one
of the most critical phases of well completion. It has
never been so important from the standpoint of safety,
environmental protection and economics to insist that the
best-available technology be applied.
Unfortunately, much important research and technical
development has not been interpreted and applied directly
to the operational phase in a straightforward and concise
manner. It is the objective of the authors of this exclusive
new series to fill that large gap between research and field
operations.
The following subjects will be covered in the eight
articles:
1. Functions of cement, precautions to take during
drilling, common causes of casing and connection failures
2. Casing handling, recommendations for inspection,
make-up and testing
3. Cement slurry chemistry and use of additives
4. Displacement mechanics and rheology considera-
tions, need for pipe movement and centralization
5. Primary cementing, proper use of downhole and
surface equipment
6. Liner cementing, techniques, problems, how to
evaluate results
7. Special cementing, recent innovations, remedial
squeezes, plug-backs, tubingless completions
8. Job evaluation methods, logging, how to locate tops
and define bond effectiveness, tests for zonal separation.
A format similar to WORLDOIL'S Sand Control Series
(November 1974-June 1975) will be followed in these
presentations, including sequential development and dis-
cussion of concepts and application, with frequent refer-
ence to preceding material.
The authors make liberal use of published literature
with grateful acknowledgment of the original investi-
gators. An extensive reference list is included, and to
get maximum benefit from this series, readers are en-
couraged to pursue the original works where important
concepts cannot be adequately discussed due to space
limitations.
-Editor
5
 required to support such axial casing loads has been de-
FORCE
termined through shear bond testS.1,2.3
The axial load which breaks the cement bond has been

U
CEMENT measured with the test apparatus shown in Fig. 1(A) .
SLURRY
;':'
f;~i;
:::
~}--
::,:';: PRESSURE
In this test where the surface in question is the outer
>':;~: ;\..=~.
periphery of the inside pipe, the ability of cement to
A B ':':\~ "~',::j: support axial casing loads was found to be proportional
'" '_.. n..... . .'

SHEAR BOND HYDRAULIC BOND to the area of contact between cement and the casing.
PRESSURE
Therefore, support coefficient,2 shear bond3 or sliding re-
'.'.. .;

m
".'
.';.
.... ..
,.. . sistance,4 as it is described by various investigators, is the
. ..
,.:..:
.-"
0-' 0
.
I
.'\':
'.',.
load required to break the bond, divided by the surface
".. ."
':j ~~';
. area between cement and pipe.
:";
~:.
"
I
;i~
. '.
Shear bond strength increases with cement tensile or
compressive strength as shown in Fig. 2.2 A fairly narrow
range of shear bond at a given tensile strength resulted
for various cement compostions tested. And a significant
CEMENT reduction in shear bond was caused by mud wetting of
the pipe. Poorest results were obtained when the pipe was
mud-wetted and no attempt was made to remove the mud
film.

/ 1f7
~U'..

SAWED-OFF HERE FOR

. 'C
Based on these worst-case results, Bearden and Lane2
provided a relationship for determining support capability
BOND TEST of a cement sheath, conservatively utilizing results for
mud-wetted and non-displaced co ndi tions. ModHying
Fig. 1-Lab tests to measure casing/cement bonding charac- their relationship to utilize compressive strength (assumed
teristics. Test A3 measures axial loading strength. Test B3, to be 10 times tensile strength), gives the formula:
C' and D' measure hydraulic bond. In test C, after cementing
under controlled pressure, the casing is sawed off 10 check F=O.969 ScdH,
bonding. Test D, is a direct measure of cement/pipe adhesion
strength in samples formed in a 7-inch mold. Where:

F = force or load to break cement bond, pounds

Sc = compressive strength, psi
kinds of damage such as fault shear, perforating deforma-
d = outside diameter of casing, inches
tion, and joint loss while drilling
H = height of cement column, feet.
~ Drilling fluid selection and conditioning to improye
For example: For one bonded foot of 7-inch casing,
cement displacement efficiency and prevent differential
pipe sticking during cementing, and
using 500 psi compressive strength cement: F = 0.969 X
500 X 7 X 1 = 3,390 pounds.
~ Common causes of casing failure that can adversely
affect the cement job as well as future operations, includ- Required strength. The load to break the cement bond
ing mill defects appearing in new pipe. during hanging and drilling-out operations normally
would not exceed weight of the casing string (such as sur-
Discussions are illustrated by schematic drawings, face pipe) plus miscellaneous loads (such as weight on
curves, tabular data and photographs. An extensive ref- bit when drilling out the shoe joint). Therefore, the load
erence list appears at the end of the article. capacity noted above, 3,390 pounds per foot of cement
column, provided by the relatively low compressive
Cement used in primary cementing is normally designed: strength of 500 psi, should be more than adequate to
handle anticipated axial loads.
1. To support the axial load of the casing string and
strings to be run later Thus, as this example indicates, the equation permits
calculation of approximate load capacity for various pipe
2. To seal intended production or injection intervals sizes and cement compressive strengths.
from overlying or underlying permeable sections (zone Cement compositions normally can be formulated to
isolation) rapidly develop adequate strength for casing landing
3. To protect the casing from damage or failure, and loads. This allows drilling operations to proceed with
little or no waiting-on-cement (WOC) time.
4. To support the borehole through the productive Also, low strength "filler" cements, which are relatively
interval. inexpensive and of low density-and less likely to induce
lost circulation when high cement columns are required-
AXIAL LOAD SUPPORT
may have adequate compressive strength to meet axial
High axial loads may be imposed on the casing string load support requirements.
and/or surrounding cement by landing and suspension In addition to water-based mud wetting of the pipe-
methods and later operations. And the cement strength which is allowed for in the above equation-other factors

6 WORLD OIL 1977

 that affect cement shear bond performance with respect
to axial load are: 350 TYPE CEMENT
1. (C)
. Casing collars, which increase the ability of the ce- 300\ 2. SPECIAL (A)
3. (A) 6% GEL
ment to support axial loads
~ 250, 4. (A)
5. (A) LATEX
'. Low water-to-cement ratios which increase slurry ci :
6. OXYCHLORIDE CEMENT
density and improve shear bond because of increased com- is 200
m , 7. (A) MUD WET, WATER
a: 150 WASHED
pressive strength, Fig. 3.4 <C 8. EMULSION CEMENT
w
9. 50/50 POZ., 2% GEL
. Radial loads imposed on cement and casing by the ffi100
10. (A) DISPLACED PAST
formation, which should increase shear bond due to the 50 MUD WET PIPE
increased friction between pipe and cement 11. (A) MUD WET, NO
o DISPLACEMENT
. Oil-based mud wetting of the pipe which lowers o 50 100 150 200 250 300
shear bond to a greater extent than water-based mud CEMENTTENSILESTRENGTH,PSI
wetting
Fig. 2-Effect of cement tensile strength and mud wetting
. Mill varnish on the exterior of the casing which on shear bond. Most cements fall in narrow range except
lowers shear bond where mud is not removed (after Bearden and Lane)'.

. Roughness of the exterior casing surface, such as

rust or special resin-sand coatings, which can increase -FRESH WATER MUD
---SALT WATER MUD
shear bond substantially6 (Normally such special coating -'-RED MUD
would not be required for axial load support because ~-OIL EMULSION MUD
.,~.:.~
minimum shear bond strength is adequate) CI
Z

-
,,,............
.. ~....

"
. Raw cement characteristics, such as fineness of grind, 0'
m
may also affect shear bond strength ".......................
..
~I
. Cement contamination by mud which lowers shear
wt
J:; '", .
en
bond appreciably, see Fig. 3. ..
. Displacement mechanics and efficiency which affect
thickness and continuity of the cement sheath around
0=,
the casing, and 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 5 10 15 20
WATER/CEMENTRATIO VOLUME MUD, %
. Pressure/temperature effects which can contract the
casing diameter after the cement hardens. This factor
will be discussed in a later article. Fig. 3-Water content and mud contamination lower shear
bond strength. Absolute value of shear bond is not shown
but the scale is linear so that percent change can be esti-
ZONE ISOLATION mated (after Becker and Petersen)'.
Although cement with a low compressive strength may
smaller in diameter and "pull away" from the cement,
be adequate to handle axial and rotational casing loads,
forming a micro-annulus which permits leakage.
high ultimate strength may be required for zone isola-
Hydraulic bond strength in the test shown in Fig. 1(B)
tion and to support the borehole. Therefore, cement
ranges from 100 to 1,200 psi for water and from 45 to
compositions should be selected which quickly provide
450+ psi for gas (nitrogen) depending on roughness of
adequate compressive strength for continued drilling
the exterior pipe surface and type of mud wetting, see
operations but which also provide adequate strength,
below. No fixed correlation between cement compressive
ultimately, for production operations.
strength and hydraulic bond was found.
A comprehensive study of factors governing zone isola-
tion under downhole conditions would be very complex. Hydraulic bond YS. casing surface and
Zone isolation depends, in part, on load interactions be- type of fluid wetting3,6
tween formation, cement and casing, some of which are
not well understood. Further difficulty arises in deter- Type
mud -
Hydraulic bond (psi)
mining type and magnitude of loads imposed by fluid Surface finish wetting Water Gas
injection pressures and temperatures, and production pres- New mill-varnished."" , '" " . None 200-250
Varnishremoved(chemical).. . . None 300-400
sure drawdown and depletion. Varnishremoved(sand-blasl).... None 500-700 150
Varnishremoved(sand-blast)... . Fresh water 100 50
For these reasons, only qualitative judgements have Varnishremoved(sand-blast).... Invert oil emulsion 100 50
Varnishremoved (sand-blast).... Oilbase 100 50
been attempted in studies to date and these usually relate
to the "hydraulic bond" which indicates adhesion between Resin-sandcoat (new,sand blast) None 1,100-1,200 450
Resin-sandcoat (new, sand blat) Fresh water 100 55
casing and cement, or between cement and formation. Resin-sandcoat (new, sand biast) Invert oil emulsion 100 45
Resin-sandcoat (new,sand blast) Oilbase ICO 45
The actual relationship between hydraulic bond mea-
sured in the lab, and downhole zone isolation has not Cement: API Class A
Water Content: 5.2 galjsk
been reported, if such a determination has been made. Curing temperature: 80°F
Curing time: 24 hours
Casing size: 2" inside 4"
Bonding test. Various investigators3,5,6 have measured
hydraulic bond. Test arrangements are shown in Fig. Hydraulic bond strength is improved by resin-sand
1(B) .3,6 and Fig. 1(C) 5 Pressure is applied to the exterior coatings, as shown above, only when there is no mud
surface of the casing causing the casing to become wetting. Such coatings consist of graded sand bonded by

WORLD OIL 1977 7

 Effect of mud film on bond strength
6000 Surfacecondition Surface coating Hydraulic bond, psi

4'12" CASING BEFORE PERFORATING Dry . Mill varnish <20

Mudfilm......... Millvarnish <20
Dry .... Rusty 350-450
Mudfilm .... Rusty 20-50
.4000 Dry . Acid etched 250-400
Mudfilm .... Acid etched 40-50
Dry . Sandblasted 500-600
Mudfilm .... Sandblasted 50-60
Ci5 Dry . Epoxy coated, 6-12 mesh sand 700-950
11. Mudfilm......... Epoxy coated, 6-12 mesh sand 500-600
:i" 2000
l-
e!) Curing time: 24 hours
Z Curing temperature: 120 F
W
a:
I- o
i
fl I!:\:
CJ)
W
>
Ci5
CJ)
6000
. HOLLOW CARRIER JET
o EXPENDABLE JET .
And casing using the Ruff-Cote process should be well
centralized to avoid imbedding mudcake or shale into
.:. w
a:
11.
the roughened surface. Preventing such imbedment might
:::E not be possible in irregular, doglegged or high angle hole,
8 4000 or where mud is poorly conditioned.
One important advantage of the resin-sand treatment
_ PE~FORATION would be that formation of a micro-annulus under certain
PRESSURE
2%" TUBING 2000 pressure/temperature conditions might be prevented. This
result appears to be verified by cement-bond logs.8
Cement-formation bond. Still other tests have been
o conducted to examine the bond between cement and for-
o 2000 4000 6000
mation. In one lab investigation3 in which cement was
placed into contact with formation cores and the inter-
Fig. 4- Test setup to measure perforating effects on hydraulic face was tapped by a simulated perforation, the effect
bond with pressure from inside and outside. Targets were
tested, then perforated In a separate pressurized well, then of various contact surfaces (dry, mud layer) and applied
returned for testing as shown. Perforations were placed about squeeze pressure was evaluated.
two inches from the bottom of the 12-lnch targets. Results
are plotted in curves. Lower curve shows bond was usually
Bond strength was found to depend on degree of con-
destroyed when compressive strength was below about 2,000 tact between cement and formation. When a mud cake
psi (after Godfrey and Methven)13. was present between cement and formation, bond strength
was greatly reduced for all cases examined. When cement
epoxy to the exterior of the pipe by the patented Ruff- was squeezed against dry cores, bond strength approached
Cote process. These coatings normally are rated to 300- or exceeded formation compressive strength.
3250 F. Test results were not provided for low compressive and/
The pressure at which failure of the hydraulic bond or low tensile strength formation materials such as un-
occured in the test shown in Fig. 1(C) can be increased consolidated sands and some shales. Presumably, little or
by: no bond strength would be indicated for these materials-
yet zone isolation is obtained in the field.
1. Preventing formation of the micro-annulus by con- Although these results may be indicative of various re-
trolling pressure differential across the casing as the ce- lationships, tests more closely simulating downhole con-
ment sets, and/or
ditions might provide further insight into the require-
2. Attaching seal rings of deformaJble rubber to the ments for zone isolation.
exterior of the casing (sealing rings designed to stop mi-
gration of fluid between the casing surface and the inside Cement vs. perforating damage. Operators have gen-
of the cement sheath are available for field installation. erally considered cement with 2,000 psi or less compressive
And the above tests indicate such devices should increase strength optimum for perforating-a belief based on ap-
zonal separation efficiency) . pearance of targets perforated with bullets and/or jets
However, zone isolation is routinely obtained in the at the surface, under simulated downhole conditions.9.lo
field at greater differential pressures than those causing Visual inspection of such perforated targets containing
failure in these hydraulic bond tests. Therefore, such higher strength cement revealed cracks in the sheath.
tests are probably not completely representative of down- Application of results of these tests is wrong because:
hole conditions everywhere. Atmospheric tests of explosives are more damaging than
those performed under pressure due to greater expansion
Effects of mud wetting. Further tests were conducted of detonation gases, and cement with hairline fractures
to more directly measure adhesion between cement and may still prevent fluid leakage.
pipe,7 Fig. 1(D). These tests, do show an advantage for Godfrey11 measured shear and hydraulic bond strengths
the resin-sand exterior, in the mud-wetted condition, on samples before and after perforating with single hol-
which was not apparent in the previously discussed test, low carrier and expandable jet charges, under simulated
see table. downhole pressure conditions (3,000 or 5,000 psi). The
However, it should be emphasized that when resin-sand test arrangement, Fig. 4, prevented creation of a micro-
coatings are used downhole, effectiveness should be in- annulus and the cement was loaded in compression from
creased by removing mud from the casing surface using outer and inner surfaces, as well as from the bottom.
pre-flushes ahead of the cement and cement scouring. The 1-9/16-inch OD hollow carrier gun used a 3.2 gram

8 WORLD OIL 1977

 chaxge and the expendable 1-11/16-inch OD charge was
10.0 grams. w 0.5
C/)
:I:
Before perforating, hydraulic bond strength increased o
with increased compressive strength, Fig. 4. ~ 0.4
z
Hydraulic bond strength was destroyed by perforating
when cement compressive strength was low, Fig. 4, but g
<I:
0.3
::!E
was unaffected when cement compressive strength ex- a:
ceeded 2,000 psi. Therefore, high compressive strength ~
w 0.2
cement appears best from the standpoint of zone isolation. o
~ 0.1
Expandable guns vs. carrier guns. The cemen t en
<I:
o
sheath tends to minimize casing damage caused hy ex- o
pendable perforating charges,12.l3 Fig. 5. And expendable o 10 20 30 40
STRENGTH FACTOR x 10'
guns of nominal charge, for example through-tubing guns, (WALL THICK x YIELD)
may be used with little or no danger of serious casing Z 0.3
o
damage. Although damage may occur to flawed or mill
~ r--
defective casing, particularly if unsupported by cement.
However, expendable charges may split casing collars ~ffi0.2
0:1:
that are unsupported by cement.13 And large expendable LLO
guns, over about 20 grams, frequently damage partially ~
(!)
~ 0.1
z
supported or unsupported casing. en
Conventional hollow carrier, steel shaped-charge guns t3
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
cause only slight casing deformation and essentially no CEMENTCOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHx 1,000, PSI
damage regardless of support, because most of the forces
from the exploding charges are contained by the carrier
body. However, no data has yet been reported on the Fig. 5-Cement support minimizes casing deformation caused
by expendable perforating guns as shown by curves, top,
effect of using extra strength charges in carrier guns, or from tests with 20 gram charges, at 1,000 psi and 1800 F
special chaxges designed to produce larger than normal conditions. The three cases represent no cement, a :lA-inch
holes. sheath held by thin steel and a strongly encased sheath.
Compressive strength of the sheath was less important, as
As another important point, it was also determined in indicated by second curve, bottom (after Bell and Shore)."
perforating tests12 that cement compressive strength is not
an important factor in preventing casing deformation at
the perforation point, Fig. 5. ment along natural or induced fault planes-as opposed
to salt flow-is best handled by elimination of cement
CASING SUPPORT PROTECTION through the affected interval and perhaps opening the
hole to enable fault slippage to take place without load-
The cement sheath between casing and borehole serves ing the casing in shear/s,lG Fig. 6 (bottom).
an important function in protecting the pipe from the Other downhole conditions, such as borehole doglegs
stresses of formation movement, and in preventing un- and sand control failure,17 also may cause casing damage
screwing and possible loss of bottom joints in surface similar to the types described above. The type of load
and intermediate strings. However, certain properties condition may be deduced through geology, petrophysics,
of this cement such as its contriobutions to collapse resis- and operational correlations and measurements of the
tance of the installed casing may be greatly overrated. damage configuration.18 Tools are available for establish-
ing the cross-section (collapse) and deflection (buckling
Salt flow. Casing damage can be caused by lateral loads or shear) of moderately damaged pipe. Knowledge of
resulting from flow of salt formations.14 Salt may flow failure mechanism is essential to selection of the failure
in various ways depending on combinations of overburden prevention method, i.e. cement sheath or no cement
load and temperature. And it may not be economically sheath.
practical to design casing for the most severe situations
of non-uniform loading which can occur, such as the Casing joint loss. Adequate cement strength and good
"flattening" effect illustrated in Fig. 6 (top). cementing and operational practices may be required to
However, when the annulus is completely filled with prevent parting or other failure in the bottom joints of
cement, casing is subjected to a nearly uniform loading surface and intermediate casing strings.19 In most cases,
approximately equal to the overburden pressure, and, failure in the bottom few joints of casing is not discovered
although modes of failure may be different, casing design, until electric logs show that the bottom one, two, or
to withstand uniform salt pressure can be computed on three joints have parted from the string and slipped down
the same basis as designs to withstand fluid pressure. the hole. In other cases, the parted section uncovers a
Failure of casing by non-uniform loading in inade- high pressure or lost circulation zone, or it shifts laterally,
quately cemented washed-out salt sections should be con- restricting passage of drilling equipment.
sidered a drilling and cementing problem rather than a Analysis of possible causes of such failure19 indicate that
casing design problem. Salt-saturated or oil-based drilling the casing is unscrewed rather than broken. The un-
fluids axe often used during drilling to minimize wash- screwing occurs because of short-lived, high-level torque
outs, and in special cases salt-saturated cement is used impulses transmitted to the casing by the bit as it hangs
during cementing. up while drilling cement and cementing equipment out
of the bottom joints. The problem is normally prevented
Fault shear. Casing failure caused by formation move- by welding or using thread locking compounds on the

WORLD OIL 1977 9

 in directionally drilled holes near the casing point.
2. Weld threads on H-40 pipe with a ~-inch fillet
LOADING weld (see cautions below) or properly clean threads on
J-55or higher grades with volatile (not oily) solvent, and
apply thread~locking compounds to both sides of the
lowermost couplings, including the three to six couplings
joining the bottom four to seven joints. When a bottom
plug is used, Schuh19 recommends strengthening three
couplings; when a plug is not used, six couplings.
3. Follow other good practices to be discussed in this
series, i.e. proper downhole casing equipment, pipe move-
SALT FLOW
ment, high displacement rates, chemical washes or spacers
ahead of cement, adequate centralization, etc.
4. Use good quality cement that will develop high
early compressive strength, and adequate shear bond,
for the last portion of the slurry to fill the annulus-from

~ MUD
ONLY
shoe upwards 200. to 400 feet (or 10.% of casing length) .
Elevate compressive and shear bond strength of the ce-
ment around lower joints by decreasing water-to-cement
ratio (increasing density) of last portion of slurry, Fig. 3.
5. Use two plugs. Without a bottom plug, mud film
from the inside casing wall can accumulate beneath the
top plug and be deposited in and around the shoe joints/a
Fig. 7. Fill-up for various film thicknesses can be signifi-
cant, for example: For 10,000 feet of 5~-inch casing,
1/16, 1/32 and 1/64-inch thick films would fill 510, 260.
and 130 feet, respectively.
FAULT SLIPPAGE Even when a top plug is used, accurate displacement
calculations should be made to avoid over-displacement
and mud or water contamination around the shoe.
Fig. 6-Cement sheath effects with formation loading. Strong, 6. Release surface pressure following cement placement
well centralized cement sheath, top, can prevent flattening
effect of salt flows in washed out holes (Cheatham and to minimize chance for a micro-annulus to form between
McEver)". But In fault slippage zones, bottom, cement sheath casing and cement. However, surface pressure is some-
may cause more damage by holding pipe rigid through shear times used as an aspect of casing landing operation to
zone.
prevent casing instability and buckling conditions.21
7. Do not disturb casing until cement has obtained
initial set-about three times thickening time. Keep drill
TOP PLUG
CEMENT SLURRY pipe out of the hole until after this time. The cement
composition should have minimum 500 psi compressive
MUD FILM strength (some say 1,000 psi) at time of drilling-out.
CASING - - --- 8. Control rotary speed while drilling cement out of
casing, as indicated in Fig. 8. But if the casing joints have
been improperly strengthened, i.e. misapplied thread lock-
1--'
-- - ~MUD CEMENT ing compound or welded J-55 or higher grade casing,
---- I
SLURRY
MUDACCUMULATION permissible rotary speed may be only one-tenth or less
FROMFILM of values shown.

Welding recommendations. Lower casing grades,

H-40, present few problems. However, field personnel
Fig. 7-Mud film on casing should be removed by bottom
plug when displacing. Drawing shows how, with top plug should be a ware that higher grades can be downgraded
only, mud is removed after slurry passes to build up under and sold as lower grades, i.e. up to 80,000 psi yield
the plug and be deposited in the critical area around the strength pipe can be downgraded to H-40. Thus grades
shoe joint (after Owsley)'..
should be positively identified before welding. Also, casing
collars and other downhole casing equipment are some-
connections and controlling rotary speed, as discussed
times manufactured of higher grade steel.
below.
Welding on high grade tubulars is critical, requiring
To avoid loss of joints when cement is to be drilled
careful preheating and use of special electrodes (P-IIO,
out of the shoe, these practices should be followed: and C-75 should never be welded). Here are a few im-
1. Select a competent formation for the casing point. portant points to remember when welding oil field tubu-
Drill-out with drilling fluid which will maintain stability lars: 22 Use only low hydrogen electrodes. Always preheat
of this formation. Avoid dogleg sections, or sharp curves N-80; preheating is preferable on J-55; H-40 can be

10 WORLD OIL 1977

 welded without preheat. Preheating temperature should
500
be 500-600° F and it should not drop below 4000 F dur-
ing welding. The weld should cool at ambient tempera-
.@
tures. A Tempilstik type crayon should be used to verify
and carefully control temperatures. ~ :E300
Cl)CL
>a:
a:.
Collapse support questionable. A lowered casing de- <5
b0200
sign safety factor in collapse (perhaps 0.85 versus 1.125) a:.....
w:::!
is sometimes considered for casing to be used below the ~~ 150
cement top, on the assumption that cement will provide Cl)Cj
:Ez
additional support.23 Such a practice is not valid. =>a;
According to Cheatham and McEver/4 cement in the ~ ;;1100
~~ 90
annulus between salt and casing is compressed by salt :E 80"
pressure, reducing stress transmitted to the casing. How- 70
ever, this reduction is calculated to be less than 5% for 60
4 5 5'12 6 6'12 7 7'12 8 9 10
8-5/8-inch casing cemented in 12-inch hole, or about 200 DRILL COLLAR SIZE, INCHES
psi for a pressure of 6,000 psi acting on the cement. Fur-
ther, this load reduction depends on uniform placement
of cement in the annulus-a condition which is not nor- Fig. 8-Maximum safe rotary speed for drilling out cement
and cementing equipment for all grades of casing strength-
mally achieved throughout the column. ened with thread-locking compound, and for H-40 grade
Other tests24 suggest that a cement sheath may provide casing strengthened with a full-circumference weld (after
Schuh)'". Note: If joints are not properly strengthened, safe
greater collapse resistance support for lower casing grades speeds can be one-tenth those shown.
(H-40, J-55). However, minor radial or longitudinal
discontinuities in the cement sheath eliminate this support.
Therefore, the cement sheath should have no bearing
on the decision to use a low collapse safety factor.

PRECAUTIONS DURING DRILLING

Favorable conditions for primary cementing should be
established long before the actual cementing operation.
It is particularly important to select hole and casing sizes,
and drilling fluid properties, which maximize mud dis-
placement efficiency and minimize likelihood for differ-
ential pressure sticking and swab/surge pressures.
Drilling fluids should be selected and drilling operations
conducted-so as to minimize borehole washouts. For
instance, the ideal drilling fluid:
1. Is non-thixotropic (little or no gel strength) with
low plastic viscosity and yield point, to maximize dis-
placement efficiency and minimize swab-surge pressures.
2. Has low weight with low solids content and low
filtration loss with a thin cake to minimize likelihood
of differential pressure sticking, and
3. Is compatible with cement composition.
Such conditions cannot always be attained in actual
practice. For instance, in deep, hot wells it is difficult
to maintain low gel strength, yield point and plastic
viscosity-particularly with weighted muds. These con-
ditions, combined with long trip time and casing running
time, lead to mud properties that can be most unfavor3lble
by the time the job is initiated. However, when effective
cementing is important, and it is feasible to maintain
low density fluids, an effort should be made to achieve
the conditions noted above. Other factors influencing
favorable mud displacement and swab/surge pressures
will be discussed in a later article.
The differential pressure sticking concept25. 26.27 is
very important to understand, and this problem must
be prevented if casing movement (reciprocation and/or
rotation) is planned during cementing operations. Other-
wise the casing may become stuck after being run to
Fig. 9-Differential sticking of casing occurs in a permeable
zone when pipe contacts mud cake as shown, left, then
filtrate loss causes cake thining, right, which increases con-
tact area, (1) to (2), in turn increasing force holding pipe
to wall (after Outmans)".
bottom and before completion of cementing, and move-
ment during that most critical period28 may not be
possible.
Differential pressure exists across a mud cake, with
pressure on the inside consisting of mud column weight
plus pressure increase due to annular flow. External pres-
sure is the pore pressure of the surrounding permeable
formation. This differential pressure causes water in the
mud to continuously flow through the filter cake into the
formations.
While the casing is in motion, contact with the filter
cake is lubricated by a thin layer of drilling mud, which
continues to supply filtrate. When pipe movement is
interrupted or stopped, the casing seals off the cake
from the filtrate supply in the contact area and the
cake begins to thin as water continues to be driven into
the surrounding permeability, see Fig. 9. As the cake thins,
the contact area increases, the pipe is pressed against
the wall with greater force, and the contacted surface
changes from mud to solid clay particles.
This pressure loading effect and the high friction
factor between pipe and cake solids can increase hook
load until the casing cannot be moved.
How to prevent sticking. During cementing, differential

WORLD OIL 1977 11


A conducive to /Wall sticking because it tends to increase
B c
Fig. 10-Defects rolled into the pipe wall at the mill. Photo
A shows pits left by mill slugs that penetrate 0.210 inch
into a 0.337-inch wall. Photo B shows the hole left by a
broken-out metal fold (lamination) that was rolled into the wall
but did not fuse. Photo C is another example of pitting caused
by removal of foreign material rolled into the outer surface.
,"* ;~,->c."'*.ra;,.:~~~>"""""..
A
B c
Fig. 11-Longitudinal imperfections in new pipe. Photo A
shows part of an eight-foot long seam penetrati ng 0.110-
inch in a 0.217-inch wall. Seam was detected by magnetic
particle inspection; depth was measured by grinding as
shown. Photo B shows internal grooving in seamless pipe
caused by pieces of hard metal adhering to the plug. The
external longitudinal gouge in Photo C could be mill or
transit damage.
sticking tendency may also increase because of the
disturbance and reformation of filter cake caused by
some preflush fluids, change-over of fluids and/or me-
chanical cake removal techniques.
Things to remember regarding differential
sticking are:
. Sticking occurs opposite permeable formations, par-
ticularly where pressure is depleted and/or high mud
overbalance pressure exists
12
. Sticking generally occurs after an interruption of
pipe movement or long interruption of circulation, or
disturbances of wall cake
. Circulation, if interrupted, can be restarted after
the casing becomes stuck. This helps identify sticking,
as opposed to wall caving, which would likely prevent
circulation
. A small clearance between casing and borehole is
casing/film cake contact area. This contact area can be
reduced by using centralizers and/or designing the well
to have a larger borehole.
. High deviation of the borehole also tends to increase
contact area, and
. High weight, high water loss and high-solids-content
fluids can increase the friction factor between casing and
filter cake. Muds are available which provide cakes with
lower coefficients of friction.29
CASING FAILURE CAUSES
Obtaining an effective casing/cement installation re-
quires proper inspection, care and handling, and make-up
of the casing itself. Without such treatment, even prop-
erly designed casing may fail. Texter30 and Casner,31
and others, have identified a variety of potential casing
failures such mill defects, mishandling, borehole doglegs
and corrosion. From such information, API has developed
recommended practices for the care and use of casing32
and has defined the principal causes of trouble in other-
wise properly designed casing strings, see below.
Principal causes of failure in otherwise
properly designed casing strings
. Mishandling in mill, in transport and in the field
. Poor running and pulling practices
. Improper landing tension
. Improper cutting of field-shop threads.
. Poorly manufactured couplings for replacement
. Leaking joints
. Drill pipe wear
. Wireline cutting from swabbing, etc., and
. Corrosion.
Principalcauses of connection failures
. Under (or over) tonging
. Dirty threads, galled threads
. Improper engagement (cross-threading)
. Excessivemaking and breaking
. Improper joint inake-up at mill
. Casing ovality or out-of-roundness
. Improper cutting of field-shopthreads
. Wrong thread compound or mis-application
. Over-tensioncasing, and
. Dropping the string.
A survey conducted by the API Southern District
Tubular Goods Committee a number of years ag033 re-
vealed that over 80% of tubular string failures occurred
in the connections. Common causes of connection leakage
pressure under external or internal pressure as identified by API/2
are also shown in the above table. Most of these causes
for leaking joints can be avoided through proper inspec-
tion and make-up practices, many of which will be dis-
cussed in the next article.
WORLD OIL 1977
 Mill defects in casing. Imperfections may be found in
new casing as delivered by a mill. Such imperfections,
shown approximately in decreasing likelihood of occur-
rence are as follows:
Defects found in new casing
. Seams . Gouges
. Laps . Plug scores
. Eccentricity . Weld area cracks
. Rolled-in-slugs . External, longitudinal cracks
. Pits . Upset, transverse cracks
Casing joints containing such imperfections may be
identified and segregated by non-destructive testing and
inspection techniques. Examples of the above imperfec-
tions are shown in accompanying photographs taken dur-
ing field inspections, Figs. 10-13.
Although such imperfections may not actually lower
a casing joint's burst, collapse or tensile strength below
acceptable limits because of size, orientations, etc., API
conservatively considers an imperfection to be a defect
if it penetrates deeply enough so that less than 87~% of
specified wall thickness remains.
However, if the imperfection can be removed by grind-
ing and the remaining wall thickness is equal to or greater
than 87%% of the specified wall thickness, the joint is
considered to meet API specifications. Otherwise the por-
tion containing the defect must be cut off. The remaining
joint continues to meet API specifications if it is within
one of the permitted API length ranges.
API specifies that high strength casing (P-llO) be
inspected by non-destructive test methods at the mill.
Imperfections that penetrate over 5% and less than
12%% of the wall thickness must be removed by grinding.
Coming next month: Casing inspection and handling,
joint make-up, use of thread compounds, hydrostatic
pressure testing and landing practices. .
LITERATURE CITED
'Farrisl R. F. "Method for Determining Minimum Waiting-on-Cement
Time,' Trans. AIME (1946), 165, pp. 175-168.
, Bearden, W. G. and Lane, R. D. "Engineered Cementing Operations
to Elimmate WOC Time," API Drilling and Production Practice (1961),
l' 17.
, Evans, G. W. and Carter, L. G., "Bonding Studies of Cementing
Compositions to Pipe and Formations," API Drilling and Production
Practice (1962), p. 72.
· Becker, iI. and Peterson G., "Bond of Cement Compositionsfor
Cementing Wells," Proc..::,]..
Sixth World Petroleum Congress, Frankfurt,
Germany, June 10-26, T~3.
· Bearden, W. G., Spurlock", J. W. and Howard, G. C., "Control and
Prevention of Inter-Zonal ~Iow," Journal of Petroleum Technology (May
1965), pp. 579-584.
· Evans
b
G. and Carter, G., "New Technique for Improving Cement Bond,"
API rilling and Production Practice (1964), PI'. 33-38.
1 Scott, J. B. and Brace R. L., Coated Casing-A Technique for Improved
Cement Bonding," APi DrillinK and Production Practice (1,966). PI'. 43-47.
8 Ferd W. H., Pilkington P. E. and Scott, J. B., "A Look at Cement
Bond Logs," Journal of Petroleum Technology, June 1974, PI'. 607-61'7.
· Oliphant, S C. and Farris, R. F., "A Study of Some Factors Affecting
Gun Perforating," Trans. AI ME (1947), 170, PI'. 225-242.
I. Morgan, B. E. and Dumbald, G. K;, "A Modified Low-Strength Cement,"
Trans. AIME (1951'), 192, PI'. 165-1/0.
11Godfrey, W. K., "Effect of Jet Perforating on Bond Strength of Cement,"
Journal of Petroleum Technology (November 1968), PI'. 1301'-1314.
12Ben, W. T. and Shore, J. B., "CasinK Damage from Gun Perforators,"
API Drilling and Production Practice (1964), PI'. 7-14.
"Godfrey, W. K. and Methven, N. E., "Casing Damage Caused by Jet
Perforating," Paper SpE 3043, 45th Annual Fall Meeting, Houston, Oct.
4-;, 1970.
.. Cheatham, Jr., ". B. and McEver, J. W'l" "Behavior of Casing Subjected
to Salt Loading,_' Trans. AIME (1%4), 231, 1'1'. 1069-1075.
ISMcCauley, T. V. "PlanninJI Workovers in Wells witlt Fault-Damaged Cas-
ing_-South Pass i!1ock 27 I"ield," Journal of Petroleum Technology (July
1974), p. 739.
I. Roberts, D. L., "Shear Prevention in the Wilmington Field," API Drilling
and Production Practice (1953), p. 1'i6.
WORLD OIL 1977
A
';~
)
B C
Fig. 12-Types of cracks occasionally found in new pipe.
Photo A is a longitudinal, external crack detected by magnetic
particle inspection. The example in Photo B illustrates a trans-
verse crack on the pipe upset with a grind mark showing
penetration. The etched and enlarged sample in Photo C is a
wall cross section through an arc weld with a hook-crack that
has penetrated the pipe 00. This is caused by a layering in
the plate edge that turns toward the surface (10 or 00) during
welding.
Fig. 13-Example of eccentric
pipe that failed in collapse
because one side was too thin.
11Suman, G. O. Jr., "World Oil's Sand Control Handbook," Gulf Publishing
Co. (1975).
18Suman, G. O. Jr.\.. "CasinR Buckling in ProducinJt Intervals," Petroleum
Engineer, (April 19/4), p. 36.
.. Schuh, F. J., "Failures in The Bottom Joints of Surface and Intermediate
Casing Strings," Journal of Petroleum Technol0y,y, January 1968, PI'. 93-1\)1.
'0 Owsley, W. D., "Improved Casing Cementing, , The Oil and Gas Journal,
Dec. 15, 1949.
"Dellinger, T. B. and McLean, J. C., "Preventing Instability in Partially-
Cementea Intermediate Casing Strings," SPE Paper 4606 !,resented at 48th
Annual Fall MeetinJI SPE of AIME, Las Vegas, Sep. 36-Oct. 3, 1973.
" Dalrymple, D. H. Personal Communication.
" Calvey, H. J., "Casing Designs and Programs Considered in the Anadarko
Basin," Paper SPE 3909, 1972 Deep Drilling Symposium, Amarillo, Sept.
11-12, 1972.
"Evans, G. W, and Harriman D. W., "Laboratory Tests on Collapse Re-
sistance of Cemented Casing,'! SPE Paper 4088, 47th Annual Fall Meeting,
San Antonio, Oct. 8-11, 1972.
soHelmick, W. E. and Longley, A. J., "Pressure Differential Sticking of
Drill Pipe and How It Can Be Avoided or Relieved," API Drilling and
Produc/lon Practice (1957), PI'. 55-61.
26Outmans, H. D., "lVlcchanics of Differential Pressure Sticking of Drill
Collars," Trans. AIME (1'958), 213, PI'. 265-274.
"Outmans, H. D., "Spot Fluid QUIckly to Free Differentially Stuck Pipe,"
The Oil and Gas Journal, July 15, 1974, PI'. 65-68.
,. Barkis, B., "Primary Cementing, the Critical Period." B&W Publication.
29Annis, lvl. R. and Mona~han, P. H., "Differential Pressure Sticking-
Laboratory Studies of Friction Between Steel and Mud Filter Cake," Journal
of Petroleum Technology, May 1962, PI'. 537-543.
30'texter, H. G., "Oil-Well Casing and Tubing Troubles," API Driling and
Production Practice (1955), p. 7.
" Casner, J. A., "Care and lIandin/( of High-Stren/(th Tuhular Goods," API
Drilling and Production Practice (1196'r), PI'. 169-1'76.
::2API Recommended Practice for Care and U!"c of Casing and Tubing," API
RP 5Cl, Tenth Edition, March 1975.
"Oxford, W. F., "API Southern District Tubular Goods Committee Summary
of Inspection for Period Jan. 1, 11963to Jan. I, 1964," Houston, March
1966.
13
Cementing oil and gas wells
Part 2-Casing inspection and pipe
handling methods, including thread
make-up control, hydrostatic testing,
landing practices
George o. Suman, Jr., President,and Richard C. Ellis,
Project Engineer, Completion Technology Co., Houston

15-second summary
How electronic inspection at the mill, pipe yard or rig
site finds serious metallurgical defects. Pipe handling dis-
cussion tells why torque cOlitrol alone is inadequate for
thread make-up. Axial load in slips is explained as are
hydrostatic rig floor tests for connection leaks and
landing practices to correct for future load changes.

HIGHER EQUIPMENT and service costs and the trend

towards completion of iWells in deeper, more severe
environments emphasize the need for strict attention to
casing quality control and handling before cementing. In
one study, over 5% of 33,000 casing joints inspected did
not meet API specifications because they contained de- Fig. 14-Magnetic particle inspection defines mill imperfections
that are otherwise not visible. Before-and-after photo of 5V2-
fects. In another example, rig floor testing revealed 1.4% inch, N-aocasing segment, shows how seam in the metal was
of the joints tested leaked. detected by inspection.
This article tells what can be done to prevent the run-
ning of defective casing, including:
i~ Casing -inspection methods: Need for, and results of,
field casing inspection, and techniques and principles of
non-destructive inspection in the pipe yard, rig site or mill LONGITUDINAL IMPERFECTION SEARCH COIL TRANSDUCER

i~ Pipe handling: Recommended procedures for trans-

porting and running casing; rig floor practices to avoid
slip and tong damage
~ Casing make-up: Functions of threads and thread
compounds in sealing-off fluids; factors affecting torque
recommendations, and systems to control make-up .for
optimum connection performance, and
~G'
MAGNETIC SOURCE
1([lIQ PIPE

~ Rig floor connection testing: Internal and external

hydrostatic tests for leakage; how thread configuration
affects test application; casing landing practices.
Many casing problems are directly related to casing
condition existing prior to cementing/a, 32,34,35 usually as
a result of: Metallurgical flaws, damage in transit or on
location; improper connection make-up, or poor running
practices.
CASING INSPECTION
Casing inspection can mean anything from visual rig
crew checks of pipe body and threads while running, to
extensive non-destructive inspection (NDI) of each joint,
including threads and couplings.
Fig. 15-Schematic of transverse electromagnetic-diverted-flux,
search coil (EDFSC.) system illustrates how flux diversion de-
tects seams, etc. oriented along pipe axis.
Seams, rolled-in-slugs and eccentricity are some imper-
fections that are not visible without aid of some type of
NDI; an example is shown in the with-and-without mag-
netic particle inspection of the same section of pipe,
Fig. 14. Obviously in this example, visual inspection alone
would not be adequate.
The cost for NDI of pipe body and end areas varies
with location and other factors. But, generally, cost for
complete inspection of casing is less than 10% of total
casing cost, as shown in the table on following page.

14 WORLD OIL 1977

 Note: API defines a defect as any imperfection that
effectively reduces the wall thickness of any grade pipe
Inspection costs vs. casing costs
to less than 871'2% of the specified wall thickness.36 In
Percent of casing lower casing grades, no action is required for imperfec-
Typical Inspection
costs per length, $* cost, f.o.b. pipe mill** tions that do not classify as defects; however, in high-
Ca.sing Total strength casing (such as P-11 0) an imperfection pene-
Size, Body- End cost trating 5% or more of the specified wall thickness must
In. wall area per foot* K-55 N-80 p-no
be removed by grinding. Only such "imperfections" are
13% 19.00 5.50 0.612 4.23 2.48 included in the table,38
9% 14.70 4.95 0.491 5.06 3.68 2.59 Over 80% of the problems included in the a:bove study
7 13.90 4.70 0.465 7.41 4.37 3.60
5!h 12.45 4.40 0.421 9.60 5.32 4.39 originated in the mill; the remainder was handling dam-
age. Casing of all grades was included in the study. How-
* Range3 casing, approx.
40I lengths. ever, grades were mostly N-80 or higher, as shown helow:
** Typical casing costs, Jan. 1977.

Number of defects by casing grade

No. End afea,
Need for inspection. Pipe manufacturers have exten- lengths Total Body othef
Grade Inspected defects defects defect
sive quality control procedures, and API specifications
K-55 & H-40.................... 2,536 82 41 41
call for nearly 30 separate tests during the manufacture Percent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.0 3.2 1.6 1.6
of casing.36.37.38 Most manufacturers utilize in-line NDI C-75, N-BO, S-95.. . . . . . . . . ::::::
Percent.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24,001
100.0
1,377
5.7
719
3.0
658
2.7
equipment. And such inspections are required for P-1IO P-llO, other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,025 402" 293 109
Percent........................ . 100.0 5.7 4.2 1.6
grade casing. Total.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 33,562 1,861 1,053 808
Percent........................ . 100.0 5.5 3.1 2.4
However, a study of an independent service company's
casing inspection statistics, compiled over a 12-month " An additional821 "imperfections" were noted for this grade.
period in 1975/1976, shows that 1,861 joints of a total
33,562 inspected (5.54%) failed to meet API specifica- Industry efforts. It is estimated that only 15-20% of
tions, see table below: oil field casing and tubing is currently inspected by inde-

New casing inspection results*

Location,type of Imperfectlon**
Total
Casing No.lengths External Internal Thlnwall, Total defective
Size Inspected bodywall bodywall Connection Drift,othert eccentric Imperfect lengths
4!h 934 116 2 118 40
5 4,629 287 52 266 4 33 642 467
5!h 8,369 354 25 109 4t 17 509 373
7 6,874 271 26 94 22t 104 517 259
7% 2,772 124 4 64 12t 1 205 152
9% 7,147 305 20 220 25t 26 596 479
10% 1,416 36 4 22 1 63 59
11% 75
13% 1,109 2 1 22 1 26 26
16 114 .... 1 2 3 3
20 123 2 .... 1 3 3
Total 33,562 1,497 132 801 70 182 2,682 1,861

Descriptionof bodywall,connectionImperfections
Seam Lap Roll-Inslug Pit Gouge Crack,cut Plntt Coupllngtt
Casing
Size Ext Int Ext Int Ext Int Ext Int Ext Int Ext Int Mfg Hdg Mfg Hdg
4!h 71 11 1 23 3 32 1 2
5 3 117 41 24 31 2 11 12 5 7 4 251 4
5!h 86 10 156 4 43 6 51 6 24 3 14 23 41 37 8
7 64 99 4 46 1 6 6 3 5 12 1 57 18 18
70/8 78 1 21 2 14 1 10 5 2 3 6 23 34 1
90/8 162 3 60 2 53 9 1 10 1 10 55 94 49 22
10% 14 2 20 1 2 9 13
11%
130/8 1 1 1 17 5
16 .. .. 1
20 2 .. 1

Total 575 17 466 53 204 18 121 17 85 8 46 19 101 251 396 53

* Source: AMFTuboscop,ereports to several operators on new casinginspection in various yard and field locations, 1975/1976.
** SeeAPI definitionof 'imperfection"and"defect" in text.
t Includes1-3 lengths of wronggrade or wrongweiht.
tt Analysisof connectiondamage by manufactureror 10handling.

WORLD OIL 1977 15

pendent service companies utilizing NDI techniques. SEARCH COIL TRANSDUCER
One possible reason that manufacturers' NDI does not
discover all problems is that sensitivity of plant equipment
is adjusted to detect defects, as defined by API, that pene-
ELECTRIC COIL ~,
II
-:':-
_ \..
trate 12~% or more of the specified wall thickness on a
"go, no-go basis," whereas, an independent inspection
company usually adjusts equipment to a higher level of
sensitivity, then relies on detailed examination of the im- ~
perfection to determine if it is .within API specifica- LONGITUDINAL TRANSVERSE
tions.36, 38 MAGNETIC FIELD IMPERFECTION

Fig. 16-Schematic of longitudinal EDFSC system used to

Non-destructive inspection techniques. The semi-
automatic non-destructive inspection units that many
inspection companies have developed feature: Two elec-
tromagnetic-diverted-flux, search coil (EDFSC) testing
systems; a radiation wall thickness measuring device; and
an electronic metal comparitor. These systems are used
to detect imperfections in the pipe body as the pipe moves
through the NDI unit at a constant speed.
Units are available that can handle tubulars of 1.315
to 14-inch aD. Various units have inspection or scan-
ning speeds that vary from less than 30 seconds to over 60
seconds, per Range 3 length. Most units are portable and
can be used at the well site, pipe yard or mill.
Principles of EDFSC systems are illustrated in Figs. 15
and 16. A magnetic flux field is induced into the wall of
the pipe. This field flows in one direction and diverts
around imperfections. Flux diversion or leakage occurs
through air near the pipe surface.
Search coils, cut through these diverted flux fields and
generate electrical impulse. The recorded magnitude and
pattern of these impulses indicate imperfections.
A large number of variables affect EDFSC sensitivity,
i.e. shape and orientation of an imperfection; magnetic
flux field energy level; shape and orientation of the search
coil with respect to the imperfection and direction of
diverted flux field. Specific combinations of the controlla-
ble variables are proprietary information of inspection
companies.
Wall thickness of 0.75-inch or more reduces EDFSC
sensitivity to internal body wall defects. In critical appli-
cations where thick-wall casing is used, additional inspec-
tion with internal magnetic particle techniques, or other
special methods, may be required.
Radiation wall thickness measuring is an efficient
method for inspecting oil field tubulars for general (not
localized) wall thickness variations like eccentricity within
a joint, or change of weight betiween different joints of
the same grade. This system is not used to detect cracks,
pits or other surface imperfections. The radiation source
and detection equipment does not come in contact with
the pipe being inspected.
There are three common arrangements of source and
detector for gamma-ray thickness gaging, Fig. 17.40 These
systems are sensitive to distance between pipe wall and
source, between source and detector, and between detector
and pipe /Wall. Precise alignment must be maintained to
avoid inaccurate readings.
Pipe movement vs. rotational speed of the gamma-.ray
unit affects the percentage of pipe actually scanned, as
the path of investigation is a helical trace around the
circumference, like the stripe on a barber's pole. Rota-
detect transverse imperfections.
ROTATION GAMMA SOURCE
OETECTOR / SHIELD
SHIELD
RADIATION BEAM
SINGLE-WALL THROUGH THROUGH
BACKSCATTER DOUBLE-WALL SINGLE-WALL
Fig. 17-Radiation wall thickness measurement uses a highly
focused beam to irradiate the casing wall as system rotates
around pipe. Drawings indicate three common arrangements
of source and detector (after Kahil).'.
tional speed of the single-wall system can be faster than
backscatter or double~wall systems. However, all three
systems can detect general wall thickness variation.
Electronic metal comparitors electronically compare
the grade of pipe being inspected with a grade standard.
This system induces eddy current into the pipe which is
adjusted until balance is achieved with the standard. Then
as the pipe is inspected, variation in the balance is an
indication of metallurgical change. The technique is very
sensitive and even different heats of pipe of the same
grade can be detected.
This comparison is a quick and easy, positive identifica-
tion of grade change. However, it is only qualitative. It
does not define either magnitude of metallurgical change
or direction of change, i.e. increase or decrease in grade.
This system is most commonly used for inspection in
the yard and at the rig, where mixing of grades may have
occurred, or for inspection of used tubulars.
End area magnetic particle inspection is a procedure
separate from those performed by the NDI unit.
This method is based on the same diverted magnetic
flux principles of the EDFSC system, except that dry iron
powder that is "sprayed" onto the surface is magnetically
attracted to flux leakage occurring at imperfection. These
particle accumulations are visually located.
The end area being inspected must be cleaned with a
solvent, to a dry surface, to prevent powder accumula-
tions on moisture, grease, thread compounds, etc. Prior
to inspection, threads should be visually examined for
tears, cuts, shoulders or other imperfections breaking the
contour of the threads; these are also defects.41 And, while

16 WORLD Oil 1977

 it is not always essential, sand blasting will improve mag-
netic particle inspection sensitivity.
Recommended inspected tubular
goods identification
How to find imperfection depth. Further examina- Type paint
band Location Indicates
tion of imperfections is required to determine if they are-
in fact-a defect, as"defined earlier. White Near box Meets API specs
When NDI units indicate presence of an imperfection, Yellow Near box Imperfections not repaired as per
magnetic particle inspection, as was described, is fre- API Std 5AX
quently required, to locate the imperfection in the pipe Yellow and Near box Imperfections repaired as
body. white per API std 5AX
Once located, imperfections on the pipe's outer diame- Blue Near box ID imperfections, depths cannot
ter are measured by grinding to the base of the imperfec- be measured accurately
tion. If 87Y2% of the specified wall thickness remains, in Red Near box ID or OD defects that fail
any grade, the pipe complies with APJ.36 However, with API acceptance specs
high strength (P-IlO) casing, any imperfection ,that pene- Red Around Defective box or pin
trates 5% or more of the wall thickness must be removed coupling,
by grinding.38 The ultrasonic wall thickness spot check adjacent to
threads
device is usually used to determine remaining wall thick-
ness. Orange, Near Length fails to pass
zig-zag coupling API drift mandrel
Unfortunately, there is no commonly used, non-destruc- pattern or box end
tive method to thoroughly examine imperfections on the
internal diameter surface. Although this is a disadvantage,
it is not a significant problem as most surface metallurgy Where to inspect pipe. The most common locations
imperfections in ne.w casing occur on the outer diameter for non-destructive casing inspection are pipe yards and
as a consequence of the manufacturing process. For well sites. Occasionally independent company inspection is
example, less than 5% of the defects in the major study conducted at the pipe mill. Inspection close to the pipe
previously discussed are internal. . source cuts the cost of transporting defective pipe. How-
ever, well site inspection minimizes the running of casing
Ultrasonic wall thickness instruments use a compres- that was damaged after yard or mill inspection. Thus,
sion-wave source and a detector to spot check wall thick- choice of location 'should be based on operator control of
ness. These instruments can be accurate to + O.005-inch pipe prior to well site delivery.
when the sonde is properly coupled to the pipe. Lack of space at the !Well site may preclude use of
In application, a liquid couplant-like water, oil or NDI. However, some type of inspection is required at
antifreeze that contain no gas, solids or fibrous materials every well, if it is only cleaning and visual inspection by
-is applied to the clean pipe surface and the ultrasonic the rig or casing crew and application of compound to pin
sonde is pressed firmly against the moistened pipe. and coupling threads prior to running. In any case,
Planning for well site equipment and pipe rack arrange-
Length, diameter, hardness. Mechanical measure- ments should include the well site inspection program.
ments are made to verify that joint lengths meet industry When NDI units are to be u'sed at the site, the pipe
specifications and/or will be satisfaotory for a specific rack arrangement and casing location should he compat-
application. And occasionally when a larger than stan- ible with the inspection program and NDI unit capability.
dard drift diameter is desired, special drift mandrels are Some units have single pass capability while others require
used to cull the pipe stock. This and other special inspec- pipe to pass through the unit in both directions. An extra
tions requested by an operator should be performed in pipe rack may simplify the job. Also, it is extremely diffi-
the pipe yard or mill to avoid transporting a large number cult to do a good inspection job on casing ends that
of unusable lengths. overhang the mud pit. Preliminary planning greatly re-
Hardness testing is commonly used to verify a restricted duces time required for well 'site inspection.
range of yield strength for casing that is to be used in sour Inspection equipment must be maintained in excellent
(H2S) environments (except C-75 grade casing which has operating condition to provide consistently accurate re-
been manufactured for this application). 39 Such tests can sults, and people operating the units have to be competent.
he conducted anywhere. However, consistently accurate The operator should demand optimum performance. At
data are difficult to obtain in less than lab type environ- least two of the larger service companies provide technical
ments. Accuracy will depend on surface preparation, seminars for operating company personnel.
clamping systems, etc.
Significant industry effort !Was expended to develop CASING HANDLING
C-75 grade materials for severe sour gas environments. During the past 40 years, recommendations for proper
Methods for specifying and inspecting these types of ma- care and use of casing have been defined and encouraged
terials are available in the literature.42 by APJ.32 But casing is still subjected to damaging han-
dling practices in many locations.
Identification bands. Pipe thaJt has been inspected is Some of the more important handling practices are
usually identified by stenciled information and color coded shown in the following table. More complete handling
bands, above right. The stencil usually states who did procedures are documented in the literature.31. 32, 43
what type of inspection and when. While this is not an
official code, it represents common practices used by most Recommended casing handling practices
inspection companies. . Move casing only when thread protectors are in place

WORLD OIL 1977 17

. Store or rack casing only on wooden or metal surfaces free
of rocks, sand or other debris SLIPS
. Use spreader-bar and choker-chain arrangement near each
end to prevent crushing when handling bundles of casing
joints with a crane
. Do not unload pipe by dropping. When unloading by hand,
use a rope sling to control pipe momentum and prevent pipe- SLIP' BOWL
banging after rolling down the skids. Even with protectors in ANGLE (a)
place, pipe threads can be damaged
. Avoidall rough handling.

Running casing. Design details identifying various RADIAL

FORCE (W)
weights and grades for each section of the string should
be available. If weight and grade of a joint cannot be
clearly identified, it should be set aside until positive
identification can be made.
Casing ID can readily be checked (drifted) as it is
pulled into the derrick, by dropping a drift mandrel
through the joint. Drifting at this time removes any debris .
AXIAL LOAD (F)
that could interfere with cementing equipment. It also
prevents the running of a joint with a restrictive ID.
For short, lightweight, casing strings where collar-pull Fig. 18-Slip configuration and symbols used in calculating
critical axial load where radial force starts to deform the
elevators are used, the bearing surface should be inspected casing.
to be sure that the load will be uniformly distributed.
Side load on a collar could "jump" the collar off. for adequate length and bearing area to minimize
Slip-type elevators and spiders are recommended for damage.
long casing strings. It is critical that the casing be gripped Radial force (W) is related to axial load (F) by slip
so that no permanent deformation results from the grip- geometry and the coefficient of friction (p.) between slip
ping forces. and bowl. This relationship is

Axial loads in slips. Where casing is gripped by wedges I-p.tan.aX F

or tapered elements with slip-type equipment, as in
Fig. 18,44 axial load (F) due to casing lWeight tightens the
gripping elements with radial force (W) due to wedging
action of slips in the tapered bore.
Critical axial load (Fe) for slip-type equipment, where
permanent deformation of the casing occurs, is deter-
mined as follows: 45
Fe (lbs.) = C X A X (T
Where
(T = yield strength of the casing, psi
A = Cross sectional area of the pipe body, in2
2
rK rK
= Crushing factor = 1/ 1 + L + (L ) J
C [
And: r = Outside casing radius, in.
L = Slip gripping length, in.
K = Transverse load factor = 2.636, based on ac-
cepted API slip bowl taper of 2 inches per foot
and minimum coefficient of friction (0.2) for
lubricated hardened steel against hardened
steel at the slip-bowl interface.
For a given size, weight and grade of casing, slip length
(L) is the primary variable controlling critical load.
Example calculation: For 9%-inch, 47 pound/foot,
N-80 casing, using 14-inch slips:
=
A 13.57 in2
C = 0.606
(T = 80,000psi, and
Fe= 0.606 X 13.57X 80,000= 657,000pounds.
Slips used for heavy casing 'Strings should be checked
W (lbs.) = p.+ tan a
Where: a = Slip bowl taper angle, Fig. 7
po= 0.2 (usually)
Slip marks damage the integrity of high strength or
sour service casing. To minimize this damage, slips should
be clean, in good repair and they should be selected to
fit casing OD closely. In rare instances where odd-size
casing is required, special slips should be provided. Slips
should all lower together and seat properly in the slip
bushing or bowl. Slip marks should be examined periodi-
cally for uniform impressions.
1/2
CASINGMAKE-UP
I TORQUE
The thread protectors should not be removed until
joint is ready to be stabbed into the box end of the pre-
ceding joint. The joint then should be lowered carefully
to avoid thread damage. Vertical alignment should be
maintained and the casing should be rotated very slowly
at first to assure thread alignment.
Tong dies should be examined for wear prior to running
casing. The back-up line should be positioned on the
back-up post so tong gripping surfaces exert an even load
and minimum bending force on the casing.
The back-up line must be lined up at a 90-degree angle
to the power tongs to obtain an accurate indication from
a torque gage that measures tension in the back-up line.
The torque gage should be reliable and in calibration so
that irregularities in torque required for casing make-up
can be observed.
The development of power tongs in the 1940s provided
the means for improving make-up practices as well as
reducing rig time required to run casing. However, the

18 WORLD OIL 1977


VANISHING POINT MAKE-UP
\c ~!:tTW~,,~~RE~D
I TURNS OK
POWERTIGHT BEARING PRESSURE HANDTlGHT
MAKEUP API ROUND THREAD
MAKE-UP
<J OPPOSITE ANYiPART TRIANGLE STAMP[>
!
I
/ OF STAMP OK
I
I
HANDTIGHT
BUTTRESS THREAD
Fig. 19-Thread configuration and basic make-up positions of
API 8 round and Buttress threads (after API Spec 5A)."
practice of using torque alone as the means for make-up
control was never intended by API.
The two most important factors that influence leak
resistance of threaded pipe joints were identified, over 30
years ago, as joint make-up and thread compound.43
The basic sealing principle for API 8 round threaded
connections, Fig. 19,46 is that contact (bearing) pressure
between pin and box, produced by make-up, forms sev-
eral metal-to-metal seals, and that solids from thread
compound fiU the void space between the threads. These
solids are required to transmit bearing pressure from one
threaded surface to the other. The connection seal is
maintained only as long as bearing pressure is greater
than the internal or external differential pressure.
Sealing ability-as well 8.'Sthe influence on friction-of
different thread compounds varies greatly. Pressure tests
have shown that marked variation in sealing ability exists
between different brands of API Modified thread com-
pounds as well as with specialty compounds.46
Non-API connections. Several different types of non-
API tubular connections are commonly U'sed. Descriptions
of these have been reported in the literature,48 and latest
data on premium thread designs are available from manu-
facturers or COMPOSITECATALOG.
Such connections employ several different basic types
of thread designs. They can have both shouldering and
non-shouldering connections with "metal-to-metal" seals,
while other connections rely on a 'Supplementary, resilient
Teflon seal.
Obtaining a pressure seal in connections that rely on
metal-to-metal sealing requires make-up, to force the pin
and box mating surfaces together.
Theoretically, the pin should be stressed to about the
yield point to obtain maximum leak resistance. This keeps
the connection in the ela:stic stress range and produces the
maximum amount of bearing pressure between mating
surfaces for leak resistance.49.5o A precise make-up pro-
cedure is required to achieve these maximum leak resis-
tance conditions.
API torque recommendations. Although it was never
intended, development of power tongs made it very con-
venient to use torque as the only guide for make-up
control. However, variations in thread design, surface
finish, thread compounds and the size, weight and grade
of pipe all interact and influence make-up torque.
WORLD OIL 1977
The API round thread pullout strength formula was
thought to contain several variables that affect make-up
torque. 51 And when API conducted tests that measured
torque required to make up API 8 round threaded con-
nections lubricated with API Modified thread compound,
it was found-emperically-that these torque values were
about 1% of the calculated pullout strength.
Therefore, the recommended torque values listed in
API RP 5CI are calculated from the following relation:
, Torque (ft. lbs.) = 0.01 Minimum joint strength (lbs.).
API RP 5C1 further states that torque W8.'Sselected to
give optimum make-up of API 8 round connections under
normal conditions and should be considered satisfactory
only if the face of the coupling is within plus or minus
two thread turns of the last thread scratch (vanishing
point), Fig. 19.
When using API RP 5C1 recommended make-up torque
tables, use API Modified thread compound and observe
the make-up position of each connection.
For Buttress threads, API recommends:
1. Determine torque required to make-up each of sev-
eral connections to the proper position, then
2. Use that torque to make-up the balance of the same
weight and grade pipe in the string, but
3. Continually observe make-up position for verification
of proper make-up.
Buttress thread connections have triangles stamped on
the pin ends. Proper make-up is achieved when the cou-
pling face is opposite any portion of the triangle, Fig. 19.
Effect of thread compounds. Torque required to prop-
erly make-up connections depends primarily on friction
between pin and box threads. For clean, damage-free
threads, make-up torque is significantly affected by type
of thread compound. Use of different compounds can
cause make-up torque variations of up to 500%.52
Such large variations indicate that, to establish maxi-
mum bearing pressure between pin and box mating sur-
faces-and not risk overstressing pin or box-a more accu-
rate means of measuring make-up (than torque alone) is
required. Two methods for making such measurements
will be discussed.
An API subcommittee is currently reviewing thread
compound standards, attempting to develop more precise
standards for friction and leak resistance performance.
Careful selection of compounds for each set of condi-
tions, on the basis of friction and leak resistance charac-
teristics, is encouraged. These characteristics should be
clarified by discussions with both pipe and Iu b r i can t
manufacturers.
Make-up control (Torque-Turn). During 1963, the
API Southern District Tubular Goods Committee con-
ducted a survey of tubular string failures.33 This survey
(still the only comprehensive study published) showed
that 86% of reported casing failures occurred in connec-
tions.
In 1967, Exxon began licensing its newly developed
Torque-Turn make-up control device, 47.49.52 an auto-
mated make-up monitoring system for API type connec-
tions that cross-checks torque with turns (make-up posi-
tion) to determine connection acceptability.
Make-up control with this system involves pre-setting
19
of reference, minimum and maximum torque, and low,
minimum and high turns.
These torque and turns settings vary with size, weight
and grade of casing, thread compound and type of con-
nection. Specific setting are considered proprietary in-
formation of various licensees.
The system can accommodate single-end or double-end
connection make-up. Double-end make-up is used when
the mill provides collars separately or "hand-tight" (float-
ing) which need to be made-up on the rig floor. The
system is available in most U.S. steel mills for installing
collars, if specified. Where the system is to be used on the
rig floor, collars made-up in the mill should utilize the
same control so that the first-half of the connection is
not disturbed.

A new make-up control system recently developed Fig. 2D-New make-up control system uses controlled-power
unit, left, to run ring and plug gages to "hand-tight" positions
by AMF Tuboscope provides a method to evaluate the to check pin and box thread quality. Reference marks, right,
condition of pin and box threads before casing is run then are applied to pin and box, and make-up position is
into the well, and measure connection make-up. 53 verified on the rig floor using calibrated window in special
card, right (courtesy AMF Tuboscope).
To apply AMF's Torque at Proper Engagement
(TAPE) control system, protectors are removed and
threads are cleaned. Then, API ring and plug gages P,
are run on both threads to the hand-tight plane using I
I
a power driven tool with controlled torque, Fig. 20. The r
location of the gage on the threads is checked per API
Standard 5B.
t
Q.
I
I
I
I
I
I
P (EXTERNAL) CASING OD
.. -c'

ui I
Torque reference marks are inscribed around pipe a: I
::> Ie
en
circumference and coupling if the relative position of the en
w :I) _____
I
hand tight plane agrees with API. Thread compound a: I """;'~"_.
-, ,.. ,-,.-"",

is applied and cleaned thread protectors are replaced.

When casing is run, each connection is made up to a
Q. I

:
I
B(BEARING PRESS.
AT SEAL POINT) . T (PIN)

specified torque load and the distance between pipe and
coupling reference marks is checked with a special gage
card on which the mark shows in an "acceptance
window" when proper make-up position is achieved, Fig.
20.
Torque is recorded on a chart and used to verify
proper thread engagement and make-up. This new
development will be available initially in California.
RIG FLOOR LEAK TESTS
Hydrostatic testing of casing connections on the rig
floor is a technique used to prove leak resistance of con-
nections. Tools are currently available that provide for
internal testing of up to 8%-inch casing, and external
testing of up to 16-inch casing.
Hydrostatic tests have been proven capable of detect-
ing (on the surface) connections that will leak under
pressure. Such a detectable leak could easily result in a
casing leak downhole.
There are advantages and disadvantages of both in-
ternal and external testing, for example: The small fluid
volume used in external testing increases sensitivity and
shortens test time; however, visual inspection of a leaking
connection is not possible with external testing. Also, the
internal system can test the entire joint.
Connection geometry has a significant effect on
whether a connection is more subject to leaking due to
high internal or high external pressures. To prevent
leakage, connection bearing pressure must exceed pressure
differential from either direction. But the same pressure
differential, in turn, has an "energizing" effect on the
bearing pressure that can alter the true leak resistance of
the connection. And this effect varies greatly with direc-
I P(INTERNAL)
Fig. 21-Energizing effect of pressure applied across a con-
nection. On the curve representing the thin-pin, thick-box
connection in the drawing, B, is initial bearing pressure from
make-up in the metal-metal inner seal, PE and p, are theoreti-
cal external or internal pressures required to initiate a leak at
the seal, and e is a function of connection geometry. When
thicknesses are nearly equal, as in API connections, e ap-
proaches zero and the energizing effect of pressure in either
direction is not significant.
tion of the differential pressure and connection geometry,
Fig. 21.
External testing, for example, can be more effective in
detecting leaks in premium type connections that have
a metal-to-metal seal surface at or near the tip of the pin.
Insufficient make-up (position-wise) due to damaged or
defective threads or seal surfaces can result in low
initial bearing pressure even with apparently adequate
torque. In such connections, the metal is much thinner
in the pin than in the collar, at the sealing point. There-
fore, higher internal pressure "energizes" the otherwise
insufficient seal by expanding the pin into the box, in-
creasing bearing pressure. Conversely, increase in external
pressure has very little energizing effect on the seal, Fig.
21. In this thin-pin, thick-collar situation, a lower ex-
ternal pressure would detect the problem.
Test procedures. For API, non-premium connections,
in which pin and collar thickness difference is less sig-
nificant, test procedures used may be of more importance
than the test method, internal or external.
The length of time that test pressure is held on the

20 WORLD OIL 1977

 connection varies widely in practice, as do opinions on
the subject. Many leaks have not been detected in less
.than 10 seconds, and many testers recommend that 10
seconds be the absolute minimum even in low pressure
se.vvice. For pressures over 2,000 psi, 20-30 seconds (or
more) would give. more reliable results.
Leakage depends on time because of the tortuous path
fluids may follow through voids between threads and/or
because of the slow displacement of viscous but non-
sealing thread compound.
Use of a strip chart pressure recorder is a simple way
to obtain a permanent record of connection testing. It
allows development of more dependable test duration
statistics. And the strip chart can be retained as a perma-
nent record of test time and leaks found.
Recommended test pressure also varies with applica-
tion and with operator. Most testing companies recom-
mend that test pressure be 80% of pipe yield pressure.
And-attempting to duplicate downhole conditions-
some testers recommend that pressure be applied and
released at least once before performing the test, and
that all testing be conducted with the connection in
tension.
Since there are no industry standards for hydro-
statically testing casing connections on the rig floor, and
'because practices vary widely,55 it is recommended that
equipment and procedures be carefully examined before
eaoh job.
CASING LANDING
Casing landing practices should be specifically defined
for each well to minimize chances of buckling or parting
during future ope.ra:tions. Practices effectively used in one
field may not be appropriate for another.
Three variations are usually implemented:
1. Normally, casing is landed in the wellhead in the
position in which it was cemented, i.e. "as cemented"
2. It can be stretched to increase tension, or
3. It can be slacked off to reduce tension.
Which procedure is used and to what degree slack-off
or tension is added is a function of anticipated changes
in wellhead loading that will occur during the life of the
well.
Wellhead loading is affected by: Changes in tempera-
ture and pressure; internal and external fluid weight
variations; and location of the permanent (and tem-
porary, if any exists) freeze point (free point). Equations,
useful nomographs and analytical procedures in the litera-
ture can be used to determine appropriate landing
procedures. 56. 51
'two methods that can be used to adjust wellhead
loading offshore where ocean bottom suspension pre-
cludes use of conventional onshore landing practices are:
Increase height of the primary cement column; and/or
hold an internal pressure on the casing until cement
sets.58
Increasing height of cement is usually more economical
as it requires less rig time. However, certain problem
formations or lost circulation zones may not tolerate
high cement columns.
Holding internal pressure normally results in a net
WORLD OIL 1977
lengthening of casing as the piston effect causes more
lengthening than the shortening effect of swelling (bal-
looning). This "stretch" is cemented in when the cement
sets. However, swelling that increases casing diameter
slightly may create a micro-annulus between cement and
casing when pressure is released after cement has set.
Because of an increasing awareness of bonding and
micro-annulus problems, operators in certain geographical
areas are reluctant to hold pressure on casing greater
than the differential required to support the denser
cement column in the annulus.
In any case, it is necessary to anticipate changes in
downhole conditions that may occur during well life to
determine correct adjustments or landing procedure.
Severe conditions such as arctic (permafrost), ultra deep,
thermal or geothermal environments, of course, require
even more careful evaluation and perhaps specialized
landing practices.
Coming next month: Cement slurry composition, classi-
fications, types and availability of additives, applica-
tions in common downhole problems, special cements
for special purposes.
LITERATURE CITED
.. Kettenbur~, R. . and Schmieder, F. R., "Oil-well Casing Failures,"
}
API Drilling an Production Practices, 1945, p. 195.
"Davis, S. H. and Nippert, H. W., "Why High-Strength Tubular Goods
Fail" Oil & Gas Journal, April 13, 1964, p. 84.
3. "API Specification for Casing Tubing and Drill Pipe," API Spec SA,
.Thirty-third Edition, March 1976.
31"API Specification for Restricted Yield Strength Casing and Tubing,"
API Spec 5AC, Tenth Edition, March 1976.
38"API Specifications for High-Strength Casing, Tubing and Drill Pipe,"
API Spec SAX, Tenth Edition, March 1976.
3. Hamby, T. W., Jr., Broussard, L. P. and Taylor D. B., "Producing
Mississippi's Deep High-Pressure Sour Gas," JPT, June 1976, p. 629.
40Kahil, K. l?~ 'Automatic Nondestructive Testing of Oil Field Tubular
Goods," ASME Paper 7S-Pet.42, presented at the Petroleum Mechanical
Engineers Conference, Tulsa, Okla., Sept. 21-2S, 1975.
41"API Specifications for Threading, Gaging and Thread Inspection of
Casing, Tubing and Line Pipe ,Thread," API Standard 5B, Ninth Edition,
March 1974.
'2 Swanson, T. M., "Experience With High Strength Steel Oil Field Tubular
Goods, in Sour Service," presented at the Srmposium on Line Pipe and
Tubular Goods, API 1976 Stand. Conf., Dallas, Texas June 1~-18, 1976
p. SS-4:3.
'3 Kemler, E. N. "Factors Influencing the Leakage Resistance of Threaded
Pipe Joints," API Drilling and Production Practice, 1946, p. 275.
.. "Develol'ment of Casin", Handling Equipment for Ultra-Deep Gas and
Oil Wells," report ava.lable from Varco Oil Well Tools, Box 6626,
Orange Calif.
.. Spiri, W. H. and Reinhold, W. B., "Why Drill Pipe Fails in the Slip
Area," World Oil, October 1969.
.. Grenawalt, J. J., Pallante N. L. and Roblin, M. J., "Relative Sealing
Characteristics of Thread Compounds," presented at the Petroleum Branch
ASME Meeting, Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 17-20, 1967, also R&D report of
Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co.
41Weiner, P. D. and True, M. E., "Unique Device Eliminates Leaks in
API Connections," World Oil, July 1969.
.. Anon, "1976.77 Tubing Tables" World Oil, January 1976.
.. Weiner, P. D. and True, M. E., "A Method of Obtaining Leakproof API
Threaded Connections in High-Pressure Gas Service," API Paper 926-14-M,
presented March 1969.
55Eaton, B. A., "Detecting Leaks in Oil Field Tubular Connections,"
Worla Oil, September 1973.
51"Formulas and Calculations for Casing, Tubing, Drill Pipe, and Line
Pipe Properties," API Bul 5C3, Second Edition, November 1974.
52Weiner, P. D. and Sewell, F. D., "New Technology for Improved
Tubular Connection Performance," JPT, March 1967.
.. "TAPE Control: The New Reliable Method of Evaluating Threaded
Connections and Controlling Makeup," AMF Tuboscope Factsheet, Vol.
76, No.6.
.. Hasha, M. H. and Snyder, R. E., "External Testing Finds Hidden Con-
nection Leaks," World Oil, February 1971-.
55Kerr.. H. P., "Thread Leaks in Tubing and Casing Stringo," API Drilling
and rroduchon Practice, 1965, p. 14.
55Cox, W. R., "Key Factors Affecting Landing of Casing," API Drilling
and Production Practice, 19S7, Pl'. 22S-2S0.
., Chesney, A. J., Jr., and Garcia, J., "Load and Stability Analysis of
Tubular Strings," Paper 69-Pet-lS, presented at the ASME Petroleum
Mechanical Engineering Conference, Tulsa, Okla., Sept. 21~25, 1969.
51Dellinger T. B., and McLean, J., "Preventing Instability in Partially
Cemented Intermediate casing Strings," Paper SPE 4606, presented at the
Fall Meeting of SPE 01 AIME, Las Vegas, Nev., Sept. 30-0cl. 3, 1973.
21
 BASIC CEMENT PROPERTIES
"Neat" oil well cement-the basic powdered material,
without additives-is commonly called "Portland cement"
after the small town in England where it was first made.

Cementingoil It is manufactured from limestone, clay, sand and iron

ore, which are finely ground and blended, then fired in a
rotary kiln to about 2,600° F. These materials semi-melt
into glass-like balls or clinkers of complex calcium silicate

andgaswells which then are re-ground with gypsum.

Part 3-How basic cements and additives
can be tailored to give desired
properties for completion and remedial
operations
George o. Suman, Jr., President, and Richard C. Ellis,
Project Engineer, Completion Technology Co., Houston
10-second summary
API's classification of basic cements is presented,
commercial additives are listed and effects of slurry
formulation on properties such as thickening time, com-
pressive strength and density are discussed. The function
of various cement compositions in typical and special
downhole applications is explained.
Portland cement consists primarily of: Tricalcium
silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate and
tetracalcium aluminoferrite. In addition, it contains free
gypsum (CaS04) magnesia (MgO) and lime (CaO).59
The percentage of these components in the final blend
can affect early strength, sulfate resistance, hydration,
swelling and cracking during cure and/or rate of harden-
ing. API has established cement classes, with maximum
percent of the above chemical components designated. GO
API has developed physical requirements as well, includ-
ing: water addition, soundness, fineness, minimum thick-
ening time, minimum compressive strength and free
water content.
Soundness is a measure of the expansive properties of
a cement, and fineness is the particle size to which a
clinker is ground. Particle size can affect setting time,
early strength and water addition.
API also has specifications for certain additives such
as bentonite, barite and fly ash.
Cement classifications provided by API for nine classes
of cement allow for various pressure/temperature condi-
tions, early strength, sulfate resistance, adaptability to
modification with accelerators and retarders and avail-
ability, as follows:

API cement classes

CEMENT SLURRY composition can be tailored-by
selection of the correct API-classified cement, proper use
of one or more additives and addition of the desired Class
Depth range,
ft.
. Available
sulfate
resistance
- Characteristics,availability
volume of water-to meet demands of nearly any modern A 0-6,000 Ordinary Common(construction), widely avail.
B 0-6,000 Moderate Special (construction), avail. California,
well completion. Examples of applications where special Canada
C 0-6,000 Ord., mod.,high High early strength, fine grind, widely
cement formulations may be needed are: High pressure avail.
0 6,000-10,000 Mod.,high Coarse grind, retarded, not avail. North
gas containment, squeezing and plugging, extreme tem- America
peratures and lost circulation conditions. This article E 10,000-14,000 Mod.,high Same as D
F 10,000-16,000 Mod.,high Same as D
covers these important considerations with discussions of: G 0-8,000 Mod.,high Basiccement, no chemicalretarder, avail.
West. U.S.
H 0-8,000 Moderate Basic cement, coarse grind no chemical
~ Basic cement properties: Chemical and physical J
retarder, GulfCoast &Mid-Continent
12,000-16,000 High Resistsstrength retrogression,min. temp.
characteristics; API classifications and geographical ap- 2300 F
plication; how to calculate slurry density, yield and cost
. As manufactured.
1.50 F per 100 teet.
Based on normal size cement job in well with geothermal gradient of
~ Cement additives: A listing of what's available
under what trade name; how additives are used to develop The nine classes cover applications to depths of 16,000
slurry properties such as fast or slow thickening time, feet (4,800 m), as manufactured, and a wide variety of
high or low density and fluid (filtrate) loss depth and temperature/pressure conditions with addition
of accelerators or retarders.
~ Properties of set cement: How cement composition
affects strength and expansion characteristics, and Because sulfate salts have low solubility at tempera-
tures above 140° F, sulfate resistance is not normally a
:~ Special cements: A discussion of salt cement; form- consideration at that temperature or higher.
ulations for high/low temperature conditions. Some 40 manufacturers around the world are author-

22 WORLD OIL 1977

 Geologists and Uni~ed States Geological Survey has been
published in two map sets "Subsurface Temperature Map
of North America" and "The Geothermal-Gradient Map
J: 8,000
I-
(!)
of North America." These maps are available through
Z the Branch of Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200
W
a:: South Eads St., Arlington, Va. 22202 (or same office,
I-
en
w Box 25286, Federal Center, Denver, Colo. 80225) at a
>
c;; price of $4 per set. Service companies can also supply
en such data.
w
a::
a.
::;;
,
4,000
o Water is added to cement to make the slurry pump-
()
able, and provide for hydration (the chemical reaction).
Although only 25% water by weight of cement (Fig. 22)
NOT PUMPABLE PUMPABLE
may be needed for hydration (a slurry density of about
I
30 46.~ 50 18.3 ppg), normal water content is higher to provide for
pumpability, as shown below:
WATER CONTENT, %
Neat cement slurries
Fig. 22-Compressivestrength of cement is reduced nearly in
proportion to amount of water in slurry. Approximate points Percent Slurry Slurry
for water required for hydration, "minimum" water and "maxi- Class water per sack den., ppg* yld., ft.'/sk*
mum" water are also indicated..' I Gals.water
A. . . ..... ........ .. 46 5.19 15.6 1.17
B............ ........ 46 5.19 15.6 1.17
C................. .... 56 6.32 14.8 1.32
D..... . .. .. '" .... 38 4.28 16.4 1.05
ized to use the API monogram for one or more classes of E....... .. ... ... 38 4.28 16.4 1.05
F............. ... 38 4.28 16.4 1.05
cement; still, only a few classes are available in a given G..... .. 44 4.96 15.8 1.14
H. ... ... 38 4.28 16.4 1.05
area. However, two "basic" cement classes can be modified J. ... 38-43.5 .28-4.91 16.0-15.4 1.09-1.17
with accelerators or retarders to cover a wide variety of
pressure/temperature conditions-Class G (available in * Based on absolute vol. per sack cement equal 3.59 gals.

Colorado, California and Alaska) and Class H (available

in Mid-Continent and Gulf Coast). The normal water content differs for various classes
according to fineness of grind. Excess water should be
Depth ratings of cement are based on lab determinations avoided to prevent cement-water stratification. API
of thickening time and minimum compressive strength requires that Class G and H slurries have less than 1.4%
development, in which samples are subjected to simu- top settling (free water) as measured in a 250 ml gradu-
ate in two hours.
lated temperature/pressure behavior representative of a
large percentage of actual jobs.61 Care should be taken to add the proper amount of
Thickening time is the time required to reach the water for the cement to be used. For example, Class H
approximate upper limit of pumpable consistency. Mini- is sometimes inadvertently handled like Class A, and the
mum thickening time specifications (and maximum for resulting mix has reduced strength, retarded thickening
time and excessive free water.
classes G and H) are based on pumping times from field
data. Free water content is usually higher at increased
Minimum compressive strengths are specified after 8 temperature due to thinning, and lab tests at elevated
and/or 24-hour curing times for samples subjected to temperature are sometimes required. Free water can be
pressure (3,000 psi except for 1,000-foot and 2,000-foot minimized by: Limiting the amount of mix water, adding
simulations) and temperature (based on a geothermal bentonite in small quantities or selecting and controlling
gradient of 1.5° F per 100 feet). quantity of other slurry additives.
Since actual geothermal temperature gradient, bottom
How to calculate yield, cost. To estimate job cost,
hole circulating temperature and time requirement may
price per sack is not as important as cost per cubic foot
differ from those used in the lab to establish depth
of slurry because the latter varies with yield due to dif-
ratings, such ratings will not always be applicable. For ferent water contents.
instance, geothermal temperature gradients range from
Slurry density, yield and cost can be calculated, given
about 0.8 to 2.4° F per 100 feet in various parts of the
southeast United States. specific gravity, bulk weight and water required by the
cement-or additive-and cost of the material, as follows:
Where the gradient is low, depth rating might be
extended; conversely, depth rating might have to be Given:
reduced where the gradient is high. . One sack (one cubic foot) of Class A cement weighs
A recent (1976) compilation of subsurface temper- 94 pounds
ature data by the American Association of Petroleum . Cement cost is $3.75 per sack

WORLD OIL 1977 23

 . 5.19 gallons of water required per sack A listing of selected additives available from major U.S.
. Specific gravity of water is 1.0, density is 8.34 ppg service companies is shown in the accompanying table.
. Specific gravity of cement is 3.15, absolute density is And the following discussions explain functions of these
3.15 X 8.34 ppg = 26.21 ppg, and additives in modifying cement composition.
. One cubic foot equals 7.48 gallons. Mud contamination also acts on the slurry to affect
Then: some or all of the above properties; these effects will be
discussed in a later article.
. Absolutevolume of cement = 94/26.21 = 3.59 gallons
· Weight of water per sack = 5.19 X 8.34 = 43.28 pounds Thickening time. may be varied using accelerators or
. Absolutevolumeof water = 5.19 gallons. retarders. The most common accelerators are: Calcium
And: chloride, sodium silicate, sodium chloride (low concentra-
tions), seawater, gypsum and ammonium chloride.
. Slurry density = Weight/volume = (94 + 43.28) / Additives that retard are: Calcium lignosulfonate,
(3.59 + 5.19) = 15.6 ppg
organic blends, carboxy methyl hydroxy ethyl cellulose
. Yield = gals. per sack/gals. per ft.' = 8.78/7.48 = 1.17
ft.' per sack (CMHEC), borax, sodium chloride (high concentrations)
and most fluid loss agents.
. Slurry cost = $3.75 per sack/I. I? ft.' per sack = $3.21
per it.' Thickening time is a function of both temperature and
pressure, Fig. 23.63 Thickening time can also be shortened
Most slurry additives are expressed as percent by by interruption of pumping (loss of agitation). And API
weight of cement. One exception is salt which is expressed tests can be done in this manner to simulate actual inter-
as percent by weight of fresh water. ruptions during squeezing (tentative).
When additives such as bentonite are used in the mix- Thus, thickening time of a slurry must be esta:blished
ture, this calculating method must be expanded. Densi- for realistic conditions to ensure adequate pumping time
ties and water requirements of most additives are included for slurry placement. Avoid excessive thickening time to
in the accompanying table. Service companies can also prevent: Delays in resuming drilling operations, settling
provide such information to customers, with density and and separation of cement slurry components, formation
yield already calculated for most mixtures. of free water pockets, loss of hydrostatic head and gas
Another source of information concerning the chemical cutting.
aspects of cement and additives is the SPE Monograph, Increased water lengthens thickening time of unretarded
Cementing, by Dwight Smith.62 cement (Classe A, C, G, H). However, with retarded
cements (Classes D, E, F) increased water or solids may
CEMENT ADDITIVES shorten thickening times by reducing the concentration of
retarder.64
Almost all cement used in oil and gas wells is Portland
cement. However, "neat" cement is seldom used through- Thickening time can be measured using pressurized
out a job as various additions are usually made to modify consistometers. API has developed schedules, for pressure/
the following properties of either slurry or set cement: temperature increases versus time, that simulate cement
Slurry Set cement placement conditions for different types of cementing
Thickening Time operations such as squeeze cementing (also plug back),
Compressive strength
Density (yield) Strength retrogression liner cementing (tentative), casing cementing and alter-
Friction during pumping Cement strength downhole nate hesitation squeeze cementing (tentative). Thickening
Fluid loss (filtrate) Expansion
Lost circulation resistance time tests can also be tailored to individual well condi-

---- - -----------
10 5,'

API CLASS
8 AS NOTED CLASS A
4

00
a:
J: 3
W
:2

2
i=
Q
:E
I-
2
-14QOF

180°F

o I I
40 60 80 140 160 180 o 2 3 4 5

Fig. 23-Effect of temperature and pressure on thickening time of Portland cement. At atmospheric pressure, left, thickening
time is reduced by high temperature. At constant temperature, right, thickening time is reduced by pressure (after Bearden)..'

24 WORLD OIL 1977

 Selective products of major U.S. service companies
Bulk Water Tradename
Specific density, required,
Product gravity Ibs./ft3 gal./sk OJ-Hughes Dewell Dresser Halllburten Western
Accelerator
Calcium chloride. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.75-1.96 50 None A7, A7-l, A6 SI CaCI, CaCI, CaCI,
Salll-6%.............. ............ 2.16-2.17 70-71 None A-5 D44 Salt Sail Salt
NaCl,CaCI, mixture....... ...... .... . 2.00 esl. 50 esl. None D43 ..
CH.CI, CaCI, blend. . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . 2.00 esl. 50 esl. None A8 MA-2 HA-5
Sodiumsilicate. .. . .. .. . ... ........ 2.62 60 None DiacelA il57 DiacelA DiacelA illacel A
Retarder
Calcium lignosulfonate... . .. ..... .. .... 1.5-1.56 35 None R-5 MlR-3 HR-4 WR-2
Calc. ligno.(Kembreak).......... .... .. 1.23-1.30 30 None R-5 DI3 MlR-I HR-7 WR-I
Hightemp. blend. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 1.22 23 None Rll, R14-l D28, D99, D100 MHR-8 HR-12, HR-20 WR-6
lignin-liquid. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1.26 .- None R-IOl D81 MlR-l HR-6l WR-ll
CMHEC(carboxymethyl hydroxy
ethyl cellulose). . .. . .. . .. ... .. .. .. 1.36 29 o (up to 0.7%) R6 (Diacell Wl) D8, lWl MFlR-7 Diacell Wl Diacell Wl
Salt (saturated)......... ... .. . . . .. .. 2.16-2.17 70-71 .. A-5 D44 Salt Salt Salt
Borax............................. . 1.73 65 .. Borax D93 MHR-9 Borax Borax
Thixotropiccml. retarder. . . . . . . . . _. . 5.47 .. .. .. D74 .. .. WR-IO
Extender
Bentonite........................... . 2.65 60 1.3 (2% gel) BJ Gel Gel D20 M-Gel Gel Bentonite
Diatomaceousearth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 16.7 8.2 (cu. II.) DiacelD D56 DiacelD DiacelD DiacelD
10%-5.0gal
POllolan:
Fly ash. . . . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . .. . .. 2.46 74 3.6 DiamlxF (74#) 035 (74#) Magco POI A POlmixA (74#) POlmentA (74# )
Natural pOl. (S. Tex.). . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. Magco POI N .. ..
Natural poz.(Calit.)..... .. .. .. .. .. .. DiamixA (47#) ilin (47#) .. .. ..
Fly ash (NewOrleans, Houston)....... 2:66 60 .. D48(60#) ..
Cement Pouolan and Bentonite.. . . . . . 2.89 87.0 10.9 (max.) litepoz 300 Eeonoblend Hallib.light
Calcinedshale-cemenl.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . 2.71 75 7.66 (max.) Trinity ll. WI. D49, Tl W, Dl W Trinity ll. WI. Trinity ll. WI.
Anhydroussodium meta-silicate. . . . . . 2.40 .. 6-6.8 (2% sil.) lodense D79 Thrilly mix Econolite TLWi TXI
Thrlty liteLt. WI.
Weight material
Ottawa sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.63 100 0 Frac sand 20/40 Sand MS-3 Sand Sand
Barite............................ . 4.25 135 2.4 W-l D31 Mcobar Barite Barite
Hematite (iron oxide). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93-5.02 165-193 0-0.36 W-5 D76 M -2 HiDense3 Hematite
gal/IOO Ibs.
Ilmenite. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . 4.45 150 None .. D18 MW-I .. Ilmenite
Fluid loss additive
H............................ 1.36 29 o (up to 0.7%) R-6 D8 MFlR-7 DiaceI l Wl Diacell Wl
CEMAD-I(Amer.Cyananid).......... 1.36 None CEMAD-I CEMAD-I
Organicpolymers................... 1.22 37-40 None il59 MFl-5 Halad 9, 22A CF-I, CF-2,CF-6
1.31 40 None D-19 D60 MFl-4 Halad 14 CF-3(ultra low)
OrganicpOIr,mer
Lost blend.... .. ... . _ ...
clrculat on material
Gilsonite................ _.......... 1.07 50 2.0 (50 Ibs.) 0-7 D24 Gilsonite Gilsonite Gilsonite
Crushedcoal (Kolite)................ 1.30 50 2.0 (50 Ibs.) D42
Cellophane.. . .... .. ... .. ..... .. ... . Cello-Flake D29 Cell-O-Seal FloceIe Cello-Seal
Walnutshells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.28 50 0 Tuf-Plug J51 Nut Plug TUf-PIU Tuf-Plug
Perlite expanded.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.40 8 4.0 (cu. II.) BJ Perlite 072 Perlite ego
Perlite semi. expanded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.40 43 6.0 (cu. fl.) Oil Patch Nine .. Perlites Perlite Six ..
HIi::r;:::.t.re................... . 2.63 70 4.8 (100Ibs.) D-8 D66 MS-I SSA-I SF 3
Silicasand. . . . . . . _. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.63 100 None D-8C D30 MS-2 SSA-2 SF 4
Dispersant
Organic.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 1.30-1.63 40-43 None D-31 D65 MCD-3, MCD-4 CFR-I,CFR-2 TF-4
liquid.. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . . .. . .. 1.18 .. None D-31l D80 MCD-l CFR-22L ..
Special materials
Expanding cemen!. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.15 94 6.3 Chem Comp Chem Comp ChemComp ChemComp ChemComp
Defoamers(Powder,liq., other)... _ .. .. .. 0-6, D-6l, 0-21 D46,D47 MFP-5,l NF-P NF-I AF-8,AF-l
D-Air1,2 '
Gelagent blend (Slo Flo)....... ... .. 2.26 D71 .. VCT
2.70 75 4.8 Gyp-Seal D53,RFC .. Cal-Seal Thixad
Plaster paris (Gygsumcement). . . _. . . 2.90esl. 75 4.0 Arcticset Permafrost II
:r:xu.t . 'n:: : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1.10 0 0-5 D-15 MCl-2 latex lA-2 CLX-I
Aluminate(CimentFondu,lumnite)... 3.20 90 4.5 lumnite lumnite lum. C.F. lum., C.F.
MudKiI(lo temp. and hi temp.)... . . . None Firm Set I, 2 Mud KiII, 2 Hard Set I, 2
Nylonfibres... .. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . .. . . 1:23 None VisqueezMK-II 094 .. fda. Ii 2 ..
Dieseloil cement (additive). . . . . . . . . . 0.90-1.00 None M54,F33 ..
Prefiush-thick.................. _... .. MudSweep g2-- DOC-IO Excello-Gel
Preflush-thin................... _... I.Ui'esl. .. .. MudClean Swcer
C 1000
7, CWlOO MMW-l MCA, Mud Flush WMW-I
Oilmud spacer. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10esl. .. .. Unimul OBMSpacer MCS-2,MCS-3 SAM-4 APS-I, APS-2
Basic cements' (Class A, B, C, D, G, H): Specific gravity 3.15, bulk density 94 Ibs';sack (80 in Canada).
See accompanying table for water requi remenl.
Note: "None" means water required is not significant or is not intended to be used.
" . ." means data or trade name is unknown, product may be available.
This table is not a complete listing of available products. Please check with local service companies.

tions by service companies, if the published API schedules However, as was discussed in Part 1, high cement strength
are not applicable. is not always required.
Note: These measurements are made in metal vessels Bentonite has for years been the most commonly used
which prevent any fluid loss. Thickening time values additive for "filler" type cement.65 In addition to its
determined are therefore higher than they might be oppo- effect on density, yield and cost, bentonite increases vis-
site a permeable zone, after partial dehydration. cosity and gel strength, which reduces settling of high
Slurry density may be reduced with extenders such as density particles (weight material, cement) or floating
bentonite, pozzolan, diatomaceous earth and anhydrous of low density particles (Perlites, pozzolan, gilsonite,
sodium meta-silicate. Gilsonite and crushed coal also crushed coal).
reduce density. And special calcined shale--cement (such Bentonite al:;o reduces API fluid loss. However, cements
as Trinity Lite-Wate or Texas Industries Light Weight) containing bentonite are more permeable and have low-
are used for this purpose. ered sulfate resistance.
Low density is frequently desired, to decrease likelihood Pozzolans increase slurry viscosity and provide low
of breaking-down the formation and causing lost circula- permeability. Sodium meta-silicate provides a very low-
tion. In addition, such slurries cost less per cubic foot, as density slurry with early compressive strength; this mate-
yield per sack is increased. rial and calcined shale-cement are becoming popular,
Density decrease results in large part from increased particularly offshore. The latter is a special cement, not
water content. Extenders permit water addition without an extender, as mentioned earlier.
separation. However, cement strength is reduced approxi- Light-weight cements are listed in the accompanying
mately in proportion to water content increase, Fig. 22. table which separates slurry compositions providing more

25
WORLD OIL 1977
 A density of 22 ppg can be obtained with hematite or
:2 25 ~ 1% ORGANICDISP. ADDED ilmenite plus friction reducing additives. Fine barite (325
Il.
(XI
c::::::J WITHOUT DISPERSANT mesh grind used in mud) requires a large amount of
ui
I- water, which reduces compressive strength and retards
«a: thickening time, and therefore is rarely used.
3i: A slurry weighted with solids must have viscosity and
o..J gel strength needed to carry and suspend high specific
U. gravity solids. And it should be noted that some additives
..J tend to significantly thin or thicken a slurry (fluid loss
«
o agents, retarders, water content)_
i=
a:
o
Pretesting of such high density slurries should include
o density, thickening time, compressive strength, settling,
CLASS CLASS 50/50
free water and viscosity measurements.
A E POZ
High density (up to 17.5 ppg) may be obtained by
adding dispersant to the slurry to provide pumpability at
Fig. 24-How dispersants reduce yield point to allow turbulent
flow at reduced pump rates in a 5V2-inch casing by 7\18-inch lower than normal water/cement ratios. This approach is
wellbore annulus."" most expensive, but results in highest compressive
strength. Cement densified in this manner also may need
than, and less than, 500 psi compressive strength.66 The an additive to reduce filtrate loss because further reduc-
lowest-weight slurries providing more than 500 psi com- tion in water content may make the slurry unpumpable.
pressive strength are Class C cement with gel, and Also, densification tends to accelerate curing time.
Class C cement with silicate.
Friction reduction. Dispersants can also be used to reduce
Common light weight cements
the yield point (consistency index) of the slurry, which
Density, ppg, for reduces friction and allows turbulence to occur at reduced
Extender, % by wt. cement compo strength:
1-.-.--.-.-.-
Sodium pump rates, Fig. 24. Common dispersants are: Alkyl aryl
Type cement Gel Salt
-1-1-1--1-1-
meta-
I sll. I
Water I Dlacel
D I Above
500psi SOD
psi I
Below sulfona~e, polyphosphate, lignosulfonate, salt and organic
acid.
Gel
Class H ..... 4 14.1 Turbulent flow additives tend to cause settling and
8 13.1
12 excessive free water. These effects should be tested in the
16
Class C" . .. . . . . . . . . . 4 '13".i lab prior to field use.
8 12.5
12
Prehydrated gel. . . .. . 1.5. 'l,i.2
2.0. 13.7 Fluid 1055 (filtrate). Addition of fluid loss agents has
2.5. 12.8
3.0. 'l'2j important application in: P reven ting gas leakage, in
3.5. 12.1
4.0. 11.8 squeeze cementing and, occasionally, to maintain pump-
4.5. 10.7
Pozzolan and lIy ability in primary casing and liner cement jobs.
ash 50/50. . . 2 14.1
6 13.3 Fluid loss additives may also reduce likelihood of dif-
10 12.8
18 12.4 ferential pressure sticking where stuck pipe has been
Silicate...... 'i.o' '1.1.2 associated with mud cake removal. Fluid loss additives
2.0 12.5
3.0 .... might be considered when there is little or no mud cake
Calcined shale-
cement.. . . . 65 .... 13.7 on the borehole wall-for example, when drilling with
85 I I 12.8
95 water. In normal primary cementing, high fluid loss
115
Pozzolan and cement does not dehyrate significantly in permeable zones
bentonitef because filtration is controlled by the mud cake.
Class H . . . . . 6f 74 I I 13.6
6f 83 13.1 The API fluid loss test on cement is conducted at 100
6f 104 12.4
ClassC... .. .. . .. .. 6f 104 12.0
Dlacel D... ... .. .. .. . io'
20
I '13'.2
12.4
or 1,000 psi differential pressure through a 325 mesh
30 11.7 screen. 1,000 psi is used when the slurry has been elevated
40 11.0 in temperature and pressure in a consistometer in accord-
. Perc ent by weight water
.. Trin ity Lite-Wate data. Similar cement available from Texas Industries.
f 65/ 35 cement and Pozmix A, % gel based on combined weight.
ance with one of the API simulation schedules. Testing
conditions .need to be identified for the true meaning of
the data to be known. In addition, many 100 psi tests
Density may be increased with weight material such are mistakenly run on No. 50 Whatman paper instead of
as sand, barite, hematite or ilmenite, and/or salt dis- 325 mesh screen.
solved in the mix water, as shown in the following table:66 Water dehydrates almost instantly from a neat cement
Weight material for cement tested in the above manner. The 30 minute fluid loss
Max. Extra Elf. on Elf. on (100 psi) of neat Class A cement is about 1,000 ml.
Speci fie Grind density, water compo pumping
"'aterlal needed Early in 1960, significant progress was made in devel-
-- gravity - (mesh) ppg - - strength
- time
oping cement additives that lower fluid loss with a high
Jttawa sand....... 2.63 20-100 18 None None None
3arite.. . ... .. . .. .. 4.25 325 19 20% Reduce Reduce
:oarse barite. . . . . . 4.00 16-80 20 None None None molecular weight, synthetic polymer.68 Such additives
Hematite.. .. .... 5.02 40-200 20 2% None None
Ilmenite..... . 4.45 30-200 20 None None None may provide fluid loss in a low range. These additives
Dispersant..... ... .... ...... 17.5 None Increase Increase
Salt..... ...... ... ...... 18 . .. Reduce Varies usually are affected by temperature, Fig. 25. Generally,
thickening time is retarded and, at low temperature, this

26 WORLD OIL 1977

retardation may have to be offset by accelerators.
Concentration and/or combination with other fluid loss 220

materials may have to be adjusted accordingly. For most

cement squeezing and gas leakage applications, 50-150 ml II.. 200
°
fluid loss cements (30 minutes at 1,000 psi) are used.
Bentonite and CMHEC are also used to reduce filtrate a.:
:::i:
loss. w 180
I-
w "\ 0°/0
...J
0
Fluid loss vs. gas leakage. Under certain conditions J: ~O~ i~;~"''''''''''
:::i: 160
associated with gas sand cementing, formation gas can 0 ...........................
l-
move through the pipe/borehole annulus as the cement I- ...,.."" ",......
0 ",.."..".".".
sets. This leakage can pressure-up the annuli between CD 140
.,.,..",...",.,.,
casing strings or between pipe and formation; it can cause
failure of liner laps, even blowout of surface pipe.69 120
Such gas entry into the cement column occurs70 when 20 30 40 50
a column-supporting seal forms in the slurry in the an- FLUID LOSS
nulus above the gas zone, and water from the slurry (ML/30 MIN., 1,000 PSI)
seeps through the mud cake into permeable formations,
lowering column weight. The effective hydrostatic pres-
Fig. 25-High molecular weight, synthetic polymer greatly
sure may be reduced by this mechanism to less than reduces fluid loss. Example shows effect on API Class E
reservoir gas pressure. cement (after Stout and Wohl).'"
Another mechanism for gas entry would be for the
hydrostatic pressure of mud, preflushes and cement-
before any water loss-to be less than reservoir pressure, TOP OF
but this can, of course, be avoided by proper design. .-.1 CORE
The annular seal may be caused by: Bridging from "I
"
I..
cement dehydration; fast setting of a portion of the CEMENT
~
u.
cement column; gelation (or a significant viscosity in-
~ TOP OF
crease) of the column from slurry chemical reactions; I-
0. c, .a PERFS.
and/or bridging due to caving or sloughing formations, W c'" 'C
o
c~ ::'C
or removed mud cake/cutting debris.
A most important aspect of gas leakage prevention is
..J
..J
W
;: 9,760 --------------
-- -
---
[J:~ 0
w-
C :..d'.~.
~
. '.'
BOTTOM
OF CORE
BOTTOM
reduction of cement fluid (filtrate) loss. In addition,
9,770 g g OF CEMENT
steps may be taken to ensure that the cement slurry 17 18 19 20 n n- BOTTOM
opposite the gas sand will set up faster than other slurry CEMENT DENSITY, PPG
y .J>I- OF PERFS.

in the annulus. Allowance may have to be made for the

possibility that after lengthy circulation, cement slurry
temperature may be highest some distance off bottom.71
Fluid loss in squeeze cementing. Control of cement
fluid (filtrate) loss can be important in this application.
When pressure is applied, water or fluid will be forced
from the slurry if it is in contact with a permeable
surface free of mud cake. The solid particles become
compacted and slurry density increases. If the cement
contains no fluid loss control agents, the cement particles
may eventually bridge and prevent further slurry move
ment.
This concept was demonstrated in a core taken through
cement remaining in the borehole following the squeeze
of a perforated interval.72 Density measurements showed
signficant slurry dehydration across and somew ha t
above the upper portion of the perforations, Fig. 26. There
was no cement across lower perforations-although
squeeze pressure exceeded fracture pressure-as the de-
hydrated neat API Class E cement had bridged-off the
casing. A low filtrate loss formulation may have pre-
vented such dehydration and bridging.
Highly successful results are obtained when squeeze
operations are conducted with: Low fluid loss cement,
clean completion fluids (such as salt water) and relatively
Fig. 26-Results of a core test through cement following an
attempted perforation squeeze indicates slurry dehydrated at
the top of the perforations. There was no cement in the bottom
of the perforated interval (after Beach, et al)."
low final squeeze pressures. Squeeze techniques and ap-
plications will be discussed in a later article.
Lost circulation. Drilling fluids or slurries are usually
lost to either natural or induced formation fractures.
These fluids may also be lost through highly permeable
formations-starting at about 5 darcies for drilling fluid
with a maximum particle size of 0.002-inch (300 mesh).
Cement with its larger particle size (neat cement has
2.6-18% particles larger than 200 mesh) is less suscep-
tible to loss in permeable formations.
The best time to treat the formation to reduce such
fracture or formation permeability-and thus increase the
downhole pressure at which circulation is lost-is during
drilling when high concentrations of bridging materials
and various types of plugs (pills) may be utilized.73
During primary cementing, concentrations of such
materials must be more carefully controlled to avoid
bridging the casing or liner/borehole annulus, or plugging
of downhole equipment such as bottom wiper plugs, small
diameter storage tools and float equipment.
The subject of lost circulation during drilling is dis-
cussed briefly below, in relation to cement formulations

WORLD OIL 1977 27

 ---- --- polymer-can be effective when water bearing sands are present.
In application, these materials are pumpable until they set up or
TYPICAL L.C.M. expand upon contact with water.
.18 4. Gypsum cement. A quick setting hard cement for use at
shallow depths, it differs from construction gypsum in that it is
ci semi-hydrated to control pumping time. Soluble salts in mixing
w .16:
...J
« water can greatly accelerate thickening time. Therefore, pumping
w time should be checked before the job, considering the water on
00 .14 location. Gypsum is considered a temporary plugginl{ material as
W it is water soluble after it sets up.
a:
.12 5. Other cementicious, high-water-loss, high-solids slurries such
() as Diaseal M and barite. plugs. The latter can be formulated to
« FIBROUS
a: .1 21 ppg.
Bridging materials can be used in most of the above composi-
I- tions when loss is severe.
0 .08
...J
00
.06 PROPERTIES OF SET CEMENT
w
C) Cement compressive strength increases as a function
a:
«
...J of temperature, pressure and time to an ultimate value
which depends on cement composition. Compressive
strength measurements are obtained on the basis of 11
o 16 20 API pressure/temperature/time schedules, for depths
from 1,000-20,000 feet. A temperature gradient of 1.5° F
CONCEN1:RATION,
LBSJBBL.
r - - - -..--
Fig. 27-Granular lost circulation material was most effective 10,000
_
"
in sealing simulated downhole fractures in lab tests (after
Howard and Scott)." 9,000 1- ;' K}, , *72HR
I\,x 9,000 PSI
and additives that might be considered for such applica-
8,000 II-
I ,{"
, \ 1,000 PSI
tions. However, a complete review of the lost circulation 7,000 \\ CLASSC
problem during drilling is beyond the scope of this series. (i5
a..
Control of lost circulation during primary cementing will 6,000 \ CEMENT
:i'
be discussed in greater detail in a later article. I-
C)
z 5,000
Types of lost circulation additives available for cement w
a:
I-
are blocky-granular materials (walnut shells, gilsonite, 00 4,000
crushed coal, Perlite-expanded and Perlite-semi ex- 0..:
::2
/'I
panded) which form bridges; and lamellated materials 0 3,000
()
(cellophane flakes) which form flake type mats.
Fibrous materials (such as nylon fibers) are effective 2,000
in drilling fluid for sealing large openings but are not
1,000
normally used in cement because of the tendency to plug
surface and downhole cementing equipment. Also, most o
other fibrous materials contain organic chemicals that 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
can seriously retard cement thickening time. On the basis CURING TEMP. of
of lab work by Howard and Scott,74 granular material
was found best for bridging fractures (slots), Fig. 27.
Cement plug formulations may be selected on the basis
B
of these characteristics: Quick-gelling, low density (high 10,0001
(i5
yield), rapid set, fluid loss (filtrate), and cement plug a..
"nnnL / A
drillout rate. The product also should be easy to handle :i'
I-
and "weevil-proof."73 C)
Z
W
The following compositions are used as cement plugs a:
I- J/ ASTM TYPE 1
(pills) : 00
0..:
1. Thixotropic cements. Blends of Portland cement and gyp- ::2 ,uuu n/ C
sum, these cements are thin while beinl{ pumped, but develop 0
0
gel strength quickly when pumping stops.'"' '" Field experience
has shown that quick-gelling cements stay closer to the wellbore a:
:J:
(within surrounding fractures, etc.) in lost circulation applica- oq- V AT 200°F
N
tions. The cement also has high filtrate loss.
Note: Fluid (filtrate) loss is important when dealing with mud 0 ,,"., ,,

or slurry loss to fractured, permeable formations. Assuming that ATMOS 2,000 4,000 6,600 '8:000
frac pressure exceeds reservoir pressure, high filtrate loss cements
(such as untreated thixotropic or neat) can dehydrate and bridge CURING PRESS., PSI
within such fractures, thus blocking further fluid loss. . -- - --- - - -. ..
2. Neat or low density cements. As discussed above, neat and Fig. 28-Effect of curing pressure and temperature on com-
thixotropic cements have high filtrate loss. However, low density pressive strength. At constant temperature, bottom, 24-hour
cements mayor may not have high filtrate loss. strength changes little above 3,000 psi. Slow set, Class C
3. Mixtures with diesel-oil. Various compositions-diesel and cement, top, shows significant strength retrogression as curing
bentonite; diesel, bentonite and cement; or diesel, bentonite and temperature increases ('curing pressures)."

28 WORLD OIL 1977

per 100 feet is provided-for in each schedule. The pres-
--
sure is 3,000 psi for all schedules except the two shal- _0
c::::J
lowest (1,000 and 2,000 feet) for which it is less.
The reason why API tests are run at 3,000 psi or less
~
20
30 I
PERCENT

SILICA
:~I
is that compressive strength changes very little above
that pres'Sure level, Fig: 28, bottom. However, at high tem-
peratures (about 250-3000 F) pressure effect may be
more significant than those of Fig. 28. Tentativp data
indicates, at least, that actual well pressure should be
more closely simulated.
3 1 7 3
Recommended curing periods are 8, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48
230'F 260'F 290"F
and 72 hours, depending on job requirements (such as CURINGTIME(DAYS)I CURINGTEMPERATURE
waiting-on-cement time or strength retrogression). Usu-
ally, com pres'Si ve strength is very close to ultimate
Fig. 29-Silica flour inhibits strength retrogression at high
within three days. Early strength is increased with temperatures as indicated for Class E cement. For example,
calcium chloride, 'Sodium chloride, ammonium chlo- 20% silica increases the 2,000 psi, 7-day compressive strength
of neat cement to 12,000 psi, at 2900 F (after Ostroot).'.
ride, "minimum" water and heat. Early strength is
decreased with lignosulfonate, CMHEC and "maximum"
water. Compressive strength inf orma tion is available Silica flour in high percentages inhibits strength retro-
through service companies. gression and produces compressive strength far in excess
of neat cement, Fig. 29.79 Silica flour also reduces perme-
Strength retrogression. Four variables-composition, ability of set cement; for instance, its addition to cement
temperature, pressure and time-affect compressive cured at 3500 F reduces permeability to less than
strength.77 However, at high temperature, cement com- 0.001 md.
positions may retrogress (lose strength) after reaching a Maximum strength cccurs at 300-4000F when 30-50
high value and never attain the strength reached at lower parts of silica flour are added to 100 parts of cement.80
curing temperature; Fig. 28, top, illustrates one severe Usually 35% silica flour is used. Silica sand ground to
example. 200 mesh reacts with cement in the same way as fine
This strength retrogression is accompanied by increased ground 325 mesh silica flour. Silica sand is used when
cement permeability, i.e. a neat retarded cement with high density is desired and silica flour when low density
0.02+ md permeability at 2900 F after three days may is adequate.
have 8+ md at 3200 F after seven days.78 Compositions containing silica sand or flour can be
Retarded cement for high temperature application, retarded effectively for high temperature wells.79 Class J
and high water content cement, seem particularly subject cement does not require silica flour and can be used to
to strength retrogression (Fig. 28). For cement types about 16,000 feet without retarder-this class should not
used in deep and/or hot wells the phenomenon begins at be used at less than 2300 F.
around 2600 F, and becomes severe at 2900 F. Generally Most nonreactive additives (salt, weight materials,
complete strengt!1 retrogression has taken place within crushed coal, mica and other bulking agents) can be
seven days.78 Although remaining compressive strength admixed with a silica stabilized cement without adversely
may be adequate for many applications, addition of affecting temperature stability.80 Bentonites, diatomace-
silica flour to the slurry provides a way !o maintain ous earth and expanded perlite should not be added to
strength.79 Portland cement for use above about 2500 F in concen-

I-
I
I 50
---I
I

I
(j) 40
0..
0
0
q

'X
I-
(!J
Z
W
a:
}j) 20
w
I-
«

5 10
;:!

5 10 15 0 10
EFFECTIVE CONFINING PRESSURE, 1,000 PSI
- --- -
Fig.30-Under confining pressure, ultimate strength of cement, left, is similar to that of typical reservoir rocks, right (after
Handin).81

WORLD OIL 1977 29

trations of 5-15% without adding about 20% extra silica.
Natural pozzolans and fly ashes produce a strong mate-
rial with silica stabilized cements up to 450° F. At a
temperature of 600° F, fly ash and-to a lesser degree-
natural pozzolans, cause cement to weaken and become
more permeable.80
Strength at downhole conditions. Handin conducted
triaxial compression tests on various cement samples with
independently applied external confining pressures and
internal pore pressure such as encountered downhole.81
These tests show that strength increases, Fig. 30, and is
more or less comparable to rock for similar conditions.
Large variations in the standard compressive strength,
as measured at zero confining pressure, tend to disappear
under load; and oil well cements become very duc-
tile, even under low confining pressures. However, for
rapidly applied strain associated with gun perforating,
ductility might be small.
Cement can be highly compactible under confining
loads, Fig. 31. Bulk volume reduction (of lab 'Samples) of
30% or more are attainable for some formulations. Neat
cement shows least compactability.
Expansion. Saturated salt cement, Pozzolan cement,
Gypsum-Portland blends and several other formulations,
some proprietary, expand during setting.82-85 Suggested
as a benefit of this expansion, is elimination of the micro-
annulus at the cement/casing interface.
Cement expansion may increase thickness of a cement
sheath by a few thousands of an inch. However, cement
expansion and/or contraction would appear to be of
minor importance, relative to the magnitude of other
downhole effects such as: Inadequate mud displacement;
mud cake thickness; borehole elastic/plastic deformation,
and cement loading conditions, ductility and compact-
ability.
SPECIAL CEMENTS
Unique cements and additives are available for non-
conventional or extreme service applications such as high
temperatures found in geothermal wells and other ther-
mal projects, and low temperatures in Arctic permafrost.
30
1 CLASS A, 100% DIAMIX A, 30% BENTONITE,
7.5% NASILICATE
?J? 2 INcaR, 8% GEL
u.i 2 3 CLASS A, 40% DlACEL D, 4.0% CAC"
C) 4 CLASS A, MODIFIED 12% GEL
z
«J: 20 5 CLASS A, NEAT
o (SAMPLES CURED AT 3,000 PSI, 200°F
w EXCEPT 1,3 AT 110°F)
:2
:::J
...J
o
> 7,500 PSI EFF.
~ 10 CONFINING PRESS.
...J
:::J
IJJ
. through several service companies. These blends contain
o dispersant, retarder and enough salt to depress the freez-
2,000 4,000 6,000
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, PSI
Fig. 31-Compactibility of cement samples under confining
pressures. Bulk volume reduction is significant except for neat
cement. At higher confining loads, 15,000 psi, certain other
compositions had over 30% volume reduction (after Handin)..'
30
Salt cement is now used fairly extensively; some impor-
tant characteristics of salt cement are shown in Fig. 32
and the accompanying table.66, 86,87,88
.
Characteristics
.
of salt cement
Osmotic pressure will causewater from sand or shale to migrate to the saltcementcausing
expansion which improves bond log..'
Theoretically less disruptive to swelling and non-swelling clays, thereby minimizes
cleavage, softening or sloughing of shale beds.
. Clay dispersion is minimized to aid well productivity should cement filtrate loss be signifi-
cant. However, original mud cake normally prevents such filtrate loss.
. Salt is an accelerator in low concentrations and it retards at high concentrations, butthe
effect is neutral throughout a broad range in between, Fig. 32. This tolerance can, in
many cases, permit use of either fresh or seawater for mixing without affecting thick-
ening time.
. Salt in small concentrations tends to increase early compressive strength, Fig. 32, but
has little or no effect on ultimate strength. In high concentrations, it reduces early
strength and can cut ultimate strength in half.
. Saturated cements minimize solution of formation salt sections.
. Can increase slurry weight by as much as 1.7 ppg.
. Inthe
3-5% range, reduces turbulence-critical-flow velocity through dispersion and re-
duced viscous properties. At higher concentrations, over 18%, this effect is minor and
typical dispersants may not be effective.
High temperature cements are now required for condi-
tions which extend beyond the upper (in-situ combustion
and some geothermal steam) effective limits of basic
Portland cement.
The upper limit for silica-Portland cements is around
700° F. This cement has application in deep, hot wells
and many thermal recovery and geothermal wells.89
Calcium aluminate cement (Ciment Fondu or Lumnite)
has been used in in-situ combustion wells where temper-
atures may reach 2,000° F. Calcium aluminate cement
is manufactured from limestone and bauxite ores. Neat
calcium aluminate cement has high heat of reaction and
attains almost full compressive strength of some 12,000
psi in 24 hours. Admixes are fire brick, fly ash and silica
flour. This cement is used as a mortar for fire boxes.
In Arctic permafrost, permanently frozen subsurface
formation, the surface temperature is so cold that under-
lying formations do not reach 32° F for several hundred
feet. Permafrost is some 300 feet thick in the Mackenzie
River Delta, about 2,000 feet on the North Slope.
Cementing conductor pipe and surface pipe in perma-
frost presents a special problem because neat Portland
cement will not set up and provide strength before it
freezes.66 This problem is overcome in hard rock areas
by heating the hole with warm drilling mud, then cement-
ing with heated cement and mix water. The heating
delays freezing of the cement until after it has set up.
This method cannot be used through unconsolidated
formations held together by ice because the hole will
enlarge and create a void between cement and formation.
Loose permafrost is cemented with either: Calcium
aluminate cement/fly ash mixture or Gypsum-Portland
cement blend. These mixtures will set up and provide
more than 500 psi compressive strength in 24 hours. At
present, the latter is in greater use.
Gypsum-Portland cement blends90-92 are available
8,000
ing point to about 20° F. The slurries will set up at
15-20° F, have a low heat of hydration, no free water
separation and they are stable under freeze-thaw cycling.
The cement will develop about 500 psi compressive
strength in 1-3 days and have 1,000-2,000 psi compres-
sive strength in 7-28 days. The early strength comes from
WORLD OIL 1977
 the gypsum, later strength from the Portland cement.
Cementing operations at Prudhoe Bay have been dis- 7
cussed in the literature.93 And API has established Arctic :z:
l- 6
cementing testing procedures including freeze-thaw e!)
Z
cycles.61, 94 W
a::....: 5
I-CI)
Cl)Do
Other special cements and additives available for non- '0
Doo
conventional appliCations include: The Trinity Lite-Wate ::2:0 4
0":
and Texas Industries Light Weight cements mentioned U
a:: CURING
earlier, pozzolanic-lime cements, gypsum cement, latex J: 3V TEMP.
'<t"
'"
cement, resin cement and cement containing nylon fibers
2
for reinforcement.95 Information is available through the 100 200 300
service companies. SALTCONC., 1,000 PPM
Radioactive tracers are sometimes used in cement for
6
location purposes following primary cementing or squeez-
ing. Also, additives such as defoamers and those which CONSISTOMETER
5 DEPTHS
offset the retarding effect of mud contamination, are en
available. a::
J: 4
ui
::a: 3
Critical cement iobs for difficult wells should be planned i=
in detail and the slurry must be carefully designed. Due 2
U
to the large number of possible combinations of cement :i:
I-
types and additives, variable operating conditions, varia- 1
tions in manufacture, inconsistent field water character-
istics, etc., the only way to verify thickening time for 0
100 200 300
critical jobs is to test the planned slurry at anticipated
actual pressure/temperature conditions. SALTCONC., 1,000 PPM
The test mixture should use water from the location.
And after preliminary design work is complete, the spe-
cially compounded cement should be blended at the bulk Fig. 32-Effect of sodium chloride (salt) on cement properties.
Small concentrations shorten thickening time, bottom, and
stations at least a day prior to use, to allow time for a there is a broad range where the effect is minimal before salt
sample to be lab tested. retards set-up. Early compressive strength is increased by
small salt concentrations, top. Data taken from tests of re-
Coming next month: The displacement process during tarded oil well cement (after Ludwig)."
primary cementing: Flow theory; fluid behavior; what "Spangle, L. B. and Calvert, D. G., "Improved Primary and Remedial
causes channeling; how to improve mud displacement. Cementmg with Thixotropic Cement Systems," Paper SPE 3833, Presented
at Rocky Mountain ReglOnal Meeting, Denver, Colo., April 10-12, 1972.
"Clement, C'~A"A Scientific Approach to the Usage or Thixotropic Cements,"
Paper SPE bUll, Presented at the 51st Annual Fall Meeting, New Orleans,
La., Oct. 3-6, 1976.
1TMid-Continent District Study Committee on Cementing Practices and
Testing of Oil-WeII Cements, "Effects of High Pressures and Temperature
on Strength of Oil-We II Cements," API Drilling and Production Practices,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 1954, Pl'. 72-81.
18Carter, G. and Smith, D., "Properties of Cementing Com~ositions at
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Kerr Godfrey of Elevated Temperatures and Pressure," Transactions of AIME, Vol. 213,
Atlantic Richfield Co. who provided valuable information and data included 1958, Pl'. 20..27.
in this article. TOOstroot, G. W. and Walker, W. A., "Improved Compositions for Cement-
ing Wells with Extreme Temperatures," Journal of Petroleum Technology,
LITERATURE CITED March 1961, pp. 277-284.
so Eilers, L. H. and Root, R. L., "Long-Term Effects of High Temperature
.. Ludwig N. C., "Chemistry of Portland Cement Used in Oil Wells," on Strength Retrogression of Cements," Paper SPE 5028, Presented at
Oil-Well Cementing Practices in the United States, API, 1959, pp. 27-37. 49th Annual FaII Meeting, Houston, Oct. 6-9, 1974.
.. "API Specification for Oil-Well Cements and Cement Additives," API 81Handin, J., "Strength of Oil WeII Cements at Downhole Pressure-Temper-
Sp,ec lOA, 18th Edition, Jan. 1974. ature Conditions," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Dec. 1965, pp.
.. 'API Recommended Practice for Testing Oil-Well Cements and Cement 341.347.
Additives," API RP lOB, 19th Edition, Jan. 1974. .. Carter, L. G., Wag~oner, H. F. and George, C., "Expanding. Cements
.. Smith, D. K., "Cementing," SPE Monograj>h Series, Vol. 4, SPE of for Primary Cementmg," Journal of Petroleum Technology, May 1966.
AlME, 6200 N. Expressway, Dallas, Texas 75206. .3 Root, R. L. and Calvert, D. G., "The Real Story of Cement Expansion,"
"Bearden W. G., "Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Ph sical Proper- Paper SPE 3346, Presented at Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, Billings,
ties of CemenU," Oil-Well Cementing Practices in the Unite 'J States, API, Mont., June 2-4, 1971.
1959, Pl'. 49-59. fWBeirute, R't "Expansive and Shrinkage Characteristics of Cements Under
.. Anon., "Applied Engineered Cementing," Manual, Byron Jackson Inc., Actual Well Conditions," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Aug. 1973'.
Vol. 1.
55Beirute) R., "True Expansive Characteristics of Commercially Available
.. Morgan, B. E. and Dumbould, G. K., "Recent Developments in the Use ExpansIve Cement Under Actual Well Conditions," Paper SPE 6013,
of Bentonite Cement," API Drilling and Production Practice, 1953, pp. Presented at 51st Annual FaII Meeting, New Orleans, La., Oct. 3-6, 1976.
163-176. .. Slagle, K. A. and Smith, D. K., "Salt Cement for Shale and Bentonite
.. Godfrey, W. K., Atlantic Richfield Co., Persocnal communication, 1977. Sands," Journal of Petroleum Technology, 1963.
"McLean, R. H., Manry, C. W. and Whitaker, W. W., "Displacement 81Cunmngham, W. C. and Smith, D. K., "Effect of Salt Cement Filtrate
Mechanic. in Primary Cementing," Journal of Petroleum Technology, on Subsurface Formations," Journal of Petroleum Technology, March 1008.
Feb. 1967, 251-260. 88Ludwig, N. C., "Effects of Sodium Chloride on Setting Properties of
.8 Stout, C. M. and Wahl, W. W., "A New Organic Fluid-Loss-Control Oil-Well Cement.," API Drilling and Production Practice, 1951, pp. 20-27.
Additive for Oilwell Cements," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Sept. .. Ostroot, G. W., and Shryock, Jr., S., "Cementing Geothermal Wells,"
1960. Paper SPE 904, Presented at The 39th Annual Meeting, Houston, Oct.
.. Stone, W. H. and Christian, W. W., "The Inability of Unset Cement to 11-14, 1964.
Control Formation Pre.sure," Paper SPE 4783, Presented at the AIME 90Cunningham, W. C., Fehrenbach, J. R. and Maier, L. F., "Arctic
Symposium on Formation Damage Control, New Orleans, La., Feb. 7-8, Cements and Cementing," The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology,
1974. 1972.
10Carter... G. and Slaglel K., "A Study of Completion Practices to Minimize 91Maier, L. F., Carter, M. A., Cunningham, W. C. and Bosley, T. G.,
Gas '-'Ommunication,' Paper SPE 3164, Presented at Central Plains "Cementing Materials for Cold Environments," Journal of Petroleum
Regional Meeting, Amarillo, Texas, Nov. 16-17, 1970. TechnologYJ Oct. 1971.
71Holmes, C. S. and Swift, S. C., "Calculation of Circulating Mud Tem- .. Kljucefl. N. ¥"J Telford, A. S. and Bombardieri, C. C., "Gypsum-Cement
l'eratures," Journal of Petroleum Technology, June 1970, Pl'. 670-674. Blend \'Yorks \'Yell in Permafrost Areas," World Oil, March 1973.
"Beach, H. J., O'Brien, T. B. and Goins, Jr., W. C., "The Role of 93Anon., "How BP Alaska Cements Through Permafrost," Petroleum Engi-
Filtration in Cement Squeezing," API Drilling and Production Practice, neer, April 1973.
19&1,pp. 27-35. H Anon., "Cement Blends Can Be Tested for Arctic Environments." Petro-
"Messenger, J. U., "How to Combat Lost Circulation," Oil and Gas leum Engineer, Feb. 1977.
Journal, Three Part'Series, May 13, 20, 27, 1968. .. Carter, L. G., Slagle, K. A. and Smith D. K., "Stress Capabilities
"Howard, G. C. and Scott, Jr., P. P., "An Analysis and The Control of I':'1J>roved by Resilient Cement," API Drilling and Production Practices,
Lost Circulation," Transactions of AIME. Vol. 192, 19.'H, Pl'. 171-182. 1968, Pl'. 29-37. .
WORLD OIL 1977 31
Cementing oil and gas wells
DRAG FORCE FROM
Part 4-Practical interpretation of CASING MOVEMENT (POS.)
CASING

ECCENTRIC ANNULUS
rheology, annular displacing forces.
How to avoid bypassing mud during
primary cementing DRAG FORCE, MUD
DIFFERENTIAL PRESS.
MOVING CEMENT ALSO ACTS
ON WALL (NEG.)
ON MUD (POS.)

George O. Suman, Jr., President, and Richard C. PRESSURE DUE

TO MUD COLUMN
DRAG FORCE, CEMENT
ON MUD (POS.)
Ellis, Project Engineer, Completion Technology Co., WEIGHT (NEG.)
Houston BY-PASSED MUD
CHANNEL

CEMENT SLURRY
1O-second summary BUOYANCY EFFECT
OF DENSER CEMENT
Basic principles of mud and cement slurry behavior in (pOS.)
the annulus, as mud is being displaced, are explained.
Fluid design factors and guidelines for improving the dis- Fig. 33-Various forces acting to displace, and resist displace-
placement process to prevent mud channeling are given. ment, of a by-passed vertical mud column during primary
cementing .,

A COMMONCAUSEof failure in primary cementing is in-

FLOW REGIMES
complete displacement of drilling muds, which can leave
vertical, mud filled channels in the cement. This mud TURBULENT
may be displaced later under producing conditions to
create open channels that permi t formation fluids ~
'%

to migrate vertically behind the casing. Even with good en JRANSITION

displacement procedures, some residual mud pockets likely en ZONE
w
will remain in irregularities in the borehole. a:
I-
The displacement process and key factors for improv- en
a:
ing displacement efficiency are described in this article. «
w
::J:
FLOW, DISPLACEMENT PRINCIPLES I
en SLOPE IS CONSTANT

Two basic forces associated with drilling mud displace-

ment during primary cementing are: Differential pres-
-
en
a.
en
'\ .LAMINAR
en
w
sure, and cement-on-mud (fluid-on-fluid) drag forces.96 a:
a.
To effectively displace muds, oil well cements must
exert a combination of differential pressure and drag
forces of sufficient magnitude to overcome forces resisting
displacement.
These resisting forces are pressure, and casing-mud or ~ INTER~.EPT AT ORIGIN
borehole-mud (solid-on-fluid) drag forces, Fig. 33.96, 91 FLOW, BPM (SHEAR RATE)
The resisting pressure is related to properties of the mud,
Fig. 34-Newtonian fluid flow starts when pressure is applied.
i.e., density and gel strength. The resisting drag forces Flow regime and velocity profile inside pipe are shown in
are some function of mud gel strength and viscosity and small drawings.
distance between casing and borehole wall.
Drilling mud and cement slurry fluid properties vary
in the well bore due to lack of uniform makeup and tem- rate, flow velocity changes with variations in flow area.
perature/pressure effects. Annular flow area also varies Such velocity changes have significant and complex
as a result of decentralized casing, washouts, filter cake effects on pressure required to maintain flow in these
thickness changes, directional changes, formation swelling, fluid systems.
etc.
For most muds and cement slurries, effective viscosity Newtonian, non-Newtonian flow. The character of
(a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow) decreases as flowing fluid is described by the relationship between flow
flow velocity increases.98 And with constant displacement rate (shear rate) and pressure (shear stress), that caused

32 WORLD OIL 1977

 FLOW REGIMES
Law Model equations-presented in the late 1950s_101
TURBULENT are generally considered to be more accurate than those

en
~ of the Bingham model.
A recently proposed yield-pseudoplastic model that

-
C/)
W
II: theoretically improved the above, is not widely used.102
I-
C/) Such models attempt to describe the relationship of
TRANSITION
II: shear rate and shear stress for muds and slurries. Ex-
«
w tremely useful in analyzing the displacement process,
J: LAMINAR
~ they are not precise techniques.
en They should be used to determine flow regime and
D..
ui pressure requirements for displacement. But, results
C/)
W
II:
should be interpreted as more qualitative than quantita-
D.. TRANSITION tive. That is, if the analysis indicates a potential displace-
ment problem, believe it. If it shows acceptable displace-
ment conditions, do all that can be done to enhance the
FLOW BEGINS (G~L STR,ENGTH! NO FLOW dispacement process anyway.
FLOW, BPM (SHEAR RATE) Fluid property measurement. The Fann V-G (vis-
Fig. 35-Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit resistance to flow when cosity-gel) meter is used to measure plastic viscosity,
pressure is applied. Velocity profiles of various types of flow yield point and gel strength of mud, and cement slur-
are shown.
ries.103 Field models have two speeds, to develop shear
rate at 300 and 600 rpm; lab models have six speeds: 3,
6, 100, 200, 300 and 600 rpm. The lab model can
SPRING FACTOR, N = 1
DENSITY = 12.2 PPG SLOPE PROPORTIONAL
measure properties over a range of speeds. However,
TO PLASTIC VISCOSITY the two speeds of the field instrument are enough to
f/) 30 measure plastic viscosity (p.p) . and yield point (ty) used
CJ
z for pressure drop and flow regime determination with
is
i5 :
the Bingham model, as in Fig. 36.100
II: 20
...J
RPM DIAL The Power Law Model requires two different fluid
« READ.
property descriptions. Consistency index (K') and flow
is 600 30
300 25 behavior index (n') are also determined from the Fann
200 23 V-G meter readings. Fann dial readings and rotational
100 19
6 10 speeds are converted to shear stress in lbs./sq. ft. and
3 8 shear rate in sec.-I, respectively.
I
Oil 600 These data then are plotted on log paper and (n') is
the slope of the line through the converted readings at
600 and 300 rpm and (K') is the intercept of the extra-
Fig. 36-Example use of Fann V-G meter to calculate plastic polated straight line at unity rate of shear, Fig. 37. De-
viscosity (/lp) and yield point (t,) for Bingham Plastic Model tails on operation of the Fann V-G meter are available
equations. For data shown, /lp = 600 rpm reading - 300 rpm elsewhere.103 104
reading = 30 - 25 = 5 cpo And t, = 300 rpm reading - /lp = 25
- 5 = 20 Ibs.l100 ft.' Flow analysis calculations. Basic equations for flow
analysis of Newtonian and Bingham/Power Law models
the movement. There are two basic fluid types, New- of non-Newtonian fluids, and relevant nomenclature, are
tonian and non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids, such as
water, exhibit a straight-line relationship between flow 10
rate (shear rate) and pressure (shear stress) while the
fluid is in laminar flow. A Newtonian fluid begins to flow t:
when pressure is applied. As pressure increases, flow 61
C/)
.....
velocity increases, from laminar, through a transition zone (Jj
SPRING FACTOR, N = 1
(part laminar and part turbulent), to fully developed !XI DENSITY= 12.2PPG (\'
d. S\.O~
turbulent, Fig. 34. ::::::::J. FANNV-GMETER
~.1i
W ' SHEAR DIAL SHEAR
Non-Newtonian fluids are more complex; they may II:
I- RPM RATE READING STRESS
exhibit resistance to flow (gel strength) when pressure C/)
is applied. Fluids with gel strength can flow at very low II: K' 600
300 1022
511 30
25 0.3
0.25
«
W 200 341 23 0.23
rates in a solid or plug-like manner.OO Non-Newtonian J:
f/) 100 170 19 0.19
fluids thus can have three flow regimes-plug, laminar 6 10 10 .01
and turbulent-with transition zones between each, Fig. 3 5 8 .008
35. .011. ~___~I~ I I 11,,1111 , I I I 111_11
1 10 100 1000
Drilling muds and oil well cement slurries are non- SHEAR RATE (SEC.-')
Newtonian. Extensive study has developed mathematical
models that can be used to predict flow properties and Fig. 37-Example use of Fann V-G meter, with readings and
pressure-velocity relationships of such muds and cements. speed, to calculate flow behavior index (K') and fluid consis-
The Bingham Plastic Model and the Power Law Model tency index (n') for use in Power Law Model Equations. For
are most commonly used. The former has been utilized
data shown: n' = 3.32 (Iog,o 600 rpm read.l300 rpm read.) =
3.32 X log,o30/25 = 0.26288. And K' = N (300 rpm read.)
for drilling fluid anaysis since the mid-1940s.100 Power 1.066/100 (511)"'= 1 X 25 X 1.066/100 X 511° 288= 0.05173.

WORLD OIL 1977 33

 Summary of flow equations for fluids in casing/wellbore annulus
Non-Newtonian fluids
Newtonian fluids Bingham Plastic Model Power Law Model
V = 17.15 Q/(DhZ-DpZ), Q = V (DhZ-DpZ)/17.15 For all fluids and models

V. = 1.62 I1P+ 1.62 [I1pZ + 8.2 (Dh-Dp)Z typ)I/Z *Y. = [NR.' K'96-'/1.86 (Db-Do)-' p]1/(Z-n')
(Db-Dp) p
PI = 11VL/1,5OO (Db-Dp)Z, PI = I1pVL/1,500(Dh-Dp)2 + ty L/225 (Db-Dp). P = 0.039 L p V2f'/(Dh-Dp)
Where: V < V. Where: V < V.
Pt = fLVZpj25.6 (Db-Do). Where: V ~ V. P, = f L VZp/25.6 (Db-Dp), Where V ~ V.
NR. = 928 (Db-Do) V pill NR. = 2,965 (Dh-Dp) V p/l10

*Power Law Model V. calculations frequently assume NR.' = 3,000.

Since NR.' for critical flow varies as a function of n', the following values are sometimes used (Source Fig. 39):

n' NRe/ n' NRe' n' NRe'

0.2 4,800 0.5 3,500 0.8 3,200
0.3 3,500 0.6 3,500 0.9 3,100
0.4 3,500 0.7 3.400 1.0+ 2,900

Nomenclature for flow equations used and input data should be comple~ely understood, to
Db = Ho)e diameter, in. avoid misleading results.
.Dp = Casing OD, in. Shown below are some example computer calculations,
f = Friction factor (Bingham-Newtonian, Fig. 38) by various service companies, of critical velocity (Vc)
f' = Friction factor (Power Law, Fig. 39)
K' = Consistency index (Fig. 37) of fluid, described by Fann V-G readings from Fig. 36
L = Length, ft. and 37. Note that they correspond closely to similar data
p.= Viscosity, cp calculated by hand, as shown in the accompanying table.
p.p= Plastic viscosity, cp (Fig. 36)
n'= Flow behavior index (Fi~. 37)
Nn. = Modified Reynolds Number (Bingham and Newtonian) Service Co. Critical velocity in two different
Nne' = Modified Reynolds Number (Power Law) annuli, ft./sec.
P = Pressure drop, psi
P1= Pressure drop, laminar flow, psi 5Y2" x 7%," 5Y2" x 8Y2"
Pt = Pressure drop, turbulent flow, psi BJ Hughes 5.2 5.0 ft./Sec.
Q = Pumping rate, bpm Dowell 5.62* 5.46*
p = Density, ppg Halliburton 5.31 5.14
t7= Yield point, Ibs./l00 {t.' (Fig. 36) Western 6.60* 6.37*
V = Velocity of fluid in annulus, ft./sec.
V. = Critical velocity, min. for full turbo flow, ft./sec. '*Computer output presents critical pump rate. For com-
parison, these data have been converted to critical
shown in accompanying tables. These equations can be velocity.
used to calculate pressure drop, critical flow rates and
to determine flow regimes.105 Flow regimes, pressure drop determinations. Plug,
Complete pressure drop and flow analysis calculations, laminar, turbulent flow and transition zones for any non-
even with electronic calculators, are tedious but accept- Newtonian fluid are functions of velocity and fluid prop-
able results can be obtained. Computer facilities in most erties. Mathematical determinations of veloci~y at which
service companies, and many operating companies, have turbulence is fully established have been based on some
made more detailed flow analyses practical. For example, form of Reynolds Number for both models. In the Bing-
variations of flow area due to borehole irregularities, and ham model, 3,000 was used to derive critical velocity-
presence of more than one type of fluid can be easily the minimum velocity that will maintain full developed
considered. However, with computerized analyses, the turbulent flow.
analytical procedure, the type of mathematical model In the Power Law Model, Reynold's Number has
varied; 2,100 and 3,000 have been used although the
Example flow calculation results latter is more generally accepted. More than one or-
ganization prefers to use a sliding value based on flow
Hand calculated for 12 bpm flow over 1,000 ft. in two different annuli, using behavior index, n', Fig. 39.
fluid data from Figs. 36 and 37. *
Pressure drop determinations with Power Law equa-
Function Bingham Plastic Model Power Law Model tions or the Bingham model for turbulent flow use friction
5 X 7U** 5 X 8** 5 X 7U 5 X8
factors taken from a Stanton-type diagram. The Modi-
V 6.48 4.9 6.48 4.9
V. 6.23 6.17 5.29 fied Reynolds Number (Bingham model) is calculated
6,25 t 5.11+t
6.03 and used to find friction factor (f) as shown in Fig.
PI N.A. 40'" . ...... ......
P, 56.5 N.A. 38.106 The Modified Reynolds Number (Power Law
P 34.5 23"
Na. iii,340 N.A. Model) is used to find friction factor (f'), Fig. 39101
NRe' ...... ...... 4,262 '2,789'

*11= 5 cp; ty = 20 Ibs./100 ft.z; p = 12.2 ppg; n' = 0.26288; k' = 0.0517258. Displacement pressure. A non-Newtonian fluid in
**5~" casing in 7U" and 8~" wellbores. either turbulent or plug flow has a flatter velocity profile,
tReynolds Number = 3,000.
ttReynolds Number = 4,000, selected from Fig. 39. across the area of flow, than when it is in laminar flow.
~Note close correlation of hand calculations to service company computer
calculated results shown in text. Thus, cement in turbulent or plug flow will exert a more

34 WORLD OIL 1977

 cussed later in this article.
.02
Drag force is the other basic mechanism that displaces
a: .01 mud from the casing-wellbore annulus. Drag forces that
o .008
....
aid in displacement exist between mud and cement at
~ .006
the fluid-to-fluid interface or contact plane. Displacement
~
u. .003
.004ICLMN TUBULARS
INTERNALFLUSH drag forces increase with increasing velocity of cement
~
a:
.002 at the contact plane and with increasing pressure between
u. mud and cement. These forces develop after a portion
.001
of mud has been bypassed and a cement-mud contact
2,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
plane exists, in alignment with the direction of flow.
REYNOLDS NUMBER, NRE
FROM BINGHAM PLASTIC OR NEWTONIAN EQUATIONS Resisting drag' forces exist at contact planes between
mud and borehole wall and between mud and casing.
Fig. 3S-Friction factors for use in Bingham Plastic Model or When casing is not centered, resisting drag force effects
Newtonian fluid equation, see table. Example use: For calcu- will not be uniform across the annular flow area. This
lated N". of 111,340, read f = 0.0067 (after Ormsby).'" difference increases with decentralization and increases
the likelihood of bypassing mud on the narrow side of
the annulus. An indicator of the degree of decentraliza-
tion is percent standoff, and investigations have shown
... --- --- n'
that standoff increases the velocity required to initiate
"- 0.01' mud flow from the narrow side of the annulus, Fig. 40.96
g5 0.008 Resisting drag forces have an effect on displacement
b 0.006 efficiency that is also proportional to mud gel strength,
z 0.004 i.e. higher gel strength increases differential resistance to
0 flow across a non-concentric annular area.
i= 0.003
() Under conditions that contribute to mud bypassing in
if 0.002 an eccentric annulus, drag forces at the cement-mud in-
terface should cause erosion of the bypassed mud. This
0.001 erosion will reduce the area of contact between mud and
1,000 4,000 10,000 20,000 40,000 100,000 casing and mud and borehole. If cement-on-mud drag
REYNOLDS NUMBER, NRE' forces are high enough to cause mud erosion, and contact
(FROM POWER LAW MODEL EQUATION) time is long enough, complete mud removal should be
achieved. However, those conditions are most likely to
Fig. 39-Friction factor, f', for use in Power law Model equa- exist when cement has adequate "contact time," with a
tions. Note that NRC'for critical velocity varies with n'. Example high velocity difference between cement and mud -
use: For n' = 0.26288, derived from Fig. 37, and calculated
NRc'= 4,262, read f' = 0.0041 (after Dodge et al).'o' achieved only with cement in turbulent flow.lo7 Contact
time is defined as the period during which a position in
>- the annulus (generally above the zone of interest) re-
....
o 1.2 mains in contact with a cement slurry that is in turbulent
9 100% STANDOFF
W:~HOLE 10(1)
flow, Fig. 41.
~ 1.0 (CENTERED)
The resisting drag force between mud and casing can
ci 0.8 ~SING 00 (2)
>
~ 0.6 wO,MIN. STANDOFF
BOREHOLE
~ 0.4I I I 33'13'/.
>-
.... 6" CASING IN 9" BOREHOLE ..."1
o
o
-' FLUID DENSITY = 10 PPG .'~
w PLAST. VISC. = 10 CP
> TOP PLUG
',"
YIELD STR. = 10 LB.l100 FT.'

Fig. 40-How decentralization affects velocity on the narrow NEAT TAil

side of the annulus in relation to over-all rate of flow for one
SLURRY
set of fluid and hole conditions. Example use: With 50%
standoff, fluid in narrow side will not move before average
flow exceeds 10 bpm; above 20 bpm, it is never more than
60% of total flow rate. Standoff % = 100 Wn/radius (1)- CASING
radius (2). (after McLean et al)."

uniform displacing force against the mud in the casing-

wellbore annulus. In laminar flow, cement has a para-
bolic velocity profile across the area of flow and it is
likely to "telescope" through the mud, leaving bypassed
channels.
Knowing displacement pressure and flow rate that will
keep a slurry in turbulent or plug flow in the annulus is
essential for primary cement job design. Physical limits
of pumping equipment and well bore formation strength
also have to be considered to determine what flow regime
can be established and maintained. These will be dis-
TURBULENT
lEAD SLURRY
TIME, T1 TIME, T2
Fig. 41-Mud displacement is improved by additional contact
time, the period during which a point, A, is in contact with
slurry in turbulent flow. Contact time in minutes = T, - T,
= VT/235.6Q; VT = Volume of slurry in turbulent flow, Q = dis-
placement rate, gal./min. (after Brice et al).'07

WORLD OIL 1977 35

be altered to a positive mud displacing force by rotating CASING ROTATION MUD ALMOST
STATIONARY 8TARTED REMOVED
the casing while displacing cement.96 This positive effect
FLOWING
is illustrated in Fig. 42. Reciprocation-moving casing
CEMENT
up and down-exerts a somewhat less-positive displacing
drag force. However, reciprocation also affects velocity of
cement and mud, as will be discussed later.
HOW TO IMPROVE MUD DISPLACEMENT
It is necessary to operate within limiting conditions of
the borehole, and control certain variables, to develop
best displacement pressure and most positive drag forces
during primary cementing. The following is a discussion
Fig. 42-Rotational displacing drag force aids in removal of
of: Conditions that limit different aspects of displacement by-passed mud in the narrow side of an eccentric annulus
and controllable variables in the system. (after McLean et al).oo

Centering pipe in the borehole creates a uniform an-

-- --
nular flow area perpendicular to flow direction, and mini-
o 0
mizes variation of resistive drag forces across this flow C\I 0
""
area. This concept has been encouraged for over 30 00_
....
years.108 o EXAMPLE:
o
Centralizers do not provide perfect casing-borehole con-
~2:.. FOR Q = 20 BPM. 9%" CASING.
centricity. But they will subs~antially improve standoff
CYCLE TIME = 1.0 MIN.
conditions, as casing without centralizers will lie against
ANNULAR FLOW
the borehole wall.
(UPSTROKE) = 20 + 5 = 25 BPM
Mechanical centralizers are available for nearly every ANNULAR FLOW
possible casing-hole size combination. However, use of (DOWNSTROKE) = 20 - 5 = 15 BPM I:
these devices is strongly resisted-under certain condi-
tions-by some drilling personnel. Generally, this resist-
ance is due to a concern that they will "hang up" and
prevent casing from being run to desired depth.
Unfortunately, conditions that generate greatest con-
cern about centralizers-like highly deviated wells with
numerous washouts-are, many times, the very conditions
that make their use one of the key requirements for
success. In some cases, centralizers can actually increase
chances of getting casing down, i.e. where differential
sticking is a problem, see Part 1 of the series.

Rotating vs. reciprocal casing movement. Either

type of pipe movement alters drag effects between mud
and casing, to a positive displacement force from a re-
sistive displacement force. But based on model studies/6
rotation appears to be more effective than reciprocation
.in removing bypassed mud, where casing is severely off
center. In addition to the mud-casing drag forces, there
are cement-casing drag forces that also aid displacement.
During rotation, cement-casing drag forces are more
effective than during reciprocation, as they tend to "pull"
the cement into the bypassed mud column instead of
alongside it.
Rotating casing at 15-25 rpm provides more pipe
movement relative to annular fluids than reciprocating
20 feet on a one minute cycle. Therefore, in addition to
the more effective direction of casing related drag forces,
rotation generates more total drag force during displace-
ment.
Reciprocating can cause lateral casing movement, or
changes in standoff, as centralizers move across wellbore
irregularities. This lateral movement alters the flow area
and encourages bypassed mud displacement.
Pressure velocity surges. Reciprocal movement also
affects flow rate and velocity of fluid in the annulus, Fig.
43. During the upstroke, velocity in the annulus decreases,
as part of the fluid pumped out of the shoe occupies the
volume previously occupied by the casing and fluid inside
10.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
CYCLE TIME FOR A 20 FT. STROKE. MINUTES
--
Fig. 43-Effect of reciprocal casing movementon annular flow
rate. Maximum displacing rate assumes uniform acceleration,
deceleration over 4 feet at each end of stroke.
the casing. On the downstroke, the casing acts like a
piston, displacing fluid in the wellbore below the shoe
up the annulus, along with the volume of fluid being
pumped through the shoe.
This motion creates substantial pressure and velocity
surges in the wellbore, Fig. 44,109 which improve the
erosional effect of cement on bypassed mud by substan-
tially increasing displacing drag forces. However, it is
very important to know the magnitude of pressure changes
to avoid breaking down the formation and causing lost
circulation. This problem will be discussed later in this
article.
Pipe moving techniques. A power swivel should be
used to rotate casing to avoid over-torquing the connec-
tions; such forces should not exceed casing makeup
torque.
Thread compounds with Teflon and/or Silicone addi-
tives should be avoided where high torque ranges are

36 WORLD OIL 1977

required for rotation. The low friction character of these
compounds may allow over-torquing and excessive make-
up that exceeds pin or collar yield strength.
Equipment is available that reciprocates and rotates
casing simultaneously. A recently published review of this
method, compared to reciprocation alone, showed definite
improvement in success ratio of primary cementing jobs
in conventional completions with small annular clearances
in Exxon Co. development wells drilled in the Texas Gulf
Coast.ll0
While reciprocating, pick-up loads clearly have to be
less than pipe tensile strength. And it is important to note
that casing weight variation will occur during the com-
pletion operations, Fig. 45.111
The difference in indicator readings on upstroke and
downstroke is very important. This difference indicates
whether casing is moving freely or is tending to stick.
While circulating and conditioning mud prior to cement-
ing-with casing on bottom-the difference between up-
stroke and downstroke weight decreases, Fig. 45, with
improved mud conditions, i.e. lower gel strength and
plastic viscosity. Then, the indicator will reflect weight
increase from pumping heavier cement into the casing.
As cement displaces mud up the annulus, there is a
weight reduction, but difference in upstroke and down-
stroke weight should remain fairly constant if casing is
moving freely.
Stuck pipe is indicated by an increase in the weight
difference on up and down strokes and not by weight
increase alone.
Standoff rings. Mechanical devices can be used to
minimize frictional forces between casing and wellbore
that resist movement during mud conditioning and ce-
menting. Centralizers that rotate on the casing also reduce
rotational resistance. .
Other devices that aid pipe movement are positive
standoff rings. These tools ride freely on the casing be-
tween collars, and they have ODs slightly larger than
collars. Normally located above zones of interest, these
rings act as bearings, reducing contact area between
casing and formation, to substantially reduce forces re-
quired to move casing in either reciprocal or rotational
motion.
This equipment is recommended for: Highly devi-
ated wells, where differential sticking is expected, or
where any conditions are expected that would make
casing movement difficult.
Scratchers. Casing centralizing and movement was de-
veloped as a "package" that included use of scratchers-
mechanical devices designed to remove filter cake and,
theoretically, improve the surface for cement bonding,
directly to the formation.
This may be the case opposite non-permeable zones,
where no filter cake has formed. However, scratchers
likely remove only the outer, softer portion of the filter
cake that has built up opposite permeable zones.
This should positively affect cementing, but if total
cake removal were achieved it could create lost circula-
tion or other problems related to cement dehydration.
Placing scratchers opposite washouts should improve
mud displacement. Also, scratchers mechanically disturb
mud gel strength and induce added turbulence.
Well bore formation pressure limits. Every borehole
WORLD OIL 1977
has limits on bottomhole pressures. The lower limit must
be high enough to prevent entry of formation fluid and
to stop formation sloughing. The upper limit must be
lower than pressure that would induce formation frac-
tures and cause los~ circulation. Clark presented a graphic
view of typical bottomhole pressure variations during
normal drilling and completion and a theoretical bottom-
hole pressure chart where formation strength was ex-
ceeded.112
Review of the drilling history should help identify
pressures that existed in the wellbore during drilling. If
kicks were encountered and formation fluids entered the
well bore, minimum pressure limits should be clear. If lost
circulation occurred, upper limits may be more definite.
Many other conditions can be used to define a well's
"pressure window."
Fracture gradient knowledge is important in deter-
mining safe slurry density and/or pump rate, and whether
stage equipment is needed. A profile showing fracture
gradient vs. depth is desirable. Such a profile, to be dis-
cussed in a following article, enables systematic design
approach. However, accurate fracture gradient profiles
are not always available.
Indications of fracture gradient are obtained for a
given area through: The presence of lost circulation
during drilling, and records of breakdown pressures en-
countered during stimula~ion and squeeze operations.
Occasionally, operators invest an extra effort to make
systematic and intentional measurement of breakdown
pressure. One company obtained breakdown gradients
with drilling mud in open hole as part of the normal
plugback and abandonment procedure for offshore ex-
ploratory wells,11a And attempts have been made to
determine fracture gradient through log measure-
ments.lla.116
Effects of pipe movement on wellbore pressure have
have been defined in the literature. 111-120There is general
agreement that accurate determination of swab-surge
pressures associated with pipe movement requires con-
sideration of properties of the systems at work in the
wellbore. This includes fluid properties and regime de-
terminations and an accurate prediction of borehole ID
variation.
Hand calculations required ~o do this accurately are
complicated and time consuming. Therefore, computer
programs and nomographs have been used to simplify
analysis and predict swab-surge pressures for a given set
of well conditions.
Many operators and mud companies have computer
programs available for de~ermining surge pressures due
to casing running. This information is essential, to de-
termine what running speed to use to stay within limits
(the pressure window) of a well.
Condition mud before cementing. Reducing gel
strength and plastic viscosi~y greatly improves displace-
ment efficiency, and it reduces pressures required at the
cement-mud interface to displace mud. It also reduces
displacement drag forces required to erode and remove
bypassed mud by reducing casing-to-mud and wellbore-
to-mud resistive drag force effects described earlier.
Under certain, well defined, pressure window limits,
it may be desirable to lower mud density, along with gel
37
strength and plastic viscosity, nearly to the minimum
wellbore pressure limit. This would permit a larger +500
pressure increase for displacemen~ pressures.
If this is done, pipe should only be rotated, to prevent MAX. PIPE
a swabbing action that may reduce pressure below the VELOCITY
lower limit. .
+400
In most cases, mud circulation to clean up the hole
and remove cuttings from the mud should be adequate
if good mud properties were maintained while drilling
the final portion of the hole.
+300
Casing running tips. The final steps of: Making up the
last casing joint (landing joint) and the cementing head,
establishing circulation and starting to move the pipe re-
quires careful planning and a well coordinated effort. '0
Q. GEL
With good hole stability and an accurate casing tally,
it is possible to pick up the landing joint prior to tagging a:
::::>
+200
"
BREAKS

bottom. If possible, the cementing head should be made 00

w
up on the landing joint, otherwise it should be on the rig a:
::::>
floor, checked and ready for makeup. 00
00
Casing should not be stopped within 15 feet of bottom M:! +100
a..
or with less than 10 feet between elevator and spider as
this is the minimum space to permit adequate weight
slack-off to overcome most differential sticking tenden-
CIes.
With the casing "free" it can be picked up to verify o
ability to reciprocate. Maximum resistance to casing
movement is experienced at this time and maximum
pick-up load should be accurately defined to avoid over-
stressing the pipe. -100
With casing 10-15 feet off bottom, final mud circula-
tion should be started-slowly-while moving the casing.
PIPE
As circulation progresses, pressures normally decline as STOPPED~
mud gel strength and plastic viscosity (shear stress) de-
crease with slowly increasing pump rates (shear rate). -200 PIPE
The minimum amoun~ of mud circulated prior to mix- 1 LIFTED
ing cement should be the casing's volume. This verifies o
TIME
that float equipment is clear of foreign objects. It may
be desirable to circulate even longer if circulating pres- Fig. 44-Measured pressure surges associated with picking-up
sures are abnormally high. and running of a single casing joint. Casing was lowere<l
smoothly after lifting. Clearly shown are the swab and surge
Mud contamination effects. The possibility of mIxmg effects caused by viscous drag, inertia and mud gel charac-
teristics (after Burkhardt).'.'
cement and mud always exists during pumping and dis-
placement. Such contamination can result in: Accel-
erated or retarded thickening times, reduced cement F
compressive strength, reduced bond strength (see Fig. 3, CjCj xZ
_w
z ::!:::!:
Z- CONDITIONING w
Part 1), increased filtrate loss (higher than in either mud a: ZOO ()
0 ::::>< HOLE
I- a:()
or cement); and with oil base mud, the mixture may < UPSTROKE ,/
-'-' -
become an unpumpable mass.121-126 ()
15 --------- --"
An API study showed that inorganic chemicals have an I
erratic effect on oil well cements,123.124 but generally tend l-
J:
I
Cj I I DOWNSTROKE
to accelerate-the effect depends on concentration. Or- ijj
ganic chemicals generally retard, and may completely 3:
inhibit cement set in some instances.
EQUALIZATION I ECj
II
Severe thickening with oil muds occurs with cement
mixing because such muds are thickened by water wet TIME
solids that are readily available in the high solids content
cement. The small average cement particle size and large Fig. 45-Pipe weight on indicator on upstroke and downstroke
particle surface area contribute to the thickening prob- indicates whether casing is moving freely. Changing weight
lem, which is most serioU's when oil base mud and cement reflects mud gel strength changes and density differences as
cement is pumped, but difference between up and down stroke
slurry densities are high. Also, oil emulsion muds often should remain fairly constant if pipe is free (after Barkis).'''
contain calcium chloride in the water phase, which can
accelerate setting. To prevent mud/slurry problems, it is best to mini-
Pre-job tests at various oil mud/cement slurry ratios mize contact. The bottom wiper plug prevents contami-
can indicate extent of potential thickening problems. nation in the casing, and a spacer fluid reduces cement-

38 WORLD OIL 1977

 fied on every cement job. Selection of amount and type
1.2
(!J DENSITY = 10 PPG of spacer depends on type of mud being used and inter-
-
>
«
~ il
1.0 PLAST. VISC. = 10 CP
6" CSG IN 9" BOREHOLE
reaction problems between cement and mud.
A water flush, normally in turbulent flow, may aid
o 0.8' 50% STANDOFF
a: mud displacement efficiency. Salt water has less ten-
a:
« dency-than fresh water-to cause shales to swell or
~ 0.6 slough. However, fresh water, salt water or fluids con-
o
~
a: 0.4 taining dispersing sur f act ant should not immediately
> precede a high density cement slurry as thinning and
I- weight material settling may occur.
U
oJ
W
> DISPLACEMENT RATE, RHEOLOGY DESIGN
Generally, high displacement rates improve displace-
ment efficiency if cement can be in turbulent flow up
the annulus. Conditions that may prevent such flow in-
Fig. 46-Effect of fluid yield strength on velocity required to clude: Limited displacement rate capability (pumping
initiate flow in narrow side of eccentric annulus, for Bingham
Plastic fluid with turbulent flow through annulus, see Fig. 40 equipment), a pressure window that limits displacement
(after McLean et al).'6 pressure and improper flow (rheological) properties of
mud and/or slurry.
Providing extra pumping equipment is basically an
3.0, economic decision, if wellbore conditions can tolerate
MUD CEMENT
2.8' PLAST. VISC. = 10 30 higher displacement pressures. Formation conditions that
YIELD PT. = 10 50
DENSITY, PPG = 9.5 13.8 determine the pressure window are fixed, and attempts
2.6
DIA. HOLE, IN. = 5.5 to exceed those pressure limits may create serious prob-
STANDOFF = 80%, 1 In. lems.
2.4'

a: Use of dispersants. The value of properly conditioned

0 2.2
l- mud has been discussed. Fluid properties of the cement
t)
«
u.. 2.0 slurry can also be altered, i.e. dispersants can be added
w to lower gel strength to attain turbulent flow at lower
::E 1.8
::>
....J displacement rates. This can be desirable where high
0 pump rates would otherwise be required. By adding dis-
> 1.6
I- persant and lowering pump rate, an increase in effective
a]
::E contact time can be realized, along with the desired ve-
w
t) TOP ON NARROW locity profile.
SIDE However, if turbulence can be achieved at reasonable
pump rates without dispersants, the resulting displace-
I I I I ment should be better, i.e. turbulent flow is better than
3 5 10 15 PUMP RATE. BPM
laminar flow, but additional turbulence may not be
10 -20 30 40 "better yet."
FRICTION PRESSURE LOSS FOR MUD, PSI/1,OOOFT. After turbulent flow is established, displacement effi-
ciency increases with increased slurry flow resistance, as
Fig. 47- Type of curve that can be designed for individual displacing drag forces increase with increasing contact
conditions to determine additional cement, to assure coverage
of the narrow side of eccentric annulus. Multiply volume factor pressure at the cement-mud interface. Thus, thinning
times volume of annulus from shoe to desired cement column the slurry to get "more" turbulence is not recommended.
height. Example: At 5 bpm: To get cement to 1,000 feet above
the shoe on the narrow side, requires 1.6 times the 1,OOO-foot
annulus volume. Final cement top on wide side will be 2,200 The buoyancy effect of higher density cement slurry on
feet above shoe. Note how volume factor decreases with lower density mud is a controversy in the litera-
higher pump rates (after Graham)."
ture...,,,,,t28 Such effects should provide a positive dis-
placing force on bypassed mud as long as there is vertical
mud contact in the annulus.
continuity of the mud column to the top of the rising
Two bottom plugs may be required-one ahead, and cement-mud interface.
one behind the spacer fluid-to prevent mud-cement con- Contact pressure at the base of the bypassed mud-
tamination if: Contamination would create serious prob- cement interface increases with increasing height of ce-
lems, and the spacer fluid does not by itself strip the mud ment. This should increase both displacing pressure and
film from the casing bore. erosional effects due to increased contact pressure near
A single bottom plug, ahead of the cement, will remove the bottom of the bypassed mud column.
the film and accumulate mud ahead of the plug and However, if the cement bypasses a portion of mud and
behind the spacer fluid (see Fig. 7, Part 1). This accumu- then ree'Stablishes complete displacement of the movable
lated mud then can contaminate the cement. mud in the annulus above the bypassed mud, displacing
A variety of spacer or preflush fluids are available, in- drag forces may be the only effective force working to
cluding water, brine, solutions of acid phosphates, die'Sel- remove the mud. With these conditions, it is likely that
oil (weighted or unweighted), oil base fluids and emul- a large portion of the bypassed mud will not be removed
sions (oil in water, water in oil). Compatibility of both unless turbulent cement flow is maintained. Sufficient
spacer and mud, and spacer and cement should be veri- contact time should be provided to allow the cement-mud

WORLD OIL 1977 39

drag forces to erode away any bypassed mud; a minimum
of 10 minutes is recommended.97
How to utilize plug flow. When wellbore conditions
are such that turbulence cannot be achieved, displacing
with cement in a plug flow regime can maintain a flatter
velocity profile in the annulus.127
While drag forces are not as effective as with turbu-
lence, they can be maximized by increasing cement gel
strength as high as possible, particularly in the lead part
of the slurry.
Also, cement density can improve plug flow displace-
ment when it is maintained at least two pounds per
gallon heavier than the mud.127
Centralized pipe and rotational movement may im-
prove displacement efficiency. But reciprocal movement
should be avoided, as intermittently increasing cement
velocity could bypass mud.
Pumping rates should produce annular rising velocity
not greater than 90 feet per minute. Under some con-
ditions this cannot be accomplished by controlling pump
rate, i.e. with U-tube effect of higher density cement,
and/or presence of lost circulation.
How to improve laminar flow displacement. Well-
bore and/or surface conditions that prohibit turbulent
flow may al'So prohibit plug flow. When these not-un-
common circumstances exist, an alternative is to alter
cement rheological properties to increase apparent slurry
viscosity.
Displacement, even in laminar flow can be effective
if the slurry is thicker (has higher yield 'Strength and
plastic viscosity) than the mud, and if sufficient volumes
are used to obtain desired cement height on the narrow
side of an eccentric annulus. 96,98
One guide for cement rheological design i'S to have
cement yield strength exceed mud yield strength by a
factor equal to maximum annulus clearance divided by
minimum annulus clearance.
Even though turbulence will not be achieved, the
highest practical pump rate is recommended, as the
difference between mud and cement velocities on the
wide side vs. the narrow side is reduced as rate in-
creases, Fig. 46.
The cement volume used under these displacement
conditions should be such that the final height of cement
on the narrow side i'S above any zones to be protected.
This volume can be determined from design curves based
on specific mud and cement properties and casing-well-
bore configurations (eccentricity), Fig. 47.
This data should be derived from well site measure-
ment'S of mud and cement slurry rheological properties
and calipered hole size information. The detailed design
curve determination is available in the literature.98
Coming next month: Primary cementing techniques,
proper use of downhole and surface equipment.
LITERATURE CITED
... McLean, R. H., Manry, C. W. and Whitake~ W. K., "Displacement
Mechanics in Primary Cementing," JPT Vol. 1~, February 1'967.
07Clark, C. R. and Carter, L. G., "Mud Displacement with Cement
Slurries," JPT, Julr. 1973.
.. Graham, H. L., 'Rheology-Balanced Cementing Improves Primary Suc-
cess," O&GJ, December 18, 1972.
40
How to improve mud displacement during
primary cementing
I. Center pipe in the borehole
2. Move casing during mud conditioning and cementing
. Rotation is best for removing mud channels from narrow
side of non-centered casing
. Reciprocation aids in achieving turbulence. Do not use
when displacing in plug flow
. Combined rotation-reciprocation is most effective when dis-
placing with turbulent flow
3. Know formation pressure limits in the wellbore
. Lower limit is that required to maintain positive formation
control
. Upper limit is a function of the formation's strength, its re-
sistance to hydraulic fracturing
4. Condition mud prior to cementing
5. Avoid adverse mud-cement reactions
. Use proper spacer fluids or flushes and wiper plugs
6. Control displacement rates and slurry rheology
. Use high rates where turb~lence can be maintained in the
widest annular area, across interest zones
. With turbulent flow, provide adequate contact time for
mud removal
. When turbulence cannot be developed and maintained,
consider lower rates to achieve plug flow in narrowest annular
areas, across interest zones
. If neither condition can be attained, adjust cement prop-
erties to achieve high yield strength and plastic viscosity, dis-
place at the highest practical rate and use sufficient volume to
get desired height on narrow side of eccentric annulus
00Brown, R. W., et al, "Cement Rheology-A Tool for Better Completions,"
Petroleum Engineer Februa 1963.
.00Howard, G. c. and Clark, 'J . B. "Factors to be Considered in Obtai'!inJ!
Proper Cementing of Casing," API Drilling and Production Practice, 1948,
I'p. 257-272.
... Dodge, D. W. and Metzner, A. B., "Turbulent Flow of Non-Newtonian
Systems," AIChE Journal, Vol. 5, No.2, June 1959.
,., Robertson, R. E. and Stiffs, H. S., Jr. "An Imeroved Mathematical
Model for Relating Shear Stress to Shear Rate in Drdling Fluids and Ce-
ment Slurries," SPEJ, February 1.976.
'.3 "Standard Procedure for Testing Drilling Fluids," API RPI3B, Sixth
Edition, April 1976.
JOt"TestinJ! Oil Well Cements and Cement Additives," API RPI0B, Nine-
teenth Edition January 1-974.
'00 Ror;ers, W. F., Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling Fluids,
Third Edition 1963 Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
.06Ormsby, G. S., "Calculation and Control of Mud Pressures in Drilling
and Completion Operations," API Drilling and Production Prac4ices, 1954,
pp. 44-55.
107Brice, J. W., Jr., and Holmes, B. C., "Engineered Casi!,B. Cementing
Programs Using Turbulent Flow ,Techniques," JPT, May 1964.
... Teplitz A. J. and Hassebrook, W. E., "An InvesJIgation of Oil-Well Ce-
menting," API Drillinc_ and Production Practice, '\94ti, pp. 76-103.
.00Burkhardt, J. A., "WeIlbore Pressure Surges Produced by Pipe Movement,"
JPT June 1961.
11.Holt "] , J. A., "Field Proven Techniques Improve Cementing Success,"
Worl 0./, August 1.976.
m Barkis, B., "Primary Cementing, The Critical Period," B&W, Inc., Tech-
nical Literature.
no Clarki E. H., Jr., "A Graphic View of Pressure Surges and Lost Circula-
tion,' API Drilling and Production Practice 1956, pp. 424-438.
m MacPherson, L. A. and Berry, L. N. "Prediction of Fracture Gradients
from Log Derived Elastic Moduli," The Log Analyst, September 1972, pp.
12-19.
u'Matthews, W. R. and Kelly J., "How to Predict Formation Pressure
and Fracture Gradient from Eiectnc and Sonic Logs," Oil and Gas Journal,
February 20, 1967 pp. 92-106.
us EatonA B. A., "Fracture Gradient Prediction and Its Application in Oil-
field uperations," PT, October 11969pp. 1,353-1,360.
j
U6Taylor, D. B. an Smith, T. K., "improved Fracture Gradient Estimates
in Offshore Drilling Operations," API Drilling and Production Practice
1970 pp. 41-50.
m C~well, W. T., Jr., "Pressure Changes in Drilling Wells Caused by
Pipe Movement," API Drilling and Production Praclices~ 1953, pp. 97:1112.
U8Schuh F. J., "Computer Makes Surge Pressure Calculations Useful,"
O&G ] , August 3, 1964.
.1>Bazer D. A. and Owen, H. B., Jr.!.. "Field Application and Results of
t
Pipe ripping Nomographs," Paper SP~ 2656, 1969.
". Fontinot, J. E. and Clark R. K., "An Improved Method for Calculating
Pressures in a Drilling Weh," Paper SPE 4521', presented at Fall Meeting,
Las Vegas, Nev., September 3D-October 3, 1973.
m Carney, L. L., "Cement Spacier Fluid," Paper SPE 4784, presented at
Formauon Damage Symposium, New Orleans, La., February 7, 8, 1'974.
I22Morris, E. F. and Modey, H. R., "Oil Base Spacer System for Use in
Cementing Wells ContaimnJ! Oil Base Drilling Muds," Paper SPE 4610,
presented at Fall Meeting, Las VeBas, Ne!'J September 30-0ctober 3, 1973.
.23Beirute, R. M., "All Purpose Cement-Mud Spacer," Paper SPE 5691,
presented at Formation Damage Control Symposium, Houston, January
29-30, 1976.
... "The Effects of Drilling-Mud Additives on Oil-Well Cements," API
Bulletin D-4, Corrected Edition March 1963.
.23Anderson, F. M., "Effect of Mud-Treating Chemicals on Oil-Well Ce-
ments, "O&GJ September 29, 1952.
'28,Tschirley, N. k., "Cementing in Oil Muds," Petroleum Engineer, May
1975.
Parker, P. N., eI al, "An Evaluation of a Primary Cementing ,Technique
Using Low Displacement Rates," Paper SPE 1'234, presented at Fall Meet-
ing, Denver, Colo., October 3-6, 1965.
I28Garvin, T. and Slagle, K. A., "Scale Model Displacement Studies to Pre-
dict Flow Behavior DurinJlt Cementing," IPT, September 1911'. .
WORLD Oil 1977
 Cementing oil and gas.wells
Part 5-Guidelines for downhole
equipment use, stage cementing methods,
new concepts for cementing large
diameter casing
George o. Suman, Jr., President,and Richard
Ellis, Project Engineer, Completion Technology
Houston
1 O-second summary
Concepts and applications of cementing equipment
used on casing strings during primary cementing are
explained along with a discussion of stage cementing,
mixing and density measuring devices, and how to cement
large diameter casing by the stab-in method.
PREVIOUS ARTICLES in this series have presented the
basic principles of hole preparation, casing handling,
cement slurry chemistry and additive selection-and how
mud is displaced by the cement slurry.
This article will discuss downhole and surface equip-
ment used in conventional primary cementing, with em-
phasis on the common problem of lost circulation. Special
considerations for each of the casing strings-conductor,
surface, intermediate and production-are reviewed and
new ideas are presented for cementing large diameter
casmg.
Realizing that this subject covers a broad range of
commercially available products and that design features
of the equipment mentioned may vary widely among
manufacturers, it is the intent of the authors to stress
basic concepts and applications, and general precautions.
Equipment used in conventional primary cementing
normally includes a casing guide shoe, float collar, bottom
and top wiper plugs, cementing head, centralizers, mixing
equipment and pumps, Fig. 48.129,130,131Rotating or re-
ciprocating type scratchers, multiple staging equipment,
external casing packers, metal petal baskets and
specialized cementing equipment are frequently required.
And, resin-sand coated casing, external casing seal rings
and devices for increasing the annular velocity and/or
swirling cement are sometimes applied.
TYPES OF SHOES, COLLARS
In most cases, except in certain shallow wells, a round-
nosed shoe is run on the bottom joint to guide the casing
WORLD OIL 1977
past borehole irregularities encountered while running the
string. Three types of shoes are commonly used: Guide
shoes (without valves of any kind), float shoes and differ-
ential or automatic fill-up types, Fig. 49.
Collars have basically the same features as shoes. They
are commonly known as baffle collars (without valves),
float collars, and differential or automatic fill-up collars,
C.
Fig. 49. Located one or more joints above the shoe, the
Co.,
collar, in addition to float and fill-up functions, acts as
a seat for pump-down wiper plugs. It thus indicates when
cement placement is complete, and controls the amount
of cement left in the casing. Since cement immediately
below the wiper plug may be contaminated, the collar
should be positioned to minimize the amount of con-
taminated cement pumped out around the shoe.
The guide shoe or baffle collar has an open bore some-
what smaller than pipe inside diameter. The float type
contains a check valve which prevents backflow of cement
into the casing after the cement job has been completed.
This feature also prevents flow into the bottom of the
casing during running.
When float equipment is used, the casing rides or floats
down to the desired depth because it is partially empty
and somewhat buoyant. When using float shoes or collars,
bouyancy is controlled by the amount of fluid placed
inside the casing from a surface fill-up line. The casing
is normally filled at regular intervals (say every five to
20 joints). Partial filling is also required to prevent col-
lapse of large diameter casing.
Differential/automatic fill-up shoes and collars pro-
vide partial fill-up of the casing during running, using
either differential pressure, Fig. 49, or-for the automatic
type-a predetermined-size orifice. Most single, differen-
tial fill-up units (shoe or collar) keep the casing about
90% full, unless the well's fluid level is low due to lost
circulation. An additional differential fill-up unit results
in about 81 % fill-up. Of course, neither type of "auto-
/ or other
matic" fill-up equipment should be run in combination
with float equipment.
Pumping fluid through some types of "automatic"
fill-up units converts them to conventional float valves.
In other types, a ball is pumped through the tool for
conversion, Fig. 50. This type preserves the "automatic"
fill-up feature if attempts are made to break circulation
during running.
Differential fill-up equipment is frequently used on long
41
strings to: Reduce surge pressures by permitting part of
the displaced mud to enter the casing, rather than all
being forced up the annulus; to provide continuous
PLUG CONTAINER
partial fill, thereby reducing running time, and to avoid
the hazard of casing collapse.
Some reasons for selecting float equipment without
fill-up features are:
· The casing can be filled with well-conditioned mud,
and entry of extraneous materials from the borehole is
avoided, i.e. shale cavings, cuttings and LCM.
. This equipment .is somewhat simpler in operation
and, possibly, more reliable.
· It gives more positive indications of wellbore fluid
gains or losses; and it offers positive downhole casing
shut-off if the well tries to kick.

. There is a more or less continuous and progressive

"breaking" of gelled mud in the borehole.

Pressure surges causing formation fracturing and lost

circulation can be prevented by limiting casing running
speed. Running casing at speeds which provide annular
flow rates acceptable during drilling is normally safe
(see Fig. 43, Part 4). Surge pressure should be calculated
to determine safe running speed where clearance between
hole and casing is small (Part 4). Other considerations in
establishing running speed include: Presence of bridges
or key seats or doglegs; proximity of the shoe to total
depth, and, occasionally, the number of scratchers and
centralizers.
If there is lost circulation material in the mud system,
"automatic" fill-up equipment should not be used. And
if use of lost circulation material in the slurry is planned,
bottom wiper plugs and float equipment-perhaps with
the exception of flapper valve types with straight-through
openings-may have to be avoided.
FLOAT COLLAR
As an extra precaution to supplement visual tool in-
spection, fluid can be pumped through float and fill-up
equipment after make-up to verify operation before
running to bottom.
Following cement placement-and after bumping the
top plug-the pressure normally is released. This release
should be rapid, to activate the check valve. If backflow
is observed, pressure must be maintained until the cement
sets up. However, excessive internal pressure expands the
casing and it can contract and form a micro-annulus
when the pressure is released-after the cement sets (see
Part 1).
CENTRAUZER Float, baffle and fill-up collars are normally made with
equal or greater burst and collapse strength than the
casing on which they are run. For shoes, however, these
design criteria are not generally considered critical, as
high burst and collapse strength is not required at this
location in the string after drill-out.

WIPER PLUGS, CEMENTING HEADS

GUIDE SHOE PUMPING CEMENT
Fig. 48-Main equipment components of a typical primary
cement job in a moderate depth well where additional acces-
sories such as scratchers, stage collars, etc. are not required.
Wiper plugs are used to separate the cement from
preceding or following fluids, Fig. 51. The bottom plug
also removes mud from the wall of the casing, and pre-
vents this mud from accummulating beneath the top plug
and being deposited around the lower casing joints (Part
1) .
After reaching bottom, the diaphragm in the bottom
plug ruptures and cement is displaced out the bottom of
the pipe and around the casing. The top plug seats on

42 WORLD OIL 1977

the bottom plug or float collar, after being displaced to
bottom, and shuts off flow.
Cementing heads are available which hold one or more
plugs. When the two-plug system is used, the operator
should verify that the bottom plug is, in fact, placed in
the bottom position in the cementing head. A mechanical
device should be used to give visual proof when the top
GUIDE SHOE OR
plug leaves the head. The cementing manifold should BAFFLE COLLAR
be connected so that the plug can be pumped out of the FLOAT SHOE
cementing head with the displacing fluid. (COLLAR)
If the cementing head is located far out of reach,
delays may be encountered in releasing the top plug and
pumping may be interrupted for a period of time to the DIFFERENTIAL FILL-UP.
detriment of the operation. Pup joints may have to be CIRCULATING TYPE

used to keep the cementing head within reach so that

such delays can be minimized.
At this time the cement is usually falling down the
casing on a vacuum. And displacing fluid can be siphoned
into the casing below the top plug (before it is released)
if the valve to the supply source is not kept closed. Since
the fluid can be siphoned through the cementing pump,
the valve should not be opened until the top plug has
been released.
Another precaution taken by some service companies
is to pump a small volume of cement on top of the top FLAPPER TYPE AUTOMATIC FILL-UP INSERT FLOAT
plug before switching to displacing fluid. FLOAT NON-CIRCULATING

A bottom plug is not recommended with large amounts

of lost circulation material in the slurry or with badly
rusted or scaled casing, as such material may collect on
the ruptured diaphragm.
Displacement of the top plug should be carefully moni-
tored. The volume of fluid behind the plug should be
determined from calibrations on the cementing unit tanks
or by measuring out of a mud storage tank. Another
method is to count pump strokes and convert to volume
by applying a known pump efficiency. If available, a
flowmeter can be used to verify volumes pumped.
Pumps should be slowed as the pre-calculated displace-
ment volume is reached, to avoid sudden bumping of the
top plug and excessive pressure. A mud line pop-off valve
is a desirable safety precaution.
If the top plug does not bump at the calculated volume
(allowing for displacement fluid compressibility), dis-
placement should be stopped.
Accurate volume measurements can be important III
trouble-shooting a problem cement job, as well as in
keeping track of the location of the top plug.
CENTRALIZERS
Casing centralizers are used to: Improve displace-
ment efficiency (Part 4) ; to prevent differential pressure
sticking (Part 1), and to keep casing out of key seats.
Two general types of centralizers are spring-bow and
rigid. The spring-bow type has greater ability to provide
stand-off where the borehole is enlarged. The rigid type
provides more positive stand-off where borehole is to-
gauge. Special close-tolerance centralizers may be used on
liners. Important design considerations are: Positioning,
method of installation and spacing.
Centralizers should be positioned on casing: Through
intervals requiring effective cementing; on casing ad-
jacent to (and sometimes passing through) intervals
where differential sticking is a hazard, and occasionally
Fig. 49-Examples of commonly used shoes and collars.
Two fill-up devices are shown, the differential shoe or collar
allows circulation while running pipe. With orifice type auto-
matic fill-up device, high circulation rate shears the orifice
retainer, converting tool to flapper type float. Insert float fits
in casing collar recess between joints. (Courtesy Bakerline and
Dowell)
on casmg passmg through dog-legs where key seats may
exist.
Effective cementing is important through production
intervals and around the lower six joints of surface and
intermediate casing strings-to minimize likelihood of
joint loss. Particularly susceptible to differential pressure
sticking are permeable zones where pressure is depleted
and/or high mud overbalance pressure exists. Small
clearance between casing and borehole, high deviation
of the borehole and poor quality mud all increase differ-
ential sticking hazard (Part 1); proper centralization
reduces the harmful effects of these conditions.
Although centralizers may appear to be unnecessary
obstructions on the pipe, they are effective and should
be used where applicable. Correct positioning requires a
caliper log of the wellbore so that locations correspond
with to-gauge sections of the borehole.
Installation method depends on type, i.e. solid body,
split body or hinged. The hinged type is most commonly
installed.
Centralizers are held in their relative position on the
casing either by the casing collars or mechanical stop
collars, Fig. 52. The restraining device (collar or stop
collar) should always be located within the bow-spring
type centralizer so the centralizer will be pulled-not
pushed-into the hole. Therefore, the bow-spring type
centralizer should not be allowed to ride free on a
casing joint.
API has established specifications for casing central-

WORLD OIL 1977 43

 Restoring force is the force exerted by a centralizer
FLAPPER against the borehole to keep the pipe away from the wall.
VALVE
Centralizer restoring force capacity is determined through
SHEAR API test procedures and can be presented as a load-
SLEEVE
SHEAR deflection curve, Fig. 52.133 The minimum API restoring
SHEAR SCREW
SCREW SHEARED force must equal 2 (w) sin 30 degrees-where (w) equals
VALVE weight of 40 feet of medium 'Weight casing and 30 de-
SLEEVE
grees represents an average hole angle-at a casing to
FLAPPER borehole stand-off 0.67 times average casing to borehole
VALVE KIRKSITE
BALL
~
clearance. The factor (2) compensates for doglegs and is
RUNNING IN, BACK-PRESSURE VALVE not applied for casing sizes from 10%-20-inch.
VALVE OPEN (FILLING) CIRCULATING RELEASED FOR CEMENTING

Centralizer spacing. Load-deflection curves may be

Fig. 50-Principle of differential fill-up operation. Pressure
area differential on valve sleeve favoring the inside makes it used for determining spacing required to achieve desired
engage lower flapper when casing is 90% full. Circulation stand-off. And it should be noted that stand-off required
has no effect on tool, center, until dropped ball shears the to prevent differential pressure sticking will normally be
second sleeve, permanently releasing the upper flapper, right.
less than that to properly centralize casing for good dis-
placement efficiency. The lateral load imposed on a
DIAPHRAGM casing centralizer is the combined effect of centralizer
spacing, casing weight, hole angle, weight of casing below
the centralizer and dogleg (even though minor). The
equation is:
Lateral load = Casing weight component + tension
CAST component = m.W.L. sin e+ 2 (T) sin 8
ALUMINUM
INSERT Where:
m = Steel in mud buoyancy factor
W = Weight per foot of casing, pounds
L = Distance from centralizer to next lower
BOTTOM PLUG TOP PLUG
centralizer, feet
e = Borehole angle, degrees
Fig. 51-Top and bottom wiper plugs. Diaphragm in bottom
plug ruptures with pressure increase to allow slurry passage. T = Tension (pulling force) due to casing below
Solid plug, right, follows slurry. All plug material is drillable. centralizer
=
8 One-half the change in angle between
centralizer and next lower centralizer
When a dogleg exists between centralizers, expressed in
degrees per 100 feet, then
1'h
:i Dogleg (degrees/IOO ft.) x Spacing (ft.)
-u: 1'14 8=
200
u..
o
c
z<I: %. CENTR. SIZE, 7" T = ~ m' W . L. cos e for casing sections below the
HOLE SIZE, 9'12"
~ 'h centralizer (the weight of the casing in mud is
a close approximation for hole angles below the
400 800 1,200 1,600 2pOO2~00
HINGED centralizer of 25 degrees or less)
CENTRALIZER RESTORING FORCE, LBS.
. -- - The sign (+) for the second term depends on the
direction of the dogleg (usually the sign is negative for
Fig.52-Example of spring-bow centralizer contained by stop a build-up in angle and positive for a drop-off in angle).
collar so that device is pulled into hole. Load-deflection curve
for a centralizer gives lateral force on casing at various de- The positive sign provides a more conservative (higher)
flections. For the example curve shown''', it takes over 1,700 calculated load and may be acceptable because of other
pounds to move the casing V4 inch off center. unknowns in a deviated hole.

izers, covering specific hole sizes and casing sizes and Example calculation: For: m = 0.847 (10 ppg mud);
weight.132 Starting force, permanent set and restoring W = 40.0 lb/ft, 9% inch casing; L =
45 feet (centralizer
force are defined and specified for individual sets of con- spacing); e = 25 degrees; 916 feet of casing below cen-
ditions. tralizer, and a 2 degree/lOO foot dogleg:
Starting force is the force required to start the cen- Lateral load (additive dogleg) = (0.847) (40.0) (45)
tralizer into previously run casing, as determined by API (0.4226) + 2 [(0.847) = 644 +
(40.0) (916)] 0.00785
test. The maximum starting force permitted is less than 487 = 1,131lb.
the weight of 40 feet of medium weight casing on which Lateral load (Subtractive dogleg) = 644 - 487 = 157
the centralizer is run. lb.
Permanent set is the constant bow height of the bow- Some iteration (trail and error calculation) is required
springs after each bow-spring has been flattened 12 times. in calculating centralizer spacing in this manner because
Maximum starting force is determined before permanent a centralizer spacing must be assumed and then the
set-restoring force after. lateral load on the centralizer calculated. The load then

44 WORLDOIL 1977
must be compared to the centralizer load deflection curve,
Fig. 52, to determine whether the desired stand-off will
be achieved. If not, then a closer spa c i n g must be
assumed.

Rules of thumb .for centralizer

spacing in vertical holes ,
I
Surface casing-One centralizer should be placed im-
mediately above the shoe and one at the top of each of
the bottom six joints, to insure centralization and uniform
placement of cement in this critical section for reasons
given in previous articles. Centralizers may also be in-
stalled to improve cement placement around any critical
water sands. "
Intermediatecasing-One centralizer should be placed
.. c
immediately above the shoe and one at the top of each
L
of the bottom six joints. Centralizers may also be placed
within the cement interval to ensure uniform cement
distribution opposite critical zones.
Productioncasing-Place one centralizer immediately
above the shoe and one at the top of each of the bottom
six joints. They should be placed on every joint through
I
the producing zones and extending 100 feet above (and ,
below, if applicable). Other potential problem zones, key I,
seats, sticking areas, etc. should also be protected with
centralizers.
Liners-Use centralizers if clearance and hole condi- '(
tions permit.
Stage cementing-Centralizers should be spaced over
the cemented interval above the stage collar and one
joint below, since there is no casing movement in such
jobs. When used the external packer would act as the
lower centralizer.
B
Some manufacturers provide centralizers for installation .1
on a given casing size, with several bow-spring sizes
to accommodate starting and restoring force require-
ments for different previously run casing sizes. Therefore, A D
size of both casing to be installed and the previously r
installed casing (or hole) should be specified when equip-
ment is ordered.

WIPERS, SCRATCHERS
Wipers and scratchers are used primarily to remove
borehole mud cake. They also aid in breaking-up gelled
mud. Both rotating and reciprocating styles are available,
Fig. 53 (also see Part 4). These devices are rarely used
on liners because of close clearances. Fig. 53-Examples of commonly used rotating and recipro-
cating type wipers and scratchers. Rotating type (A, B, C)
Rotating type wipers or scratchers are run across the are spot welded or clamped. Reciprocating types (0, E, F)
zone of interest plus an additional 20 feet above and move between stop collars or are secured in-place with drive-
set nails.
below the zone. Reciprocating type scratchers are gen-
erally spaced at 5 to I5-foot intervals throughout the
stages, additional stages are possible.
zone plus the additional 20 feet above and below. When
Stage cementing can be used: When a long column
reciprocating, the vertical casing movement should always
of cement is required and weak formations are present
exceed the distance between wipers or scratchers. If re-
which will not support the hydrostatic head; when two
ciprocal movement equals the spacing, removed mud
cake and cuttings can accummulate at the end of each or more widely separated intervals are present which must
stroke. be cemented (for instance, an upper high pressure gas
or water sand), or when special situations exist such as
When wipers or scratchers are used, mud circulation
in the Arctic where casing suspension is desired below
should always be started before pipe is moved. And pipe
the base of the permafrost.
should be moved slowly at first. If no pipe movement is
In deep, hot wells, stage cementing may also be re-
planned, these devices should not be run.
quired to. place slurry with proper temperature char-
MULTIPLE STAGE EQUIPMENT acteristics at the desired level, i.e. retarded cement with
Multiple stage cementing consists of conventional adequate thickening time for hot formations may not
placement of cement slurry around the lower portion of set-up if it is circulated to low temperature, shallow zones.
a casing string followed by placement of successive upper
stages through ports in a stage or port collar, Figs. 54, Stage or port collars may also be used for placing
55.134 Although most stage cementin~ is done in two special fluids in upper portions of the casing string for

WORLD OIL 1977 45

 more port collars in-place, in the closed position. The
first stage primary cement job is conducted in the con-
UPPER CLOSING
ventional manner. The casing then is landed. Drill pipe
SLEEVE PLUG
is run with a special tool for opening, closing and
packing-off the collars. One port collar can be opened,
and cement placed. That collar then is closed, the next
collar is opened, cement is placed, and so on. With all
collars closed, excess cement is reverse circulated.
LOWER
)f'ri,
1 PORTS When these devices are used, an external casing packer
VSLEEVE ,J1~:/ or metal petal basket is commonly installed below the

't
l I 0
coUar to prevent cement from falling through mud in the
'I annulus. This precaution is particularly appropriate when
weak zones exist below the collar.
One disadvantage to stage cementing is that the casing
{.. ,i. ~bENING
o

, %,11 MB cannot be moved (rotated or reciprocated) after the

~..~ '
first stage has set. This increases the possibility of chan-
CLOSED OPEN CLOSED neling and incomplete mud removal.
Although stage cementing equipment has proven to
Fig. 54-Stage collar operation. Tool is run in closed position, be quite reliable, it is always possible that the collar will
left. When lower stage is complete, bomb is dropped to move not close and seal completely. If this happens, satisfactory
lower sleeve down exposing ports, center. Wiper plug follow-
ing second stage slurry, right, moves upper sleeve down remedial cementing at shallow depths, particularly when
closing all ports with cement outside casing. (Courtesy the well is completed in deeper high pressure zones, may
Dowell) not be possible. However, the only alternative to use of

protection against freezing, corrosion or fault movement.

Advantages of port collars are that they can be opened
and closed repeatedly, Fig. 55.
When wellbore fracture gradient profile is known, the
stage cementing operation can be tailored more specif-
ically to existing conditions.135 For example, high density
cement can be utilized and the cement column brought
above the weak zone during the first, conventional stage.
After that stage has set and the weak zone is sealed-off,
a column of cement which would otherwise have frac-
tured the weak zone and caused lost circulation can be t
z
W
introduced at the stage collar. D-
o
Other combinations of formation fracture gradients
and cement densities and column height can be handled
utilizing two and three stages.134 Fracture gradients in
the above example were determined primarily during
stimulation treatments. Squeeze cementing fracture
gradient information was also utilized.
Stage collars are most commonly used for this purpose,
Fig. 54. The stage collar contains ports which are initially
isolated by a sliding sleeve (s). The sleeve (s) can be moved
downward to open the ports-and later close them- w
en
o-'
with a special bomb or tripping plug. The stage collar o
is used in combination with: Special plug catching bafHes,
bypassing bottom and shut-off wiper plugs, port opening !
bomb or tripping plugs and closing wiper plugs.

Typical application. The stage type tool is installed in

the desired place in the casing string as it is being run.136
In the first stage, cement is circulated around the shoe
and part way up the annulus-sometimes up to the
location of the stage collar. After cement has been placed
around the bottom of the casing, the multiple stage tool
ROTATING SLEEVE VERTICAL ACTION
is opened hydraulically by plugs. The well then can be SLEEVE
circulated with mud, if desired.
The upper cementing operation(s) may proceed im-
Fig. 55-Operating principle of two types of port collars that
mediately, or the lower stage may be permitted to set-up. can be repeatedly opened or closed by rotation of tubing or
The final plug, following the upper stage cement slurry, drill pipe, left, or by vertical movement, right. Use of cup
closes the ports in the stage collar. type packers and additional ported sleeves on the inner string
(see Fig. 59) allow cement to be placed through one or more
When a port collar is used, casing is run with one or casing port collars.

46 WORLD OIL 1977

collars-if stage cementing is absolutely necessary-is CEMENT
perforating, cementing and squeezing the perforations.
Use of stage cementing collars is certainly preferable to
this alternative. STAGE COLLAR

External casing packers, available in both solid rubber

and inflatable styles, are becoming more widely applied
in primary cementing to reduce the cost of remedial
work. The external casing packer is frequently applied
in lieu of the metal petal basket where positive control
is required. Packers also help centralize the casing.
The use of the external casing packer and a stage
collar as a pack-off shoe or collar is illustrated in Fig.
56. This combination has been effective in preventing
loss of cement to rathole and contamination of the
primary cement job cement with mud. Inflatable ex-
ternal packers and port collars have also been applied
for cementing between zones to be open hole gravel
packed as discussed in a previous series (see WORLDOIL'S
Sand Control Handbook, page 44).

MIXING EQUIPMENT, DENSITY CONTROL

Dry cement must be mixed with the proper amount of
water to ensure that slurry and set cement properties
are as designed. Effects of inadequate or excessive water
are discussed in Part 3 of this series.
For most slurries, the jet mixer will provide a uni-
form mixture.135 Special mixing e qui p men t is some-
times required for high density cement, high viscosity
cement and jobs in which precise composition and blend-
ing of all additives is particularly critical (such as liner
and squeeze cementing operations). Density measure-
ments are used to verify proper cement/water mix ratios
during the job.
The jet mixer induces a partial vacuum at the venturi
throat which draws in the dry cement. High stream
turbulence then provides thorough mixing. This type of
mixer is simple, reliable and rugged. Some cementing
compositions require the use of specially designed and
sized nozzle units. Jet mixers are capable of handling 50
sacks per minute.
One disadvantage of high pressure jet mixers is that
two pumps are tied-up during the mixing operation-one
mixing, the other pumping fluid downhole.
Special mixing equipment available through service
companies utilize a variety of mixing principles. Two
basic types are "continuous" and "batch". Mixing and/or
blending is achieved with continuous methods through:
Cyclone or whirlpool action; recirculation; jet turbulence,
or a combination of these actions. Larger "tub" storage
of mixed slurry tends to improve uniformity.
Mixing and/or blending is achieved with batch
methods through use of: Propeller or imp e 11er type
mixers; paddle mixers; ribbon blenders; pneumatic mix-
ing, and rotation of the cement tank (similar in ap-
pearance to those used in construction).
The amount of cement that can be mixed in a batch
unit is limited. However, several batch type units can
be combined to provide continuous operation on large
jobs. Batch mixing provides the most accurate and
thorough mixing of all slurry components.
FLEXIBLE
PLUG
Fig. 56-Schematic of inflatable external packer used with a
stage collar to pack off above a weak zone or open hole
section. Flexible plug is first pumped to the shoe and pressure
is applied to inflate the packer element. The tripping plug
opens the sleeve for cementing and the shut-off plug closes
the sleeve permanently. Other variations are possible using
hydraulically operated cementing collars.
Continuous and batch units can also be combined in
series. The various types of equipment have different
limits in mixing rate, storage or "holding" volume and
pump rate. The service company should be consulted re-
garding specifications, availability and suitability of units
for particular applications.
Density measurements are used to control the mixing
operation. Variations in density during a job can result
from: Non-uniform blending of dry components; changes
in the water-to-cement ratio; air entrainment in the
sample, or a combination of these possibilities.
Density is measured as samples with balances (two
types), or continuously with radioactive devices or a
force-balanced U -tube.137-139
Density is usually obtained with a standard API mud
balance. The device is simple, easy to use and gives
reasonably correct values when precautions are taken to
avoid air entrainment. Avoid sampling the upper, aerated
portion of the slurry in tub, blender or mixer.
Accuracy can be improved by using the API pressurized
fluid density balance in which the slurry is pressured to
ahout 400 psi with a hand pump before weighing. In this
device the air occupies a negligible volume.137
LOST CIRCULATION,VOLUME CALCULATIONS
Lost circulation is normally handled in primary ce-
menting by either: Using a low density slurry to prevent
formation breakdown and/or using stage equipment if

WORLD OIL 1977 47

 the breakdown pressure would be exceeded by bringing
the cement up in one stage.
Low density slurries may be desirable for minimizing
downhole pressure and avoiding lost circulation, but
the high strength of neat cement may be preferred
through completion intervals and around lower casing
joints. Bridging material is added in only small con-
centrations, if at all, to avoid problems with plugs and
float equipment, and bridging in the casing-well bore
annulus, see table.
Although high filtrate loss may be favorable for block-
ing fractures in permeable zones, some filtrate loss con-
trol may be desirable to prevent slurry dehydration and
bridging in the wellbore annulus. In such cases, a good
compromise is to use a cement with about a 200 to 500
ml filtrate loss at 1,000 psi.
Bridging material should be used in primary cementing
only as a last resort. If it is used and stage tools are
necessary, only granular type materials should be con-
sidered. In addition, the following precautions should
be taken:
Precautions to avoid plugging
. Preferably, the first and last portions of the primary
cement job will not contain lost circulation material,
particularly large solids. Bridging hazards are de-
creased when slurry free of bridging material initiates
flow through restrictions. Slurry free of bridging ma-
terial at the end of the job will tend to wash away
solids left in collars and baffles to improve operation
of floats and stage tools. And plugs wipe better with
less chance of accumulating bridging material beneath
the plug and stopping it prematurely.
. Avoid reducing slurry bridging material carrying ca-
pacity with excess water or dispersants. Also, dilu-
tion and thinning of slurry from water in pumps, lines
or spacers should be avoided.
. The job should be continuous with no shut-downs.
Cement volume required in primary cementing can
be calculated using a caliper log and tables provided by
the cementing company. An excess of 15-35% is used as
a safety factor when a caliper log is used. When such logs
are not available, volume is based on experience in the
area and is some factor applied to the volume removed
by the bit assuming no washouts.
Rig crews commonly calculate hole volume by timing
the circulation of marker material (oats, dye, etc.) and
Properties of bridging material
Specific Size
Type gravity (Mesh)
Cellophaneflakes.. .. .. .. ... - -% in.
Gilsonite.. . . ........ 1.07 (8/100)
Crushedcoal.. . . . . ....... 1.30 (8/200)
Perlite
Expanded. . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . 2.40* (10/50)
Semi-expanded.. . . . . . 2.40* 50%(50/200)
50%( < 200)
Walnutshellscoarse.. . . . . 1.28 % in.-(100)
Walnutshellsmedium....... 1.28 (10/100)
Walnutshellsfine. . . . . . . . . . . 1.28 (30/100)
*Absolutedensity83Ib./cu.ft.at zeropsi, 143Ib./cu.ft. at 3,000psi.
**Concentrations
of 2-5Ib.jsackmaybe addedto cementslurry with minimumdangerof bridging.
48
applying mud pump rate and drill pipe displacement
data. This can aid in determining cement volume.
METHODS FOR VARIOUS CASING STRINGS
Conductor pipe, and surface, intermediate and pro-
duction casing strings have different requirements for
accessory casing equipment and cement composition (see
Parts 1 and 3). For instance, design considerations may
include: The need for zone isolation; protection against
bottom joint loss; whether or not the interval will be
perforated; and so on.
High compressive strength cement should be used at
the shoe of all strings and opposite the producing zones,
particularly if high pressure treating or fracturing is
planned. Compressive strength should be at least 500
psi before drilling out and 2,000 psi before perforating.
Conductor pipe is used to raise the circulating fluid
high enough to return to the mud pits.129 It also prevents
washing out around the rig base and sometimes it pro-
vides a base for blowout preventers where gas sands may
be encountered at shallow depth. And it may be used to
support some of the wellhead load. This pipe is cemented
to the surface. Depth can be a few feet to 200 feet.
Normally, an accelerated neat cement is used to pro-
vide maximum compressive strength and rotational/axial
shear resistance. Minimal accessory downhole casing
equipment is used. For instance, a guide shoe and top
plug may be used when water is the drilling fluid and
mud is not adhering to the inside surface of the casing.
Precautions should be taken to avoid pumping this string
(or any large diameter casing) out of the hole, as will be
discussed below.
Surface casing is run: To protect the shallow fresh
water sands from contamination by brines; to seal off
problem sections of the hole (such as caving) ; to provide
support for the wellhead, and to provide blowout protec-
tion in combination with blowout preventers. Depth can
range from a couple of hundred to several thousand feet
and is frequently specified by government regulations.
Surface pipe is usually cemented to the surface.
Normally, an accelerated neat cement is used to pro-
tect a short surface casing string or the lower section of a
long string. "Filler" cement is placed across the upper
section because such a cement usually: Provides adequate
Temp. Cone.
limit Ib./sk. Comments
'" \Is-Yz Do not usebottomplugs,stagetool or ball typefloat equip.at over
Ib./sk.
About Normally Donot usemorethan25Ib./sk. with stagetools,smallannularclearance
300°F 5-25** or smallpipe.
l,OOO°F Normally Donotusemorethan25Ib./sk.with stagetools,smallannularclearance
5-25** or small pipe.
.. 15-20 ExpandedPerlitetakesonwateraspressureincreasesdownhole.Perlite
15-20 tendsto float in thin slurries due to entrappedair. Lowgel strength
slurrieswill not carry Perlite.Somewhatfragileandwill not performas
well asothergranularmaterialsunderhighdifferentialpressure.
.. ... 1-5 Donotusein smallannularclearancesor smallpipe.
.... 1-5 Usuallymosteffective.Not likely to bridge bottomplugor annulus.
...... 1-5 Onlysizeto usewith stagetoolsor ball typefloats.
WORLD OIL 1977
axial shear bond strength and zonal isolation; it is less
likely to "break-down" any weak zones, and it is less
expensive than neat cement. Other aspects of slurry de- 11
CASING
sign may have to be considered, as discussed in Part 3,
if salt zones, sloughing shales or other problems exist.
Precautions may have to be taken to prevent bottom PORT ,
COLLAR
j
"

joint loss as described in Part 1, including: Strengthening ,I'

the lower joints by welding or use of thread locking com-

:1!
pound; using two plugs; using both a guide shoe and
float collar, and centralizing the pipe. ECP I
Hanger devices are available that may be placed in the
surface casing a few hundred feet above the shoe to sus-
pend part of the weight of an inner string from that
point.

Intermediate casing-protective casing-is most often COLLAR

used to seal off weak zones that might be fractured by
heavy muds used to drill deeper, geopressured zones.
Conversely, this string is sometimes used to isolate high
pressure zones so lighter drilling fluid can be used for drill-
ing deeper zones with more normal, hydrostatic pressure.
Intermediate casing is also used to isolate corrosive water.
If only small annular fill-up is required, neat cement
is used. When high slurry volumes are needed, inexpen-
sive and low-density filler cement is followed by neat
cement at the shoe. Stage cementing is sometimes re-
quired. When cementing off bottom an external casing
packer and stage collar might be required as a pack-off
shoe.
Production casing, in addition to its borehole support
function, is run to prevent interzonal flow while produc-
ing from or injecting into (such as stimulating) the pro-
duction interval. High compressive strength cement is
preferred in this application.
Neat cement with retarder, if required, is normally
used. Cement density and strength retrogression were dis-
cussed in Part 3 (two ppg more than mud weight is de-
sirable) .
Downhole equipment will normally include two plugs,
using both a guide shoe and float collar. Some operators
use a flQat shoe and a float collar as added insurance for
positive shut-off. And "automatic" fill-up equipment is
often used on production casing.
CEMENT
INFLATE
TOOL
INNER
STRING
I;'.
LATCH
SEAL
FIRST STAGE INFLATE PACKER SECOND STAGE
Fig. 57-Stab-in stage cementing for large diameter casing.
(1) With seal nipple latched into casing shoe, first stage ce-
ment is pumped, and displaced with the flexible latch-down
plug. (2) A ball is dropped into the cementing tool, the inner
string is raised, and cups are located over ECP port to inflate
packer element. (3) Tool is raised and rotated to open port
collar, and second stage is pumped. Then ports are closed,
and the inner string is reverse circulated for clean-up.
of pumping the casing from the well. There is less mud
contamination, less wasted cement, and there is less ce-
ment to drill out. One method of stage cementing large
diameter, shallow casing using an inflatable external cas-
ing packer and port collar is shown in Fig. 57.
Coming next month: Liner cementing-design and appli-
cation, running and cementing techniques.

Cementing large diameter casing requires some spe-

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
cial considerations. Such casing is subject to being The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Mr. Kerr Godfrey of
pumped out of the hole. This will occur when the pump Atlantic Richficld Co. who provided valuable information and data included
in this article.
or hydrostatic pressure acting on the cementing head
LITERATURE CITED
area, equal to the casing inside cross sectional area, pro-
". Willard, R., Personal communication, 1977.
vides an upward force exceeding the buoyed weight of 13. Gage, O. G., Jr., "Subsurface Cementing Equipment," Oil-Well Ce-
menllng Practices in The United StaJes, API (1959). pp. 109-117.
the casing. Pressure increase on bumping a plug is, of 131Moscrip, R. P.) Coordinator, "Preparation of Hole, Running and Cement-
course, offset and does not contribute to the problem. ing Casing," Oil-Well Cementing Practices in The United States, API
(I 959). pp. 101'-107.
132"API Specification for Casing Centralizers," API Spec 10D, Second Edi-
Large casing can also be floated out of the hole if the
tion, February 1973 and Supplement 1', March 1976.
weight of casing and mud in the pipe does not exceed 133Anon. "Cementing Program,'
134Pela, E. C,) Coordinator,
Weatherford.
"Multistage Cementing and Alternations,"
the buoyancy provided by the annular column of cement. Oil-Well Cementing Practices in The United States, API (1959), pp.
141-147.
The possibility of casing collapse must also be consid- 186Gibbs, M. A., "Delaware Basin Cementing:-Problems and Solutions,"
Journal of Petroleum Technology, October 1966, pp. 1281-1285.
ered. Heavy mud may be required to prevent these oc- 13. Owsley, Wm. D., "Surface Cementing Equipment and Supplies," Oil-
currences. Well Cementing Practices in the United States, API (1959), pp. 87-89.
111 Nickles, S. K., "An Instrument for Measuring the DensIty of Air En-
Inner string or stab-in cementing is now a fairly com- trained Fluids," SPE Paper <W92Presented at 47th Annual Fall Meeting,
San Antonio, Texas, Oct. 8-11, 1972.
mon practice for large diameter casing. The string is 133 Moran, J. P. and Hartweg, D. G., "How to Control Slurry Density,"
The 011 and Gas Journal, April 28, 1958.
cemented through drill pipe stung into a special sealing 139Guest, R. J. and Zimmerman, C. W., "Compensated Gamma Ray
Densimeter Measures Slurry Densities in Flow,U Petroleum Engineer,
sleeve in the shoe. With this method there is less likelihood September 1973.

WORLD OIL 1977 49

 Cementing oil and gas wells

Part 6-Liner applications and equipment

I SURFACE
used for installation. Common problems SURFAC~ L CASING
to avoid while pumping, displacing cement 2,000-
INTERMEDIATE
PORE PRESSURE
CASING

George O. Suman, Jr., President,and Richard C. Ellis, 4,000-

/
Project Engineer, Completion Technology Co., Houston

6,000-
10-second summary (NORMAL)
Liner running and cementing methods are illustrated
and applications of various types of liners are discussed. 8,000-
Solutions to common problems encountered in conven-
tional and special liner cementing, and basic job design
criteria, are suggested. FRAC PRESSURE
10,000-
,/,
,,
LINER CEMENTINGis one of the most difficult operations
,,
associated with drilling and completion. If a liner is not ,,
effectively cemented, the well's capability to produce will 12,000-
,,
likely be reduced and the advantages of the liner installa- , ,,
tion will not be realized. This article describes liner equip-
ment, cementing applications, some associated problems 14,000-
TIE-BACK
STUB LINER
,,
and solutions. I
In one generally accepted definition, a liner is: A string ......
,
16,000- ...' ,
PRODUCTION LINER
TYPES OF LlNlRS
18,000-
1/ I I I I I I I
Drilling liners are used to permit deeper drilling operations by 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
isolating lost circulation or highly pressured intervals and con- EQUIVALENT MUD WT., PPG
trolling sloughing or plastic formations. And in lieu of a full
length casing string, the drilling liner improves drilling hydrau-
20,000-
lics, i.e. greater cross section above liner top enables use of larger
drill pipe and/or reduces annular pressure drop.
Fig. 58-Example of casing and liner program to seal off high
Production liners are required to provide isolation and support pressure zones in a deep well (after Mahoney and Barrios),'''
functions when casing was landed above the producing interval.

A tie-back stub liner extends from the top of a liner to a point

uphole, inside another string of casing or liner. The stub liner is of casing that is used to case-off the open hole below an
used to: Repair damaged or worn casing above an existing liner, existing casing string, and which does not extend up to
and to provide an added measure of protection against corrosion the wellhead.140
and/or pressure.
Included in this definition are slotted, pre-perforated
Tie-back casing is used to extend a liner to the wellhead. I t is and wire wrapped screens that are placed in an open hole
used primarily for the same reasons as the tie-back liner.'" Run- primarily for sand exclusion during producing operations.
ning such a string at the end of a drilling operation assures the Such liners are not included in this article as they are not
protection of fresh, unworn casing.
ordinarily cemented in-place. Liners that are discussed
are described in the accompanying table. Wells drilled in

50 WORLDOIL 1977
 ..
CEMENTING INTERMEDIATE CASING
MANIFOLD

TIE-BACK PACKER

LINER TIE-BACK SLEEVE

SETTING
TOOL

PACKOFF BUSHING
(RETRIEVABLE-OPTIONAL)

HANGER
GAS MIGRATION

WIPER PLUG
(SHEAR TYPE)

STANDOFF
DEVICES

LANDING COLLAR HIGH PRESSURE GAS ZONE

FLOAT
COLLAR
Fig. 60-Schematic of a liner tie-back packer used to repair
a leaking liner top where high pressure gas has penetrated
FLOAT SHOE the cement. Packer is run after liner is cemented and cleaned
out (after Lindsey).1<3

Fig. 59-Typical equipment used to install and cement a drill-

ing liner.

the deep basins of the United States frequently reqUire

all of the liner types described, see Fig. 58.142 ..

LINER EQUIPMENT
A liner is normally run on drill pipe that extends from
the liner setting tool to surface. Special tools are available
to perform various running, setting and cementing opera-
tions.
The following equipment is discussed from float shoe
(bottom) to cementing manifold (top). Equipment loca-
tions are shown schematically in Fig. 59.
WIPER PLUGS
A float shoe is placed at the bottom of the liner. It
contains a check valve designed to prevent back-flow of FLOAT SHOE
the cement. A float collar can be run above the shoe to INFLATE
DISPLACING
provide a back-up check valve to assure that cement can- CEMENT PACKERS
not re-enter the liner after displacement.143 Automatic fill-
up type float equipment may be selected (Part 5). Fig. 61-External casing packers used to provide positive seal
between open hole intervals behind drilling liner (after Cov-
A landing collar is usually run one joint above the float
lin).'"
collar or two or more joints above the float shoe to pro-
vide space for mud contaminated cement inside the liner. and overlap the existing casing or drilling liner. The
The landing collar's function is to latch and seal the liner length of the overlap varies with operators and applica-
wiper plug. It prevents the liner wiper plug from moving tions. Fifty to five hundred feet of overlap have been used
uphole if a check valve fails and also prevents it from in various applications. The overlap should place the
rotating, which aids the drilling-out operation. hanger above any weakened or suspect lower joints in the
preceding casing string.
Liner length is selected to extend across the open hole Longer overlaps are used when high pressures are

WORLD OIL 1977 51

being isolated behind the liners, to provide more cement
volume in the liner-casing annulus. Longer overlaps also
reduce cement volume displaced around the drill pipe
above the liner running assembly.
Short liner assemblie~ have been run and set on bottom.
Although the small annular clearance limits the degree of
liner buckling, any buckling will result in liner-borehole
contact-the worst possible position for the liner from a
cement placement standpoint. Except in unusual cases
where buckling is not expected or where it can be pre-
vented through centralization, liners to be cemented should
be suspended from slips set in existing casing, or the
drilling liner.
Equipment is available for the special application in
which liners are cemented and set on bottom. A special
float shoe can be run on the bottom of the liner with an
extra internal left-hand thread. The liner is first run into
the well. The cementing string then is run and engaged
into the thread at the shoe. The liner is run to bottom on
the cementing string and the cement job is completed.
The cementing string is disconnected from the shoe by
rotating to the right.
The liner hanger is installed at the top of the liner.
Hangers are usually classified by the method used to
wedge slips against the casing wall. Two classifications for
hangers are: Mechanical and hydraulic.141 Mechanical
set hangers require manipulation of the drill pipe (rota-
tion and/or reciprocation) to engage the slips. Hydraulic
hangers are either hydraulic release or hydraulic set. The
slips of hydraulic release types require slight downward
movement of the hanger for setting. Slips of hydraulic
set types are driven into place by differential pressure.
The presence of slips between liner and casing reduces
the bypass area for circulating. This reduced fluid bypass
area can create a high pressure loss during circulation and
cementing. Hangers are available with multiple split slips
which increase the fluid bypass area and provide increased
slip contact area. These should be used on long liners for
added bypass area where formation strength is low, re-
quiring careful control of cement displacing pressures.143
The liner setting tool, a rental item furnished by the
liner hanger service company, provides the connection be-
tween drill pipe and liner. Swab cups attached to tail
pipe144 or a pack-off bushing and slick joint are inserted
into the liner to provide a seal between the setting tool
and the liner, after the liner has been suspended from the
hanger and the setting tool released. The tail pipe or slick
joint is usually 10-15 feet long. The slick joint method
reduces piston force effects of pressure on the formation.
Once the liner is hung, the setting tool can be released
and picked up a short distance to confirm, by indicator
weight loss, that the setting tool has separated.
A relatively new innovation is the retrievable pack-off
bushing that eliminates bushing drill-out.
A liner wiper plug can be attached to the end of the
tail pipe or slick joint with a shear pin arrangement. The
selection of the proper shear rating is very important to
prevent premature shearing and release of the liner wiper
plug. This is especially important when a high density
slurry is to be used or where a large pressure drop is ex-
pected across the liner wiper plug ID. The liner wiper
plug can also be latched to the tail pipe to prevent pre-
52
mature shearing. Release of this type can only be affected
by engagement of the drill pipe wiper plug.
Liner packers can be installed at the top of liners to seal
between liner and casing, after cement placement. Seal
elements may be rubber or lead or a combination of both.
Liner top packers may be run as an integral part of the
liner hanger and set by manipulation of the liner running
tool. However, this type of packer should be considered
only if clearance between casing and the packer element
is such that the hole can be circulated at desired rates
without increasing back pressure excessively on the open
hole.
Inadequate circulation clearance, combined with the
possibility that the main sealing element could be damaged
by mud and cuttings circulating past the packer, could
result in seal failure.
A minimum-restriction liner hanger without a packer
may permit more effective cementing and desired sealing
of the overlap. A liner packer does enable reversing-out
of excess cement without imposing high pressure on the
formation. This type packer is not recommended for high
pressure gas control.
. Special packers can be set in conjunction with a tie-
back sleeve (to be discussed later) after cementing and
clean out operations have been completed. These "liner-
tie back packers" seal both in the tie-back sleeve and
against the suspending casing.143 The tie-back packers are
not exposed to potentially damaging circulation and have
been successful in controlling gas leakage around the liner
top, Fig. 60.
External casing packers have been used on liners to
isolate between zones in open hole. They are inflated fol-
lowing cement displacement-before the cement sets up-
to provide more effective zone isolation, Fig. 61.145 Ex-
ternal casing packers have also been used to seal the liner
top. Liner stage cementing is possible with the inflatable
external casing packer and hydraulically operated cement-
ing collars.
Tie-back liner or casing. It may be desirable to extend
a liner uphole, with a tie-back "stub" liner, or to the
surface with a tie-back casing string. This can be accom-
plished by installing a tie-back sleeve or receptacle on top
of the liner hanger. The tie-back sleeve is usually polished
3-6 feet on the ID surface and is beveled on the top to
guide entry of seal nipple, tools, drill bits, etc. Fig. 62.
A liner tie-back sealing nipple run on the bottom of the
tie-back string should be designed to fill the full length of
the tie-back sleeve with multiple sealing (packing) ele-
ments to assure an effective seal even with localized dam-
age to the receptacle ID. Cement float equipment should
not be used, to avoid a pressure block which would pre-
vent full insertion of the seal nipple into the receptacle.
As mentioned, the drill pipe extends from the liner
setting tool to the surface. The cementing manifold and
pump-down plug dropping head are connected to the top
of the drill pipe. The manifold provides a means of pump-
ing mud and cement down the drill pipe and retaining
the pump-down plug until it is to be released, behind the
cement.
COMMON RUNNING CEMENTING PROBLEMS
Small annular clearance is the primary problem in liner
operations. It is not uncommon to have a 5-inch OD liner
WORLD OIL 1977
extend below 7-inch casing, inside a 6y/!-inch drilled
hole. With the liner perfectly centered, the annular clear-
ance is only %6 inch. It is likely that even less clearance
would exist, as a thin non-movable layer of mud cake may
be present opposite permeable zones. This is less than half
the clearance norma,lly achieved in casing cementing prac-
tices where, for example, it is common to run 5 1/2-inch
casing into a 7 7/8-inch drilled hole.
Small clearance causes high pressure losses during cir-
culation and cement placement which increase the pos-
sibility of lost circulation.
The small clearance also makes it difficult to' run liners.
Swab/surge pressures can be extremely severe and run-
ning speeds should be slow to avoid pressures that could
break down formations and cause lost circulation. It is
frequently necessary to restrict running speeds to one stand
of drill pipe every two to three minutes.146 Detailed eval-
uation of swab/surge pressures should be part of a liner
running program.
Drilling mud properties for different wells may result
in substantially different swab/surge effects. Detailed com-
puterized analytical procedures as well as simplified nomo-
graphs are available in the literature to aid in determining
maximum running speeds (see refs. 118-120, Part 4).
Cement contamination by mud is increased by the small
clearance between liner and open hole. And restricted
clearance may inhibit use of centralizers, resulting in severe
eccentricity or actual borehole contact. Cement channel-
ing or mud bypassing is most likely under these circum-
stances.
Cement volumes are necessarily small and bypassed
mud, particularly near the top of the liner, will be most
difficult to remove. Even with cement in turbulent flow,
and with good rheological properties of both the mud and
cement, bypassed mud may not be removed due to in-
sufficient "contact time" ,with the cement slurry.lo7
Lack of pipe movement while cementing. Although
pipe movement is considered one of the most important
factors in achieving a successful cement job, moving a
liner while cementing is seldom' done because of the desire
to be "free" from the liner prior to pumping cement.
Fluid rising velocity decreases appreciably above the liner
running assembly and debris and cuttings can accumulate
around the drill pipe making release difficult, particularly
if the mud system was not properly conditioned, prior to
the job.
Obtaining competent cement at the liner top with a
single-stage liner cementing technique, requires that excess
cement be circulated over the top of the liner through the
casing-liner annulus. This operation concerns most drilling
and operating personnel because premature set could lead
to an expensive fishing operation or even well loss. Thus,
the desire to be "free" from the liner usually precludes
the opportunity for pipe movement.
A recent innovation is a pressure relief sub. After bump-
ing the plug, if release from the liner is not achieved,
additional pressure (4,000-5,000 psi) opens ports and
enables excess cement to be reversed out of the hole.
Temperature differential. Long-liner installations may
encounter problems due to a substantial temperature dif-
ferential between liner top and bottom. Cement formu-
lated to accommodate the higher, deeper temperatures
WORLD OIL 1977
may require prolonged WOC time at the liner top to
achieve adequate set. Where high pressure gas is to be
isolated behind the liner, this problem is severe, as gas
"honeycombing" of the unset cement may occur and pre-
vent setting and desired top seal.
Contamination. Mud-cement reactions may develop ex-
cessive viscosity at the interface which could increase
pressure drop in the annulus. High pumping pressures
could fracture weak zones or cause the fluid to be forced
from the slurry and the cement to bridge in the annulus.
(See Fig. 26, Part 3.)
CEMENTING TECHNIQUES, DESIGN CRITERIA
An effective cement seal is usually required at both ends
of a liner. A good cement job on a drilling liner is one
that allows drilling to the next casing (or liner) setting
depth without: Having to squeeze either at the liner top
or at the shoe joint, and without experiencing buckling
or other liner damage.
An effective production liner cement job provides a
seal between liner and borehole such that remedial cement
squeeze jobs are not required-basically the same as for
a production casing string.
Developing the seal at the top and bottom of a liner
and between the liner and open hole requires effective
mud displacement by the cement slurry, and cement prop-
erties that permit strength development without excessive
waiting on cement time.
Clearance and centralizing. A way to increase clear-
ance would be to redesign the casing program and drill
larger holes for a given liner size or, conversely, run
smaller liners.
Another solution is to underream the open hole. Where
this is not practical over long intervals, selective under-
reaming opposite critical zones has been applied. How-
ever, selectively underreamed sections can be similar to
borehole washouts. And effective cementing can be made
more difficult, rather than simplified, under such condi-
tions. Careful design is important.
Centralizing the liner in the hole is very critical to effec-
tive cement placement. This is particularly true in deviated
holes. Centralizers or positive standoff devices on the liner
could be essential for success of cementing operations.
However, the small annular clearance between liner and
open hole often prohibits use of centralizers. Fluted posi-
tive standoff collars will improve standoff conditions. They
can be run with as little as ?'4-inch clearance.
Centralizers or positive standoff devices also reduce the
likelihood of differential pressure sticking between liner
and open hole. This makes it easier to move the liner,
once it is in-place. Another innovation, intended to reduce
differential sticking and improve cement placement, are
helical grooves in the OD surface of the pipe; collapse
resistance of such pipe should meet requirements.
Moving the liner while cementing. The design of some
liner setting tools and hangers makes it possible to move
the liner during cementing. And moving the pipe is one
factor that greatly affects cement placement efficiency
(Part 4). However, as discussed, liner movement during
cementing is rarely attempted.
Special equipment is available that permits liner rota-
S3
tion after detaching the setting tool from the liner. But,
the small bearing surface area on rotation collars limits
the amount of weight that can be suspended below the
device. The maximum liner length to be suspended below
a rotation collar should be confirmed with the manufac-
turer.
Temperature compensation. The problem of achieving
a cement seal at both ends of a liner increases with liner
length, as was mentioned.147 Wide temperature variations
usually require special cement formulations. It may be
necessary to retard the cement to compensate for higher
temperatures at the bottom. But, at the same time, it is
necessary that the cement set at the lower temperatures
near the liner top in a reasonable time.
To compensate for the temperature variations it is essen-
tial to have accurate downhole circulating and static tem-
perature information. Tests have shown that a cement
slurry that had a thickening time of 4 hours and 54 min-
utes at 125°F had its thickening time reduced to only 2
hours and 57 minutes at 144°F.
Temperature also affects set time and com pressi ve
strength. For example, at 230°F a cement may have an
8-hour compressive strength of 1,575 psi but at 200°F
that same cement may not even set in 8 hours. (Part 3) .148
Special downhole temperature recording devices have
been used to measure actual temperatures to make effec-
tive cement formulation decisions.
Cement design criteria. Slurry formulation for liner
cementing is not simple. Each liner installation has to be
examined to define hole conditions and develop the spe-
cific combination of properties that are best suited for
the job.
Pumping time (or thickening time) is usually designed
to allow "reversing out" the cement in case of a problem.
However, in wells where high pressure gas is being iso-
lated behind the liner relatively short thickening and set-
ting time are required to reduce chances of gas penetrating
the unset cement (honeycombing).
Slurry density has to be adequate to prevent formation
fluid from entering the wellbore, but the combined den-
sity and displacement pressures must remain below frac-
ture pressures of the weakest zones open in the wellbore.
Normally, slurry density slightly exceeds mud density.
Fluid loss additives are usually required to prevent for-
mation damage and to reduce any tendency for building
a cement filter cake that could cause bridging in the an-
nulus. No lost circulation material should be used in liner
cementing, to avoid plugging float equipment or the nar-
row annulus. If this material is absolutely essential for
lost circulation control it should not be included in the
lead or tail portion of the slurry (Part 5) .
Cement volume used on liner jobs has varied from less
than 100% to over 300% of the required volume. Excess
volume increases the likelihood for good cement placement
but it also increases the possibility of operating problems.
Generally, 125-150% of the required volume based on
caliper surveys is used in liner cementing efforts.
One technique that has been used primarily to assure
a cement seal at both the liner top and bottom is a
"planned squeeze" job. The cement volume placed around
the shoe is only 70-80% of the annular volume behind the
54
COARSE THREAD FOR RIGHT
HAND TOOL RELEASE
FOR HANGER ASSEMBLY
RECEPTACLE
Fig. 62- Tie-back sleeve and seal nipple used to connect tie-
back liner or casing to an installed liner (after Lindsey).'''
liner; then a secondary cement squeeze is conducted at
the liner top. This technique has not had wide acceptance.
The primary disadvantage is that a long gap will be left
between upper and lower cemented intervals. And the
uncemented, unsupported section of liner may buckle
under sever stresses due to temperature and pressure
changes.149
Cement testing. There are special testing schedules for
liners.61 Such tests should be conducted using cement sam-
ples and additives from material to be used on the job.
And the mix water should be from the field water source
to "bring to light" any incompatibility between the field
water and some admix and/or the cement.
Spacer fluids. The plug arrangement for liner cement-
ing eliminates the opportunity to run a bottom plug ahead
of the cement. As a result, there can be a contaminated
layer in the lead part of the cement slurry which may
become very viscous.
Normally, a spacer fluid is pumped between mud and
cement to provide a buffer to avoid serious contamination.
Different types of spacers have been used depending on
the type of mud used for drilling and the cement slurry
selected. In some instances multiple stage spacer systems
have been employed to improve mud displacement and
reduce chances for adverse mud-cement reactions. Spacer
fluids were discussed in Part 4 of this series and additional
details are available in the literature.121-12i!, 150,151
PUMPING, DISPLACING, JOB EVALUATION
A conventional liner cementing sequence is shown in
Fig. 63.152 The following precautions should be observed
while pumping and displacing:
When the liner is in position, mud is usually circulated,
to be sure that liner and float equipment are free of any
foreign material, and to condition the mud. Of course,
debris and cuttings should have been circulated from the
well before the liner was run to clean up the system. A
clean mud system is important so that such materials will
not fall out on top of the liner running assembly during
the cement job.
Important information can also be obtained while cir-
culating the ,well after the liner is run. At a minimum,
WORLD OIL 1977
bottoms should be circulated to the surface-a full circu-
lation is preferred. Pump rate and pressure should be
monitored and checked against the plan for the job. If a
serious deviation exists, an adjustment may be required,
for instance in pump rate. Fluid should be weighed and
examined for gas or formation material. Returns should
be gaged and pit level observed for indications of lost
returns.
The cement can be batch mixed, circulated through a
holding tank or ribbon blender and/or double pumped in
order to obtain and control desired cement slurry prop-
erties.
Cement displacement rate selection should follow guide-
lines suggested in Part 4- for casing cementing operations.
Turbulent or plug flow rates are encouraged. Such flow
minimizes excess cement volume requirements. Most op-
erators prefer to limit the excess cement volume which, of
course, is pumped into the drill pipe-casing annulus. And,
as mentioned, it is usually desirable to pump some type
of spacer fluid (buffer) ahead of the cement.
Plugs. When the cement has been pumped, the pump
down plug is released and displaced between cement and
mud. At the bottom of the liner setting tool and tail pipe,
the pump down plug latches into the liner wiper plug,
shearing or unlatching it from the tail pipe. The two
plugs then move as a single plug down the liner and latch
in and seal at the landing collar.
Since there is no bottom plug, pump down and liner
plugs wipe mud film off the ID of the drill pipe and
liner. This mud collects below the plugs and can con-
taminate cement in the bottom of the liner. Spacing be-
tween landing collar and float shoe should be adequate to
keep contaminated cement out of the liner-open hole
annulus. Mud accumulations beneath a wiper plug can
be substantial (Part 1).
Excess cement. With cement in-placeit is standard pro-
cedure to pull the liner setting assembly out of the liner
hanger. With the tail pipe above the liner top, excess
cement can be reversed out. However, reverse circulation
places an extra pressure on the annulus, and this addi-
tional pressure should be precalculated and controlled,
where necessary, to avoid formation breakdown. A liner
packer keeps reverse circulation pressures off the forma-
tion.
One practice is to simply pull the drill pipe and leave
cement inside the casing to be drilled out. Waiting on
cement time depends on cement composition and hole
conditions.
Tie-back casing is usually cemented by conventionally
circulating the cement. The cement job is conducted be-
fore landing the seal nipple in the tie-back receptacle. Or
it can be cemented in-place, after landing and testing the
tie-back connection, by circulating cement through a stage
collar located above the tie-back nipple.
A tie-back casing string may also be cemented by re-
verse cementing (cementing down the annulus).153 This
technique has been used in some deep wells-above high
pressure gas zones and leaking drilling liners-so that
leaking gas would be conveyed up the inside of the tie-
back string with mud and cement returns.
When reverse circulating cement into place, the cement
composition can be correctly tailored to the job-for ex-
WORLD OIL 1977
About the authors
GEORGEO. SUMAN, JR., attended the
California Institute of Technology and
the University of California (Berkeley),
graduating with a B.S.M.E. in 1952. He
spent two years with Aramco in Saudi
Arabia and 18 years with Shell Oil Co.
working primarily with drilling, comple-
tion and stimulation design and applica-
tion. In 1978 he formed Completion
.Technology Co. which is actively work-
ing with a number of client companies
in improving well reliability and profitability. Mr. Suman
has authored many technical papers on well completion and
drilling techniques and he holds numerous patents and ap-
plications in these specialties. He is a member of API and
SPE and a registered professional engineer in Louisiana
and Texas.
RICHARDC. ELLIS graduated from the
Wisconsin Institute of Technology in
1962 with a B.S.M.E. and from the
University of Wisconsin in 1968 with
the M.S. in mining engineering. He
spent nine years with Shell Oil Co.
working on design and application of
artificial lift, sand control and well
completions for primary, waterflood
and thermal recovery operations, both
onshore and offshore. His latest assign-
ment with Shell was production engineering section leader
for the Western U.S. and Alaska. Mr. Ellis joined the staff
of Completion Technology Co. in 1976. He is a member of
SPE and a registered professional engineer in Texas.
ample, retarded cement can be used on bottom, accel-
erated cement on top and neat cement in-between. Pump-
ing against the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column
is not required. However, volume to displace cement to
bottom cannot be as accurately determined.
A tie-back stub liner is usually cemented after the seal
nipple is landed in the tie-back sleeve and the tie-back
liner hanger has been set. Cement is pumped and dis-
placed down the drill pipe and liner with the liner wiper
plug used to close a stage cementing collar located just
above the seal nipple. With cement in-place the liner run-
ning tool is raised until the slick joint or tail pipe is clear
of the tie-back liner top and excess cement is reversed out.
Job testing, evaluation. With cement in the casing, a
bit and casing scraper are used to drill out to the liner.
Then a bit change is made to clean out cement inside the
liner.
I t is usually desirable to pressure test the overlap to
check the seal at the top of the liner prior to cleaning out
the float collar and/or float shoe. If the liner is not
sealed, a cement squeeze is most easily applied at this
time. The overlap pressure tests may use applied internal
pressure to create a differential toward the formation. Or,
where high formation pressures exist, low density fluid
inside the liner may provide sufficient differential toward
the borehole to indicate leakage. High differential could
be assured by using a DST tool for the test.
Such differential pressure should be equal to or greater
than the maximum differential expected during the re-
maining drilling operation or during future production
operations.
It may also be desirable to test the seal at the bottom
of a drilling liner after the float shoe has been drilled out.
The test of the seal at the shoe should be conducted at
55
 DRill PIPE DRill PIPE
WIPER PLUG READY TO PUll
Checklist for equipment, cementing
method selection*
. Type of liner
DrilIing, production or stub liner
. Float shoe LINER WIPER
Fill-up or straight float type PLUG
Weight, grade and joint size
. Float collar
Fill-up or straight float type
Spacing above float shoe
Combination landing collar
Weight, grade and joint size
PLUGS lATCHED
. Landingcollar TO COllAR
Regular or combination with float FLOAT
Is ball and seat test sub to be used to set hydraulic hanger COllAR
Spacing above float collar (OPEN)
Weight, grade and joint size
. Primary cementingaids
Centralizers or standoff devices should be compatible with
hanger setting equipment
Externally grooved pipe to reduce differential pressure
sticking
. Liner selection CEMENTING JOB COMPLETE
Sizes, weight and grade
Length
Joint selection Fig. 63-Schematic representation of the typical liner cement-
ing process. Liner hanging equipment is not shown (after
. Size, weight, grade of suspending casing string Smith).'"
Casing wear
Slip load distribution
a pressure equal to or greater than the highest mud weight
. Type liner hanger to use expected to be used prior to setting another liner or cas-
Mechanical or hydraulic set
Single or multiple slips (bypass area) ing. (See note about tests with low density fluids, DSTs).
Will rotation, reciprocation be performed during cementing In locations where well completion is conducted after
Hole geometry the drilling rig is moved off, feed-back on success or fail-
Does hanger have to pass through top of another liner
ure of production liner primary cementing is essential.
. Provisions for future tie-back string Improved primary cementing will be realized when ac-
Use of setting collar only or tie-back receptacle
Length of receptacle bore, 3 feet or 6 feet curate information on the liner cementing technique and
If tie-back is completed, will liner hanger and receptacle results is communicated back to drilling personnel re-
withstand maximum internal and external pressures ex- sponsible for design and implementation.
pected
Should the setting collar or tie-back receptacle be modified
for retrievable pack-off bushing Coming in October: Remedial cementing, squeezing, other
specialized applications.
. Plug dropping head and cementing manifold
Connection
Latch-under type or handling sub pick-up type
Is ball dropping manifold required (for hydraulic-set hangers
and ball and seat test subs)
Tell-tale for plug

. Plugs
Size, weight of drill pipe operating string
Shear pin rating of liner wiper plug LITERATURE CITED
Displacement to shear wiper plug ". Davis, S. H. "Cementing Liners," Chapter 17, Oil Well Cementing Prac-
Displacement volume to shear liner wiper plug and bump tices in the United States, API, 1959.
141West, E. R., and Lindsey, H. Eo, "How to Run and Cement Liners in
plugs Ultra-deep Wells," World Oil, June 1'966.
"2 Mahoney, B. J., and Barrios, J. R., "Cementing Liners .Through Deep
. Cement recommendations High Pressure Zones," Petroleum Engineer, March 1974.
Weight, viscosity, thickening time, compressive strength, 143Lindsey, H. E., "Running and Cementing Deep Well Liners," Three-part
fluid loss and loss circulation material series, World Oil, November, December 1974 and January 1975.
1« Lindsey, H. E., "Setting Liners in Shallow to Medium Depth Wells,"
Use of bottom-hole temperature subs for information neces- World Oil, May 1977. Also paper to Southwestern Petroleum Short Course,
sary to slurry design Lubbock, Texas, April 11377.
"s Covlin, R. .T., "Cementing Practices-Elk Basin Field," API Drilling and
Production Practices, 1968.
. Procedure "6 API Bulletin D-II')', Running and Cementing Liners in the Delaware Basin,
Pre-cementing conditioning Texas, First Edition, December 1974.
141Tragesser, A., and Parker, F. W., "Using Improved Technology to Obtain
Pump rate Better Cement Jobs on Deep Hot Liners," Preprint SPE 3891, April 1972.
Bottom-hole treating or break-down pressure "0 Shell, F., and Tra~esser, A., "API Is Seeking More Accurate Bottom Hole
Spacers, flushes .Temperatures," 001 & Gas Journal, July 10, 1972.
Displacement efficiency ..9 Lindsey, H. E., and Bateman, S. J., "Improve Cementing o( Drilling
Liners 1U Deep Wells," World Oil, October 1973.
to. Carneu L. C., "Single Stage Spacer (or Deep Liner Cementing," Petro-
. Post-cementing procedures leum l!.ngineer, June 1975.
Clean-out with mill or roller bit '" Crowe, W. L., Griffin, T. J.J and Puntney, A. W., "Cement-Mud Spacer
System Improves minois Welts," Drilline DCW, March 1977, pp. 33-34.
Preparations for completion '.2 Moore, P. L., Drilling Practices Manual, The Petroleum Publtshing Co.,
Tulsa, Okla., 1974, Chapter 16, "Cements and Cementing" by D. K.
*After Lindseyl" Smith.
153Lindsey, H. E., "Techniques for Liner Tie-back Cementing," Petroleum
Engineer, July 1973.

56 WORLD OIL 1977

Cementing oil and gas wells
Part 7-A review of cement plug placement,
tubingless completion techniques and the
art and science of cement squeezing
George O. Suman, Jr., President, and Richard C. Ellis,
Project Engineer, Completion Technology Co., Houston.
Cased hole cement plugs are usually placed to: Aban-
don lower depleted zones; to plug and abandon an entire
well; or to provide a "kick off point" for sidetrack
drilling operations. Thru-tubing tools and techniques
are available that permit plug placement without pulling
tubing and killing the well.157
Open hole plug back operations can be utilized to:
Abandon the lower part of the hole; isolate a zone for
formation testing; seal-off lost circulation zones; and/or

10 second summary
Problems and solutions associated with cement plug
placement, special methods for cementing small di-
ameter, tubingless completions are discussed. Common WIRELlNE
misconceptions about squeeze cementing are corrected
and recommended procedures are presented.

THIS ARTICLEdiscusses specialized cementing operations DUMP BAILER

and remedial cement squeezing. Special cement opera-
tions covered are:

~ Placing of cement plugs in open hole or casing-

bailer methods, balanced placement, use of wiper plugs,
CEMENT
special slurry design

~ Cementing single or multiple tubingless comple-

tions-displacement problems due to small diameters,
how to avoid buckling, and
ELECTRICAL/MECHANICAL
~ Use of a selective completion tool that isolates and DUMP RELEASE

protects the pay zone.

The extensive analysis of squeeze cementing: Corrects

common misconceptions; applies the important principle
BRIDGE PLUG
of proper filter cake formation versus undesirable ver-
tical fracturing; and describes methods and equipment
CASING
for both high and low pressure squeeze cementing.

CEMENT PLUGS, PLACEMENT METHODS

A cement plug is a volume of cement designed to fill Fig. 64-Dump bailer method of cement placement.
a length of casing or open hole and provide a seal against Bailer of variable length is lowered on wireline. De-
vertical fluid movement.154-156 vice in bottom releases plate or opens ports to
dump cement on bridge plug or sand/gravel fill.

WORLD OIL 1977 57

initiate directional drilling. (Lost circulation cements
are discussed in Part 3.)
Regardless of application, the primary problem with
cement plugs is contamination of the cement with drilling
mud or well fluids.158.159Placement control and cement
composition are critical due to the small volume of
cement normally used.
The dump bailer method is normally used in low pres-
sure, cased holes at shallow depths, but it can be used
in deeper, higher pressure wells with thru-tubing tech-
niques. Applications of this method are normally limited
to conditions where gravity displacement of well fluid
by cement will readily occur.
In shallow low pressure wells, drilling mud is not re-
quired as the well can be controlled with produced
brines or field water. Sand or gravel may be placed below
the desired plug interval, or a permanent type bridge
SPACER
plug can be placed at the base of the plug-unless the
well is to be plugged from TD.
Cement is lowered in a dump bailer on a wireline and
dumped on the plug, Fig. 64. Only limited volume can
be placed at one time and this must take an initial set
before another batch can be dumped. In such appli-
cations there is little problem with contamination; place-
ment depth is easily controlled and cost is low.
The dump bailer has been used in open holes with
lightweight drilling. mud present. Open hole inflatable
bridge plugs can be used to bottom the plug above TD.
The balance method is most commonly used for plug
placement. Preflush, cement slurry and spacer fluid are
displaced down the drill pipe with mud until cement
level is about equal in annulus and drill pipe. The pipe
then is pulled leaving the plug "balanced" in place, Fig.
65. This procedure appears to be quite simple 'but failures
are not uncommon-and they are usually related to
contaminated cement. This method is used for both
cased and open hole plugs.

The two plug method is used for: Placing plugs at sub-

CEMENT
stantial depths; where displacement volumes are difficult
to calculate; and/or where cement volumes are small.
The method uses a wiper-plug catcher in the bottom
SPACER of the drill pipe which permits passage of bottom wiper-
AND
PREFLUSH plugs but stops and seals the top wiper plug, Fig. 66.
Displacement volumes are measured, but when the
top plug reaches the catcher, the event is confirmed by
a sharp pressure increase, and displacement is stopped.

~~,~ iil Drill pipe then is pulled slowly above the cement plug,
additional pressure shears a pin in the plug seat and
circulation or reverse circulation can be established.
This method reduces problems that over or under-dis-
placement can create with the balance method.
CONDITION MUD DISPLACECEMENT SPOT BALANCED PULL PIPE
Recommendations that should reduce probability of
ROTATEPIPE ANb FLUIDS PLUG SLOWLY mud contamination and increase chances for successful
Fig. 55-Schematic of balanced plug method. All fluid volumes plug placement by balance or two plug methods are
are carefully calculated so that hydrostatic pressure on plug listed in the accompanying table.
in final location is identical in drill pipe and annulus.
Sand filler. Some operators use sand to "improve" the
"hardness" or "toughness" of a cement plug. Other
DRILL
PIPE operators specify that sand should not be used.
Unless well temperature exceeds 2300 F, fine sand
does not react with cement (see Part 3-Strength Re-
trogression). And compressive strength of cement at
SEAT lower temperatures will decrease as sand concentrations
SHEARED
increase. Neat cements that are densified with a disper-
sant have the highest compressive strength. Thus, lab
testing does not support use of sand to make slurries
"harder." Yet operators who specify sand use in direc-
tional plugs claim improved "hardness" and higher suc-
CEMENT cess ratios.
PLUG
Sand may improve mud removal by some type of
TOP PLUG scouring action and this could reduce mud contamina-
SEATED
tion. Thus, sand may affect hardness in a manner not
related to a sand-cement reaction.
BOTTOM
PLUG Cement slurries should be densified with dispersants,
and sand (if used) should be angular rather than
DISPLACINGCEMENT CEMENT RAISEPIPE,
AND FLUID IN PLACE CIRCULATE rounded. Some operators prefer mixed sand sizes grading
Fig. 56-Two plug method for deeper wells or where displace- from fine to coarse. Sand concentrations should not
ment is difficult to calculate. Seat stops top plug to indicate exceed 10-20% by weight of cement.160
when slurry is spotted. Pipe then is raised and additional
pressure shears seat to open pipe for circulation, or reverse
circulation. Evaluate plug location, quality. In simple plug backs,

58 WORLD OIL 1977

How to minimize mud contamination
of cement plugs
. Select an in-gauge section of the hole to position the plug.
SMALL DIAMETER
A caliper log gives the most accurate evaluation, but drilling
experience in the area and mud loggin~ data can be valuable CASING
aids
. Condition mud prior to mixing cement. Circulate bottoms
up, as a minimum, and move the drill pipe. Drill pipe should
be equipped with centralizers and scratchers to help remove
mud cake and/or reduce cement channeling
. Use preflush fluid ahead of cement-in some operations
this can be water. Where chemical flushes are to be used, type
will depend on mud composition and density. Oil base mud
spacer should be used where oil based muds are present. With
water based muds the flush can be water with a mud thinning
chemical; or if density is critical, a weighted water base mud
flush can be used. Preflush volume should provide at least 150-
200 feet of fluid in the annulus
*. Drill pipe wiper plugs can be used ahead of and behind
both preflush and cement. Wiper plugs ahead of the cement will Fig. 57-Possible irregular geometric arrangements of
be pumped out of the drill pipe and the wiper plug behind the single or multiple strings in tubing less completions
cement will remain in the cement near the top of the plug. causes inefficient displacement of mud by cement.
*. Use carefully calculated volumes of preflush and spacer
between mud and cement to obtain equal height in annulus
and drill pipe when displacement is complete. Guiding equipment, float shoes and collars, multiple
. Use a dispersant additive to densify the cement slurry; stage cementing collars, centralizers, scratchers (rotating
17-18 ppg slurries can be prepared by adding 0.75-1.5% dis- and reciprocating), cement baskets and packers or
persant to class A, G or H cements when mixed with less basket-type shoeS.162-164
than normal water. These cements develop high early strength
and will tolerate a greater degree of mud contamination and Several cementing problems that are particularly signif-
still develop adequate strength after necessary woe time. A icant in the case of tubingless completions are:
thickening time of about 30 minutes in addition to a realistic
placement time is recommended 1. Due to close tolerances of downhole completion/production
equipment in the small "casing," buckling of the strings can
. Use adequate cement volume. Minimum vertical fill for create serious problems
directional or sidetrack operations should be 300 feet. Anticipate
that at least the top 50 feet of the plug will be contaminated 2. Mud displacement is more difficult due to irregular geom-
with mud. It may be desirable to use excess slurry then pull etry and lack of turbulent flow,' '.. and
tubing or drill pipe to desired location of plug top and reverse
out the excess 3. Drill-out can be more difficult. This is. commonly avoided
by placing baffles or float collars below zones to be perforated.
. Batch mix cement or mix thoroughly through a ribbon In addition, special precautions are taken to avoid pumping
blender, double pump-or simply mix slow enough-to assure excess cement on top of the upper plug.
uniform high density slurry
. After 2-3 barrels of cement clears bottom of drill pipe, Casing buckling is a great concern to operators utiliz-
pick up 10-15 feet to reduce exposure of cement to mud below ing tubingless completions. Special precautions used to
the plug
prevent buckling include leaving pressure on the strings
. Continue to rotate drill pipe until cement displacement is while cement sets to impart additional tensile loading
complete to reduce chance of cement channelin~ through mud
in the annulus. Once cement is spotted, avoid rotation until within the cemented interval, or pulling additional
pipe is pulled above the plug. tension on the string after the initial cement set to add
* For use only with balance method tensile loading above the cemented interval,166

Efficient mud displacement is difficult due to the ir-

4-6 hours may be adequate before setting down on the
plug to check its position. In directional work, 8-16 hours
or more may be required. Provide adequate WOC time.
When drilling a directional plug, check cuttings for
premature drillout. If the cuttings are sharp edged and
angular, cement has set properly. Subrounded or ball
shaped cuttings indicate drilling is premature and ad-
ditional WOC is recommended.
Usually after 24 hours, inadequate set is an indication
of serious contamination and the plug should be drilled
out and replaced.16l Where conditions permit, an alter-
native is to place another plug above the first.
TUBINGLESS COMPLETIONS
In so-called tubingless completions, one or more tubing
strings are run and cemented in the borehole to serve
as both casing and tubing. Almost all equipment used
in cementing conventional casing strings is available for
cementing these small diameter tubulars-including:
regular geometry, Fig. 67, and lack of turbulent flow.
However, successful cementing operations have been
achieved165-161 by emphasizing: Casing centralization;
pipe movement; increased displacement rate (by pumping
through more than one casing string); relative rheolog-
ical properties between mud and cement (yield point
and density); and use of cement slurries having dilatant
rheology, i.e. viscosity increases with shear rate. Effective
use of preflushes is also important.
Types of pipe movement critically analyzed in the
above noted references were rotation or reciprocation
(or simultaneous rotation and reciprocation) of single
strings, and reciprocation only of multiples strings (ro-
tation of multiple strings may wind the strings together
and cause restrictions). "Prudent" use of wire loop type
scratchers served to break up gelled mud and create
flowstream disturbances to aid displacement-not to
remove mud filter cake.
The conclusion was that pipe movement by either

WORLD OIL 1977 59


1 (Fig. 69) are Bingham plastic fluids. In the case of Bing-
SHEAR RATE (FLOW)
Fig. 68-Four time-Independent rheological fluid characteristics
in isothermal, laminar flow.
reciprocation or rotation is effective. However, simul-
taenous rotation and reciprocation desirable for conven-
tional completions was not economic for 2%-inch tubing-
less completions in 7'Vs-inch hole.167
Multiple casing strings have been cemented by pump-
ing down only the longest string. A variation of this
method is to spot cement through the longest string
then lower other bullplugged strings through the unset
cement. Such a "delayed setting technique" requires
careful planning.
Pumping through more than one string can improve
results by increasing displacement rate. When two strings
to be cemented are located at the same depth, they may
be pumped into simultaneously. When the strings are
at different depths, initiation of mixing and pumping
cement into each string must be staggered. Occasionally,
a string which could be landed at a shallower depth
is run to bottom to increase flow velocity by decreasing
annular cross sectional area.
Rheology design. Efforts have been made to improve
relative rheologic properties between mud and cement,
i.e. yield point and density. Before cementing, if cir-
cumstances require and permit, mud returns can be
watered back during the entire circulation period to
lower mud weight, yield point and plastic viscosity.
This increases the difference between flow properties of
mud and cement. An extensive study utilizing a special
computer program indicated that for 2%-inch tubing in
7%-inch hole, most desirable mud properties for maxi-
mum displacement efficiency was a plastic viscosity equal
or less than 12 centipoise, and yield point equal or less
than 5 pounds per 100 square feet.166
Use of cement slurries having dilatant rheology was
shown to be more favorable for mud displacement ef-
ficiency.166 Due to the large annular space and limited
conduit size, fluids in the annulus are almost always in
laminar flow.
Four possible time-independent isothermal rheologies
of fluid exhibiting stable properties in laminar flow are:
60
Bingham plastic fluids; pseudoplastic fluids; dilatant
fluids; and Newtonian fluids, Fig. 68. Bingham plastic
and Newtonian fluids are discussed in Part 4. Water is
a Newtonian fluid, and water suspensions of finely divided
solids, gelled drilling muds and gelled Class H cements
ham plastic fluids, a finite shear stress and shear rate are
proportional in the laminar flow region.
Shear stress and shear rate of pseudoplastic fluids are
not proportional, i.e. viscosity decreases with shear rate
(shear thinning). An example would be hydroxyethyl
cellulose (HEC) based completion fluids. Such fluids
can be non-thixotropic and should be readily displaced
by cement.
For dilatant fluids, Fig. 68, shear stress and shear
rate are also not proportional, and viscosity increases with
shear rate. This feature increases displacement forces act-
ing on the narrow side of an annulus and on gelled mud.
These fluids, therefore, increase mud displacement ef-
ficiency in the laminar flow region.
The extreme differences between rheological types
noted above apply only to laminar flow. Turbulent flow
would tend to reduce the magnitude of these compar-
isons. However, turbulent flow in single and multiple
string tubingless completions is unlikely.
SELECTIVECOMPLETION TOOL
One special equipment item which eliminates several
possible restrictions to flow or production from the for-
mation and provides unusual production or stimulation
flexibility is the Selective Completion Tool developed
by Gearhart-Owen Industries (see article "New com-
pletion technique keeps formation faces clean," WORLD
OIL, November 1973).
This tool consists of inflatable packers, a cement by-
pass arrangement and sliding sleeve port-type collars run
as an integral part of the casing string, Fig. 70. After
running casing to bottom, the equipment is properly
positioned downhole with respect to the productive for-
mation using a gamma ray log for correlation. The inflat-
able packers are expanded by increased mud pressure
after the bottom plug seats on the baffle or collar.
The bottom packer then diverts flow of primary cement
from the casing-wellbore annulus into the tool's by-pass
area, from which the slurry re-enters the annulus above
_ CLASS H PLUS GEL
0--0 DENSIFIED CLASS H
0-0 1-1 LlGHlWEIGHT-CLASS H
2-1 LlGHlWEIGHT-CLASS H
t
(f)
13
a:
I-
(f)
a:
1200F~
"
i£
iIi /.
J: ~
(f)
SHEAR RATE-
Fig. 69-Rheology of four types of cement slurries. Class
H plus gel (straight line) is a "Bingham plastic" fluid, all
others exhibit "dilatant" properties (after Clark and
Jenkins).'..
WORLD OIL 1977
 the upper packer. Tool length can be extended to 100
feet or more by adding modules. And more than one unit
and sliding sleeve may be run at one time. INFLATION VALVE
Cement does not contact the weIlbore through the
productive formation. And flow restrictions associated
with perforations are avoided, i.e. perforating debris and
convergence of flow within the formation towards per-
foration tunnels.
_INFLATABLE PACKER
Production or stimulation treatment flow is established
through one or more of the sliding sleeve port-type collars
which can be repeatedly opened or closed by a me-
chanical shifting tool run on pipe or wireline. By placing
such a collar just above the lower packer and another ANNULAR BYPASS
just below the upper packer, stimulation fluids may be
circulated in the annulus across the productive zone to
remove mud-caused impairment.
Ports may be opened or closed by wireline for test
purposes, or to shut-in a zone. Equipment is available
for use in sand control. SLIDING SLEEVE

In some cases, greater than normal casing to borehole

clearance is required. And certain components may have
to be custom made for specific applications.

'REMmIAL SQUEEZE CEMENTING

Squeeze cementing is the process of forcing a cement
slurry through holes in the casing. The primary objec- I-INFLATABLE PACKER
tive of squeeze cementing is to develop a seal in the cas-
ing-wellbore annulus between formation intervals pene-
trated by the casing. The most common purposes for
squeeze cementing are to:16B
. Repair a primary cement job that failed due to cement
by-passing mud (channeling) or insufficient cement height (fill-
up) in the annulus -INFLATION VALVE

. Eliminate water intrusion from above, below, or within the

hydrocarbon producing zone
. Reduce the producing gas-oil-ratio by isolating gas zones
from adjacent oil intervals
. Repair casing leaks due to corrosion or split pipe
. Plug all, or part, of one or more zones in a multizone in-
jection well to direct injection into desired intervals, and
. Plug and abandon a depleted or watered-out producing
zone.
Squeeze cementing can 'be classified as high pressure
and low pressure. And two techniques used are: Braden-
head squeeze and packer squeeze. These classifications
and techniques will be discussed later in the article.
Misconceptions. Techniques and technology of squeeze
cementing have been developed over a period of more
than 40 years,169 and later operations have proven that
some early concepts were incorrect. Yet many applications
are still based on these misconceptions. For example, some
people erroneously assume that:
I. Cement squeezed through holes (perforations) in casing
under high pressure generally forms a horizontal cement "pan-
cake" opposite the holes, thereby developing a barrier to vertical
fluid movement
2. Injecting drilling mud into perforations at high pressure
opens all perforations
3. High final squeeze is a positive indication of a successful
job, and
4. In zones with good permeability, cement penetrates the
formation without fracturing.
The fundamental concept of squeeze cementing is
that cement filter cake forms the initial seal.
A cement slurry consists of finely divided solid par-
ticles dispersed in liquid. Such particles in the slurry
Fig. 7o-Selective completion tool features two inflat-
able packers that straddle and isolate the pay zone.
Cement circulates through the tool's internal bypass
and re-enters annulus above the upper packer. Sliding
sleeves then can be opened to expose inside of cas-
ing to the isolated formation. Tool length can be varied
(courtesy Gearhart-Owen Industries, Inc.)
cannot be displaced into normal formation permeability
as it would require permeability in excess of 100 Darcies
to allow a normal slurry to penetrate a sand formation
without fracturing.16B Therefore, when slurry is forced
against a permeable formation, the solid particles will
filter-out on the formation face as filtrate is forced into
the formation permeability.
The filter cake has much lower permeability than most
sand formations. And as cake forms on part of the
formation, slurry can be diverted to other exposed
formation permeability. A properly designed squeeze job
will cause dehydrated cement filter cake to fill the open-
ing(s) between the formation and the casing. And, if
allowed to cure, the dehydrated cement filter cake will
form a nearly impermeable solid.
In cases where slurry is to be placed in a fractured
interval (either natural or induced) the cement solids
will have to develop a cake on the fracture faces and/or
bridge the fracture.
Most successful squeezes in fractured formations have
used a staging technique in which a highly accelerated
slurry, or a slurry with bridging agents such as gilsonite
or sand, is followed by a second stage of moderate fluid

WORLD OIL 1977 61

loss slurry. This system encourages bridging and filter
cake development and helps divert movable slurry to
unsealed fractures.
Fluid loss control. As noted above, the successful
squeeze must deposit cement filter cake in openings be-
tween casing and formation.110 To achieve this it may
be necessary to control cement fluid (filtrate) loss. If fluid
loss is uncontrolled, cement may dehydrate and bridge
off the upper portion of a perforated interval before
slurry is displaced to the lower perforations, Fig. 26,
Part 3. Conversely, very low fluid loss can result in
very slow filter cake development and unacceptably long
placement operations.
Key factors that affect rate of filter cake growth are:
Slurry properties (fluid filtrate loss and water-to-solids
ratio) ; formation characteristics (permeability, pore pres-
sure and fracture pressure); and squeeze pressure (dif-
ferential between downhole slurry pressure and forma-
tion pore pressure).
And, of course, fluid loss and filter cake growth rate
vary directly, i.e. a slurry with a high fluid loss will
have a fast filter cake build-up.
The composition of a squeeze slurry should be based
on characteristics of the formation opposite the inter-
val(s) to be squeezed, and techniques to be used. In
formations with unimpaired natural permeability, slurry
with a water-to-solids ratio of 0.4 (by weight) and a low
fluid loss of 50-150 cc in 30 minutes under 1,000 psi
differential should provide satisfactory caking for most
"low-pressure" squeeze jobs.l11
Slurry fluid (filtrate) loss can be varied and controlled
as required, over the wide range of temperature and
pressure conditions normally encountered in oil and gas
wells, with various cement additives112 (Part 3). The
WELLBORE, FRAC. PRESS.,
VERTlCALSTRESS, "y
HORIZONTAL
STRESS, "HI
I I
I I
I J~___~_ -... , mations deeper than 3,000 feet are nearly always vertical.
INDUCED HORIZONTAL INDUCED VERTICAL
FRACTURE FRACTURE
PF~"HI or "H2
"HI or "H2<"y
Fig. 71-Effect of well depth and vertical-horizontal
formation stresses on type of hydraulic fracture in-
duced by injected fluid. Horizontal fractures will not
be created if fracture pressure is less than overburden
pressure, this is usually the case at depths greater than
3,000 feet.
62
important factors are rate of deposition and amount of
filter cake deposited. Slurry solids content affects time
required to develop cement cake and time required for
adequate dehydration at a given fluid (filtrate) loss.
When squeezing against shales, dense limestones, dolo-
mites-or permeable formations where natural permea-
bility is plugged with mud-a low fluid loss cement may
not be desirable. In these situations a "high-pressure"
squeeze job is usually performed and low fluid loss slurry
could be undesirable' because its restricted filtrate loss
could inhibit filter cake development.16D
Thus, squeeze pressure, time and slurry composition
are the primary controllable variables. However, these
factors also are functions of formation character and
type of fluid in the well, i.e. drilling mud or "clean"
workover fluid.
HIGH PRESSURE SQUEEZING
High pressure squeeze cementing is defined as a job
in which fluid pressure in the wellbore exceeds formation
fracture pressure prior to or during the time that cement
slurry is in contact with the formation. High-pressure
methods are recommended only when squeezing relatively
impermeable zones or where the squeeze is to be con-
ducted with drilling mud in the hole.
Fracturing of the formation permits displacement of
mud or work over fluid through holes in the casing. The
slurry then displaces this fluid into the fractures, permit-
ting development of cement filter cake on the fracture
surfaces.
Where the previously-cemented annulus contains fluid
or mud filled channels, fracture initiation may occur
anywhere along the length of the channels-above or
below the perforations. After fracturing, cement dis-
places and follows fluid from the channels into the frac-
PF ture and cement is deposited in the channels between
perforations and the fracture initiation point.
Since it is likely that perforations will be at an inter-
mediate part of any channels, only that part of the chan-
nels between the perforations and the fracture initiation
point is filled with cement. Use of the hesitation tech-
nique under these circumstances may develop additional
fractures and a more effective cement seal. More details
on hesitation squeezing are presented later in this article.
Potential Problems. With high-pressure squeezes there
is no contrQl of either location or orientation of the
generated fracture. The fracture will be oriented per-
pendicular to the least principal stress as shown in Fig.
71. Note that horizontal fractures will not be created if
fracture pressure is less than overburden pressure.
Formation fracturing during high-pressure squeezing
may be counter-productive, as fractures induced in for-
Thus, even if the casing-wellbore annulus is sealed, verti-
cal communication between zones may be established in
the fracture. Horizontal fractures containing cement
"pancakes" cannot be generated by high pressure squeeze
cementing in deep wells.l11
Once a fracture is created it must be sealed-off with
cement, particularly if it is vertical and extends into a
zone being isolated. However, sealing-off the fracture may
be difficult because fracturing is usually initiated with
mud, and attempts to purge the fracFures may only extend
WORLD OIL 1977
 them. Thus, the necessary volume of cement can be large.
It is not unusual to use 100-500 sacks on a high-pressure
squeeze job. Such problems with mud-filled fractures
have been minimized by using a high-fluid-loss fluid
(water) for breakdown. Where mud is needed for control,
such fluid is spotted before setting the packer. After
breakdown, cement is circulated into place for squeezing.
Another problem in a perforated interval is that mud-
filled perforations can withstand large pressure differen-
tials, especially toward the formation. And, all perfora-
tions may not be forced open when the formation is frac-
tured by the high pressure. In fact, the most common
cause of squeeze cementing failures is .attributed to the
unplugging of mud-plugged perforations after the squeeze
job.
Generally, it is recommended that solids-free workover
fluids be used whenever fluid has to be displaced into the
formation ahead of cement. Acid or chemical washes can
also be used ahead of the slurry. Several clean-up tech-
niques and chemical wash formulas are presented in the
literature.173-177
LOW PRESSURE SQUEEZING
Low pressure squeeze cementing is defined as a job in
which fluid pressure in the wellbore is maintained below
fracture pressure of exposed formations prior to, and
during, the time slurry is in contact with the formations.
In practice, "safe" squeeze pressure is usually specified as
some value below established fracture pressure (300 psi
has been used in some areas).
Low pressure squeeze cementing175 utilizes a small vol-
ume of low fluid loss sl urry placed against exposed
permeable formations with a moderate squeeze pressure.
Filtrate from the slurry is forced into formation perme-
ability allowing build-up of cement filter cake. Low fluid
loss reduces dehydration rate and discourages bridging
as the slurry is forced along openings or channels.
In low pressure squeezes, perforations and channels
must be clear of mud or other solids. If the well has been
on production, such openings may have been purged. If
the job is to be performed through new perforations, re-
sults may be enhanced by perforating in a solids-free,
non-damaging fluid-such as filtered brine to prevent clay
swelling-with pressure underbalance to permit purging
of perforation cavities. In existing perforations pressure/
suction washing with or without acid may be considered.
Procedure. In practice, the low pressure squeeze job is
generally conducted as follows:
1. Initiate injection. Determine downhole injection pressure
2. Circulate slurry to desired location in the casing
3. Apply moderate squeeze (downhole) pressure. Consider
increased hydrostatic effect of cement column
4. Restore squeeze pressure by engaging the pump as bleedoff
occurs. (Note: During steps 2 and 3, cement filter cake is
deposited in perforations or holes)
5. Gradually increase downhole pressure to 500--1,000 psi
above pressure required to initiate flow. When bleed-off ceases
for about 30 minutes, stop displacing cement slurry and hold the
pressure. Do not exceed "safe" squeeze pressure. Successful
squeeze jobs are routinely obtained with only one or two cubic
feet of cement displaced through the perforations.
6. Reverse circulate excess cement from casing, or pull work
string leaving cement to be drilled out later, if necessary.
A properly designed slurry will leave only a small
cement filter-cake bump (node) inside the casing after
circulating out excess slurry. Improperly designed slurries
WORLD OIL 1977
FLUID LOSS
(ML/30 MIN. AT 1,000 PSIIlP)
800
CEMENT NODES 150
50
6" CASING-
PERFORATIONS 15
Fig. 72-Schematic of cement filter cake node building after
45 minute squeeze with various fluid (filtrate) loss properties,
(after Rike).173
can result in excessive caking with enlarged nodes, or
inadequate caking and inability to hold pressure, Fig. 72.
The casing can be left with cement nodes small enough
that drilling-out is not required. And the ability to reverse
out excess cement in many applications makes low pres-
sure squeezing compatible with "thru-tubing" tech-
niquesY6
SQUEEZE TECHNIQUES
Squeeze cementing in permanent and tubingless com-
pletions requires some special precautions but basic tech-
niques are similar to those used in conventional wells. And,
for the most part, only low pressure squeeze jobs are at-
tempted.
A permanent completion is one in which tubing and
wellhead remain in place during life of the well. Squeeze
cementing in these wells can be performed with concentric
small diameter tubing. Thru-tubing tools such as inflatable
bridge plugs and packers have been developed to be run
on wireline or small diameter tubing strings to permit
conventional, small scale squeeze cementing operations.
Squeezing through small concentric tubing uses very
small slurry volumes which are susceptible to contamina-
tion by fluids in the casing and in the tubing-tubing an-
nulus. Therefore it is particularly important to maintain
accurate volume control of all fluids pumped into the
well to assure proper slurry placement.
The hesitation squeeze is a subclassification of squeeze
cementing that can be used in either high or low pressure
applications. The principal aspect of the technique is
alternate pumping and hesitation (not pumping). The
hesitation is to encourage cement filter cake buildup.
Hesitation procedures are much more of an art than
a science, as hesitation time and pressure change during
pumping and waiting are observed, and varied, based on
experience. The alternating of pumping and hesitation are
continued until the desired final squeeze pressure is ob-
tained, 171 Fig. 73.
The Bradenhead squeeze technique normally is used
on low pressure formations. Usually the interval to be
squeezed is at or near the bottom of the well.
The general procedure, as illustrated in Fig. 74, includes
63
 Although this isolation technique is most always re-
quired for high pressure squeeze jobs it can be effectively
used on low pressure squeezes where accurate cement
Ci5 2,000 BLED PRESSURE placement is desired. And, with a low pressure squeeze,
0- TESTED
ur BACKFLOW
it is possible to run and retrieve the bridge plug on the
!5 1,600 same trip with the retrievable squeeze packer. It is also
fd possible to squeeze multiple zones on the same trip with
g: 1,200 this equipment. However, as mentioned earlier, differen-
w tial pressure between casing and formation must be con-
()
800 trolled to prevent displacement of unset cement filter cake.
II:
::>
rn Drillable packers can be obtained with either of two
400
valve systems. The "poppet" type back pressure valve will
prevent back-flow only. The "two-way" valve will retain
0
0 20 40 60 pressure from either direction and closes when drill pipe
TIME, MINS.
is pulled above the packer. The two-way valve system
makes it possible to reverse circulate any excess cement
from the drill pipe without exerting pressure below the
Fig. 73-Example of hesitation squeeze technique shows al-
ternate pumping and hesitation to allow cement filter cake packer. Drillable packers can be set on tubing or drill
formation and gradual buildup to desired squeeze pressure pipe, and by electric (logging) line.
(after Beach et al).'" The choice between drillable or retrievable packers is
primarily dependent on well conditions and squeeze tech-
these steps: Circulate cement across zone to be squeezed; nique. Details on specific capabilities of either type should
pull drill pipe (or tubing) above the perforations; close be obtained from the service company or manufacturer
blowout preventors (or shut off flow from the annulus) (supplier) .
and apply pressure to drill pipe or work string to force
slurry to dehydrate against the formation; reverse out Packer location should be carefully considered and may
excess cement in the work string and casing, or let cement vary depending on the type job. If set too far above
set, and drill out as required.
Squeeze pressure is limited by casing string and well-
head burst strength, so the Bradenhead technique is nor-
mally used with a low pressure squeeze. It is not a precise
cement placement technique and is not generally recom-
mended when there are several open intervals and onl}
one is to be squeezed, or where casing is not pressure tight
above the zone to be squeezed.

Packer squeeze techniques permit precise slurry place- 'I

ment and isolate high pressure from casing and wellhead
while high squeeze pressures are applied downhole. A
packer squeeze can be conducted with either drillable or
retrievable squeeze packers. Wellbore fluid below the
packer is usually displaced through perforations ahead of
the cement when this method is used. Dirty fluid may
block flow of cement to a portion of any exposed perme-
ability.
In the past, main advantages of a drillable packer or
retainer, over a retrievable packer, were that it prevented
backflow and disruption of the filter cake and provided
the ability to isolate perforations from circulation pressures
above the packer. With new technology, these capabilities
are available with some retrievable cement retainers, and
they can be of particular -advantagewhen it is necessaryto
remove the packer from the wellbore after squeezing.
Retrievable packers can be set and released repeatedly
on a single trip, as may be required to locate holes in the
casing. When retrievable packers are released, differential
pressure from the formation must be controlled to prevent
back-flow and cement filter cake disturbance. Generally SPOT APPLY REVERSE
the retrievable packer is less expensive to run; and less CEMENT SQUEEZE CIRCULATE
rig time is required if cement is to be drilled out. PRESSURE
Many accessories have been developed for use with the Fig. 74-Schematic of Bradenhead squeeze technique normally
retrievable squeeze packer, such as retrievable bridge plugs used on low pressure formations. Cement is circulated into
that can be run below the squeeze packer and set at any place down drill pipe (left), then wellhead, or BOP, is closed
(center) and squeeze pressure is applied. Reverse circulating
point below the packer. The retrievable bridge plug will through perforations (right) removes excess cement, or plug
hold pressure from either above or below. can be drilled out.

64 WORLD OIL 1977

perforations or holes to be squeezed, excessive volumes of
fluid-either workover fluids or mud-must be displaced
into the formation ahead of the cement, or the slurry may
channel through the mud, Fig. 75. Conversely, a packer
set too close to perforations or holes could become stuck
if pressure on the outside of the casing is transmitted
above the packer and causes the casing to collapse.
It is desirable to test and then maintain some pressure
on the casing annulus above the packer. Observation of
this annulus pressure can be effectively used as a check
for leaks in the squeeze string, packer or casing. Annulus
pressure can also be used to prevent collapse pressures
from developing during high pressure jobs.
Usually, the packer should be set 30-60 feet from
perforations. If corrosion holes or split pipe are being
squeezed, more space is recommended.
Final squeeze pressure. Thirty (or more) years ago
when squeeze cementing was more art than science, high
final squeeze pressure was one primary indicator used to
measure success. However, high final pressure may occur
because dehydrated cement has bridged-off the casing or
perforations. And mud cake filled perforations are also
capable of withstanding high differential pressure, par-
ticularly in the direction of the formation. Thus high final
squeeze pressures can be achieved where the squeeze is
unsuccessful.
Job evaluation. Proof of a successful squeeze is the with-
standing of differential pressure between casing and for-
mation after the well is returned to operation, either pro-
duction or injection. However, it is usually desirable to
test the squeeze job before removing the work over or
drilling rig.
Differential into the wellbore may be obtained by swab-
bing or displacing workover fluid with field crude.
In some production wells it may be impractical to
unload the wellbore without returning the well to pro-
duction. In these cases a positive pressure test that does
not exceed formation fracture pressure should be con-
ducted after cement has set and, if required, after drill-
out. Even though it is not conclusive, pressure testing can
be relatively quick and inexpensive to perform. It may
detect a job failure, and, in most cases, less effort and
expense are required to repeat the squeeze operation at
that time. Procedures for evaluating cement jobs will be
discussed more fully in the next article.
In squeeze jobs where cement is to be drilled out, an
indication of success is the way the cement drills. If it
drills hard all the way, results may be good. However,
soft spots or voids usually indicate an unsuccessful job.161
Remedial squeeze cementing techniques and technology
provide a wide variety of "cures" for problems related to
fluid movement behind the casing and/or in the wellbore.
However, prevention-where possible-is a more effec-
tive, less expensive solution than squeeze cementing.
Squeeze cementing is a remedial tool. It should not be
used as a planned supplement to primary cementing. For
example, careful design and execution of primary cement-
ing is a much better way to get zone isolation than relying
on high-pressure "block squeezing" above and below the
pay. As mentioned, high pressure block squeezing may
actually aggravate communication between zones.
Coming next month: Defining the problem to be "cured"
WORLD OIL 1977
CASING
PACKER
CEMENT
CHANNELLED
THRU
MUD
MUD
Fig. 75-Packer location is important. In this example,
packer is set too high allowing cement slurry to be
contaminated as it channels through mud to reach
perforations or holes (after Shryock and Slagle).'68
by squeeze cementing is likely the most important rule
of preparation. Many diagnostic tools and evaluation
procedures that can be used to gain an understanding
of downhole conditions before and after squeezing, or
after primary cementing, are discussed in the concluding
article, along with some recent cementing innovations.
LITERATURE CITED
'M Parsons, C. P., "Plug-back Ce1l1enting Methods." AIME Trans. Vol. 118
(1936). .
,.. Goins, W. C., Jr., "Open hole plug-back Operations," Oil Well Cement,ng
Practices in tne U.S., API, 1'959.
,.. Mont/5omery, P. C. and Smith, D. K., "Oil Well Cementing Practices and
Mater.als," Petro Engr., May_and June, 1'971.
'" Fischer, J. S., Wadder, F. V. and McGuirel,. J. A., "hn.proving Production
with Electrical Workover System," Paper SrE 24114,1969.
... Beach, H. J. and Goins, W. C., Jr., "A Method of Protecting Cements
Against the Harmful Effects of Mud Contamination." AIME Petro Trans.
Vol. 210, 1957.
". Morgan, B. E. and Dumbauld, G. K., "Use of Activated Charcoal in
Cement to Combat Effect. of Contamination by DrilIing Muds."
160Banister J. A., "Methods and Materials for Placin Cement Plugs in
y
Open Holes," Presented at the National Interstate Oi Compact Commis-
sion's Convention, Yellowstone Wyo., June 11957.
'0' Murphyl,. W. C., "Squeeze Cemenunj! Requires Careful Execution for
Proper Kemedial Work," Oil & Gas Journal, February 1976.
'0' Buster, J. L., "Cementing Multiple Tubingless Completions," API Drillinll
and Production Practice, 1965, pp. 15-23.
.03Willingham, J. E., "Experience with 2-%" Casing in the West Texas-
New Mexico Area," API Drilling and Production Practices, 1963, PI'. 64-71.
164Scott, R. W., "Small Diameter Well Completions," Engineering Practices
Manual No.4, Reprinted from World Oil, 1963.
,.. Childers, M. A., "Ptim"ry Cementing of Multiple Casing," Transactions
of AIME, Volume 243, 1968.
'00 Clark, C. R. and Jenkins, R. G., "Cementing Practices for Tubin!!less
Completions" SPE Paper 4609 Presented at the 48 Annual Fall MeeUng,
Las Vegas, Sept. 30-0ct. 3, \973.
16'Holley, J. A., "Field Proven Techniques Improve Cementing Success,"
World 0,1 August 1976, PJI. 31'-33.
,.. Shryock, S. H. & Slagle, K. A., "Problems Related to Squeeze Cementing,"
/PT, August 1968.
169Torr~y, P. D., "Pr~Kress in Squeeze Cementing Application and Technique"
Oil Weekly, July 29, 1940. ..
110Hook, F. E., and Ernst, E. A., "The Effect of Low-Water-Loss Additives,
Squeeze Pressure and Formation Permeability on the Dehydration Rate of
a Squeeze Cementing Slurry," Paper SPE 2455. Presented at the SPE
Rocliy Mountain Regional Meeting, Denver, May 25-27, 1969.
m Beach, H. J., O'Brien, T. B. & Goi~1 W. C' J!;..o "Controlled Filtration
Rate Improves Cement Squeezing," world Oi,I May, 1961.
m Binkley, G. W., Dumbauld, G. K. & Collins, R. E., "Factors Affecting
the Rate of Deposition of Cement in Unfractured Perforations During
S~ueeze Cementing Operations," Paper SPE 891'-G, 1957.
'" Rike, J. L:t "Obtaining Successful Squeeze-Cementing Results," Paper
SPE 4608, 1~73
m Carter, L. G. et al., "Remedial Cementing of Plugged Perforations,"
Paper SPE 759, 1963.
116Morgan, B. E. & Dumbauld, G. K.; "Bentonite Cements Proving Suc-
cessful in Permanent-Type Squeeze O{)erations."
116Huber, T. A., Tausch, G. H. & DublIn, J. R. III~ "A Simplified Cement-
ing Technique for Recompletion OperatIOns." AIME Transactions, Vol.
WI, 1954.
'" Harris F. and Carter, G.~ "Effectiveness of Chemical Washes Ahead of
Squeeze Cementing," API raper 85'1-37-H, 1963. .
65
Cementing oil and gas wells
Part 8-Methods for evaluating primary
cementing effectiveness plus a wrapup
of several new tools to improve
completion operations
George o. Suman, Jr., President, and Richard C.
Ellis, Pro j ec t Engineer, Completion Technology Co.,
Houston
10-second summary
Basic principles of temperature logging. bond logging
and various tests for proving fluid shut-off by primary
cementing are described, along with three new tools for
completion, through-tubing work and whipstock installa-
tion.
THIS CONCLUDINGarticle discusses several methods of
evaluating the effectiveness of a primary cement job, or
a remedial squeeze. The techniques include logging meth-
ods-to determine factors such as cement height, thick-
ness, bonding or possible mud channeling-and various
positive performance tests such as pressure tests, perfor-
ating and bailing, and production and/or production
logging tests, to prove whether the job accomplished its
intended purpose.
Also discussed are several recently introduced down-
hole tools that are closely associated with cementing op-
erations. These include:
~ The new Pack/Perf Completion system that pro-
vides positive isolation and formation support through
the perforated interval
~ A new through-tubing, inflatable bridge plug that
can simplify plug back operations in casing, below the
tubing string, and
~ A permanent packer arrangement for positively
anchoring a whipstock tool. The system can cut costs
and eliminate cement plug placement problems, in this
application.
66
60
u..
o
40
20
2 3
CEMENT SHEATH THICK., IN.
Fig. 76-Lab tests of various cement thicknesses with Insulat-
Ing and non-insulating material simulating surrounding forma-
tion Indicate that temperature rise Inside casing from setting
cement can vary significantly with rock thermal dlffusivity
properties (after Gretener).180
EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
Evaluation of primary cementing is usually based on
one of the following basic failure definitions: Cement
failed to fill the casing-borehole annulus above the mini-
mum acceptable cement height; it failed to provide a
seal at the casing shoe (or at the top of a liner), or it
failed to provide effective isolation of the zones of in-
terest.
When any of these failures are detected, squeeze ce-
menting remedial operations are usually required. A num-
ber of evaluation techniques are available, including:
Temperature surveys; radioactive logs; pressure tests;
acoustical cement bond logs, and production testing and
production logging.
Temperature surveys are used to detect maximum
height of cement in the casing-wellbore annulus.178.119
Reasonably accurate in this application, such surveys
cannot determine cement quality, or effectiveness in pre-
venting vertical fluid migration.
The method consists of running a recording thermom-
eter in the casing following the cementing operation.
Setting cement generates "heat of hydration" which in-
WORLDOIL 1977
 above the expected top. It is desirable to run the survey
at 50 F per inch sensitivity under normal conditions.
CEMENTTOP And well conditions must remain static from the time
ENLARGED
the plug is bumped until the survey is completed. Cau-

:I:
.) HOLE SECTION tion should be observed when mixed lithologies (sand,
shale, limestone, dolomite, salt, etc.) are present because
.... \

)
n.,
w it is possible to misinterpret.a lithology change as a ce-
0 \
\ ment top. In these areas it is advisable to run a base log
\ prior to running casing, to avoid possible erroneous in-
\ terpretations.
I \
The rate at which temperature changes depends on
\
\ temperature to which the cement is exposed. This is
\ usually a function of depth of the cement job, Fig. 78.181
\ Peak temperatures often occur 4-12 hours after start of
I I II I ,
,,, mixing operations but remain elevated for more than
A B C
24 hours, as shown in Fig. 79. Therefore, temperature
TEMPERATURE - surveys normally should be run between 8 and 24 hours
after cement is mixed. Because these surveys are only
Fig. 77-ldealized temperature log in homogeneous lithology applicable for this short period after cementing, they,
environment. Curve C compared to Curve B illustrates effect of course, have no application in old wells.
of enlarged borehole with corresponding increased cement
thickness (after Folmar).179 There are conditions in some areas where extremely
high well temperatures override the temperature increase
240
of the hydrating cement.182 If the cement top is be-
tween casing strings, the temperature will be greater
than, but parallel to, the geothermal gradient. In wells
200 ,--12,000 FT TEST in which particularly heavy or viscous drilling fluids are
used, special cement displacing fluids may have to be
11. used to permit running of the survey.
o 160
Ii Radioactive surveys. Addition of radioactive tracer
~
W 120 material to the lead portion of the cement slurry pro-
I-
vides a positive indicator of the cement top. Either long
or short half-life material can be used. Carnolite has a
80~ f SLURRY TEMP.
half-life of approximately 1,700 years, and permanently
affects natural gamma-ray emissions near its location in
4,000 FT TEST ___ APPARATUS TEMP. the well. Several radioactive materials that can be used
as tracers have half-lives of 8-80 days.
o 2 3 4 5 6
Principal disadvantages of radioactive survey tech-
TIME, HOURS niques for cement height determination are: Special
health precautions; interference with natural radioactive
surveys, and high costS.178
Fig. 78-Cement temperaturedevelopmentwith time as a
function of well depth is indicated by lab results in a simulated
wellbore apparatus preheated to temperatures of various depth Pressure, inflow tests. Pressure tests are conducted
levels. Tests show 800 F slurry first cools fluid inside casing,
then maximum temperature develops several hours after
placement. Temperature rise is greater in higher temperature
environment (after Farris).'" 210 2,000

creases the temperature of adjacent fluid in the casing 200 L VI PRESS.RELIEVED

1,800
by several degrees. 190
11.
1,600 Ci.i
Maximum temperature anomalies may be expected 0 11.

to range from 10-40° F, Fig. 76.180 The magnitude of a: 180 1,400 cri
the anomaly will depend on thickness (or mass) of ::?E
W
....
b'" (f)
w
II:
11.
cemen t behind the casing, as well as the thermal 170 . 1,200
PRESS.
diffusivity of surrounding formation. Where lithology is
fairly uniform, the temperature log will indicate relative 160 1,000
thickness of cement behind casing,179 Fig. 77. Caliper
150 800
surveys can be particularly helpful in analyzing the tem- 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
perature survey. If a hot area is noted where there is
no hole enlargement, cement has invaded the formation TIME, HOURSFROM STARTINGTO MIX
through fractures or a thief zone. If the indicated ce-
ment top is higher than calculated, cement channeling Fig. 79-Temperature and pressure effects within fluid
should be suspected. filled casing shut in immediately after cementing. Note
To locate the cement top, the temperature survey maximum temperature buildup 8-12 hours after mixing.
Temperature remains elevated for several hours (after
should begin either at the surface or at least 1,000 feet Farris).'"

WORLD OIL 1977 67

 REVERSE
The WSO procedure can be as simple as bailing
DRILL STEM
CIRCULATING SUB. fluid from the casing and checking for fluid rise-after
casing has been perforated or drilled out. However, per-
REVERSE
CIRCULATING SUB. HYDRAULIC forating and testing is more commonly conducted with
MULTIPLE SHUT-IN combination tools that can be run on tubing or wireline.
VALVE
A WSO test can give positive indications of com-
ROTATING INSIDE RECORDER munication problems, or lack thereof, prior to final com-
SHUT-IN VALVE
n ] CARRIER pletion. However, WSO perforations must enter the mud
channel, if one is present. And a small channel can be
] JARS

SAFETY JOINT
missed with zero-degree gun phasing. The tighter the
..~. j phasing, the lower the chances of missing a channel.
HYDRAULIC VALVE PACKER INFLATION
PUMP Combination of a mechanically fired perforating device
and a testing tool makes it possible to perforate and test
INSIDE RECORDER
CARRIER ;1 SCREEN SUB.
on a single trip with tubing or drill pipe.183 This test
is conducted by perforating an impermeable zone above
TOP PACKER or below the zone of interest, setting the packer and
HYDRAULIC JARS
]
opening the tester valve. A minimum cushion, fluid
TEST PORTS or gas, is placed inside the test string. In some locations
SAFETY JOINT
regulations specify the maximum amount of cushion.
OUTSIDE RECORDER Inside and outside recording pressure instruments are
CARRIER
PACKER
also included as an integral part of most testing tools,
Fig. 80.
The tester is usually left open for a:bout an hour.
SPACING
If strong entry is indicated by a heavy "blow" at the
PERFORATED
surface, the tester may be pulled sooner. The amount
ANCHOR BOTTOM PACKER and type of fluid inside the test string can be checked
by reverse circulating the sample to surface or by re-
OUTSIDE tention in the string and later recovery. Pressure charts

t
RECORDER
CARRIER BELLY SPRING
ANCHOR SHOE
SINGLE INFLATABLE
COMPRESSION STRADDLE PACKERS
PACKER
Fig. SO-Two types of drill stem test tools used to check pos-
sible fluid entry from a cement job test. Single packer type
(left) must be set above single test point. Inflatable straddle
packer tool (right) can test more than one interval (courtesy
Lynes Inc.).
to verify integrity of the casing following primary ce-
ment jobs. And specific procedures are specified by gov-
ernment regulations in most locations. The casing pres-
sure test is conducted after cement has set but prior to
drilling out the cement shoe. These tests are not an
indication of cement effectiveness.
In some locations, i.e., California, regulations require
that the casing be perforated and tested by either bailing
or inflow evaluation tests, called water shut-off (WSO)
tests. In California the WSO tests provide assurance
that a cement seal of the annulus exists, to protect
shallower freshwater reservoirs from brine and/or hydro-
carbon contamination. This procedure of perforating and
checking rate and content of inflow, if any, has been
used to verify a cement seal above and/or below hydro-
carbon producing zones in many areas. The advantage
of this technique is that if a failure is indicated, a ce-
ment squeeze of the WSO holes will be placed opposite
a non-productive formation, rather than opposite the
zone of interest. Also, inflow likely will purge mud from
the perforations, a desired preparation for low pressure
squeeze jobs.
are checked to confirm that the tester was open and
exposed to cushion/formation pressure, to verify a good
test.
Where there is a need for very accurate location of
WSO holes, a wireline perforator can be used with a
collar locator and/or gamma ray log for correlation.
After perforating, a conventional tester is run on tubing
and the test is conducted, as with the combination tool.
Stra.ddle packers can be used to test more than one
set of WSO holes above and below zones of interest.
With a bottom packer added to the test assembly, each
set of WSO holes can be isolated and tested, Fig. 80.
Wireline perforating and testing tools are available
for obtaining small fluid samples following selective
perforating. These tools are primarily used to perforate
through to the zone of interest and obtain a sealed
reservoir fluid sample that could be suitable for PVT
analysis. The size of the sample chamber limits the ap-
plication of this type equipment.
After drilling out. Where additional drilling is to be
conducted and when the casing is cemented in an im-
permeable formation, the casing shoe can be drilled
out and the casing seat inflow tested. The amount of
open hole to be drilled .below casing is specified by law,
in some locations, but is usually 5-10 feet. Tests can
be made with a conventional tester set near bottom.
The testing procedures are the same as those used with
the perforating and testing program.
A pressure test can also be conducted after drilling
out the casing shoe and 5-10 feet of open hole. Two
objectives of this procedure are: To test effectiveness
of the cement seal at the casing shoe; and to determine
formation strength (fracture gradient) at the shoe.
One indication of cement seal failure at the casing

68 WORLD OIL 1977

 shoe is loss of drilling fluid at pressure less than calcu- sure (PST) required to fracture the formation be checked
lated fracture pressure. When this occurs it usually in- prior to the test, using the equation:
dicates channeling during cement displacement, and steps
should be taken to squeeze cement the shoe. PST = FG X D - 0.052p X D
It is recommended that estimated surface test pres- Where: PST = Surface test pressure, psi
FG = Fracture gradient, psi/ft.
D = Depth, ft.
p = Mud density, ppg.
A. FREE PIPE
This surface test pressure must also be less than the
pressure rating of equipment, i.e. wellhead, BOP, casing,
etc.
H the drilling fluid has low mud weight and high
fluid loss, rate of pressure bleed-off may be considerable.
B. GOOD BOND TO PIPE In some instances, it may be difficult to distinguish
I AND FORMATION between fluid loss to permeability, poor cementation
o
a:
w C)I and/or formation yield (fracturing).
N ~I
W !;(I
::E C)I Acoustical cement bond logging in use since 1960,
i= I provides an evaluation of the cement column behind
I
C. GOOD BOND TO PIPE, casing. The cement bond log (CBL) combined with
NO BOND TO FORMATION an acoustic signature log (MSG, VDL, XV, etc.) is a
log in which both time of arrival and amplitude of
vibrations are used to evaluate bonding conditions.
Sonic signals are transmitted to a receiver that is
acoustically isolated within a combination tool. In tra-
D. DECENTRALIZED PIPE, versing through casing, signal amplitude is attem.\ated
ONE SIDE NOT BONDED to a varying degree depending on material outside the
TIME_ casing. Attenuation effect will be greater if that ma-
terial is solid and bonded to the casing.
Signal amplitude is converted to electronic signals and
Fig. 81-Examples of acoustic signals actually received in test
wells under various cementing conditions (after Walker).''' varies inversely with degree of attenuation. Thus a
high amplitude casing signal is indicative of no bond
between cement and casing, Fig. 81 (A).
GAMMA AMPLITUDE
.. When cement is firmly bonded to casing and forma-
API GAMMA RAY UNITS
10 110 PIPE BOND MICRO-SEISMOGRAM tion, there is a low casing signal and the signal received
.!_0!l~~I!<2.N_~q,N'p_ 200 LOG 1,200 is characteristic of formation behind pipe, Fig. 81 (B).
When cement is bonded to pipe bu t not formation, both
casing and formation signals have low amplitude, Fig.
81 (C).
o When casing is resting against the borehole, chan-
~o neling commonly occurs, preventing cement from sur-
rounding the casing. Thus casing is free on part of
its circumference and formation-cement-casing coupling
exists around the balance. Then both casing and for-
mation signal are present as shown in Fig. 81 (D).
It is important to receive more than just the casing
signal. Acoustic signals travel through fluid in the well-
bore, casing, cement and/or annular fluids and forma-
tion. The casing and formation signals are of primary
interest. Additional details of CBL techniques, tech-
nology and procedures are available in the literature.184-196
o
Co>
o
o
eBL presentations. Acoustic signals in a cased bore-
hole consist of all arrivals along any coupled path be-
tween transmitter and receiver. The time and ampli-
tude of the combined signal from the various paths are
such that all information cannot be presented adequately
by a normal logging curve. Thus a CBL usually includes
an amplitude curve that measures a specific time seg-
Fig. 82-Example of a cement bond log display of a section
of well-bonded casing shows typical data included on field ment of the acoustic signal and one or more of the
log. Amplitude-time display (right) indicates weak pipe ampli- following:
tude signal (grey tone left half) and strong formation signal
(black line right half) comparable to signal B in Fig. 81 (cour- . Transit time of the first acoustic signal that exceeds a
tesy Welex). predetermined amplitude

WORLD OIL 1977 69

 . Amplitude of the formation signal, and
. A variable intensity recording where dark and light streaks
represent positive and negative half cycles of the acoustic signal,
or
. An acoustic scope picture-XY presentation.
include a gamma ray curve and a casing collar log, Fig.
82. Though not directly related to acoustic properties
measured by CBL, this information has proven helpful
in CBL interpretation.

Additional measurements frequently included on CBLs Interpretation. Validity of CBL interpretation is a con-
troversial issue. There are no industry standards for
1.5 tools or procedures. Inadequate information on CBL
headings, miscalibration of tools, lack of effective tool
centering in the casing and/or poor running procedures
have resulted in misleading interpretations.
Interpretation of a specific CBL depends on how and
what portion of the acoustic signal is measured and
en recorded. Factors that significantly affect tool response
I-I include: Acoustic frequency of tool; electronic control
o
> that determines the acoustic signal segment measured
ui
c (Gating systems and bias settings); spacing between
::)
I- transmitter and receiver; tool calibration; centralization,
::::;
Q.
::E
and logging speed.
<I:
I
Here are other factors that can introduce errors in
<I:
Z
(!j
CBL interpretation:
en
. Extent of cement set (hardening) affects sonic signal veloc-
ity and amplitude. During the setting process, gel which forms
around the cement particles is apparently an excellent absorber
of acoustical energy. As cement hardens, acoustic transmissibility
increases significantly and the casing signal is dampened out.
Thus it is best to run CBLs at least 24-36 hours after the cement
job is completed or when compressive strength of cement reaches
1,000 psi.
o
o 2 3 . Cement composition also affects acoustic transmission. If a
CEMENT SHEATH THICKNESS, INCHES
high degree of sensitivity is applied where low-density cementing
materials have been used, poor bond may be indicated although
good bonding actually exists. Tests in dril1ed holes with casing
Fig. 83-Effect of cement sheath thickness on pipe amplitude cemented with API Class A cement, indicated that small sections
signal (with pipe bonding only). With less than ~-inch, ampli- void of cement could be located only by using high sensitivity.
tude increase tends to indicate free pipe. Therefore, voids or channels may not always be indicated on
CBLs unless proper sensitivity selection-with respect to cement
composition-is used.1"
100
. Cement sheath thickness may vary, causing changes in
attenuation rate. Lab tests indicate that a thickness of ~-inch
or more is required to achieve full attenuation, Fig. 83. Thus,
casing should be sized to provide a minimum of ~-inch clear-
ance in the drilIed hole, with adequate centralization. Cement
thickness can be critical in certain liner completions where
thickness is less than ~-inch.
> . Cement compressive strength and percent of casing circum-
::!: 10
ui ference bonded affects CBL amplitude, Fig. 84. It is not possible
C to determine the difference between a job in which cement
:J strength is lower than anticipated, and a job in which cement
I-
::i strength is as estimated but small mud channels exist.18OVertical
Q. zone isolation does not exist in the latter case.
::!:
<I:
. A microannulus is a very small gap between casing and
cement. This gap will affect a CBL. However, the presence of a
51,h" CSG., 0.3" THICK. microannulus normally does not prevent isolation between zones
1.0 and it usually tends to "heal" with time.

A microannulus can be caused by: Shutting in the

casing and allowing pressure on the casing to increase
due to temperature rise; thermal expansion of the casing
0.2 _
while cement sets and subsequent temperature reduction;
o 20 40 60 80 100 contaminants on the external surface of the casing such
as mill varnish, grease, oil-wetting, etc.; and by dis-
% CIRCUMFERENCE BONDED
placing drilling mud with lighter-weight completion
fluid prior to running the CBL.
Fig. 84-Relation of cement bond log pipe amplitude to cement Where a microannulus is indicated by logging, it is
compressive strength and percent circumference bonded. Ex-
ample: 500-psi cement with 80% bonded shows same signal recommended that a short overlap CBL be run under
as 4,OOO-psicement with 40% bonded (after Schlumberger). pressure, opposite zones of interest. The entire CBL

70 WORLDOIL 1977

RUNNING COMPLETED
POSITION SYSTEM
Fig. 8S-Schematic of Pack/Perf Completion System illustrates
inflatable external casing packer as primary cement is being
displaced (left) and after rubber element has been filled with
cement and the pay zone has been perforated (right).'o.
should be run under pressure if there is a significant
change in amplitude with the casing pressured.
When mud channels are present, pressuring the casing
will have little, if any, effect on the CBL.195 With chan-
neling, vertical isolation does not exist and remedial
squeeze cementing should be considered. Remember, a
channel may only be on one side of the casing and
chances of perforating into such a channel with a single-
phase gun are minimal-use a 90-degree phased gun
to perforate when channeling occurs.
The CBL can be an important aid in estimating ce-
ment bond quality, when properly applied.195 CBL in-
terpretation is not sinJple and straightforward as is
often assumed. And detailed information on cementing
and logging operations are essential for accurate inter-
preta:tion.
Production testing, production logging. The most
positive evaluation of cement effectiveness has been ob-
tained by production testing and production logging
methods, following completion operations. These meth-
ods include one or more of the techniques shown be-
low: 197 -203
Production testing/logging techniques
1. Production tests-flow rate and content (water, oil, gas
and solids, if any)
2. Inflow evaluation by determination of flow rates and con.
ten t vs. surface flowing pressures
3. Comparison of 1 and/or 2 with fluid rate and content
expected based on open hole logging data
4. Evaluation of historical production data and comparison
between wells with common completions (production surveil.
lance)
5. Pressure build-up and fall off measurements with down.
hole pressure reorders
6. Inflow vs. depth measurements with downhole flowmeters
7. Flowing and/or static temperature vs. depth measurements
with high resolution surface recording thermometers
8. Flowing fluid density vs. depth measurements
9. Downhole fluid samples
WORLD OIL 1977
10. Radioactive fluid injection and surveys to identify injec-
tion points and possible presence of migration channels behind
casing, and
11. Noise-logging to detect behind-casing fluid movement.
As mentioned in Part 7 of this series, the most im~.
portant rule of preparation for remedial cementing op-
erations is to accurately define the downhole problem-
if any exists. Generally a combination of production
tests and production logging procedures are required
to identify and locate channels or other problems as-
sociated with lack of effective zone isolation. Verifica-
tion of remedial ,workover effectiveness requires the
same tests and/or other combinations of tests and log-
ging procedures.
Primary cementing has been called "The Critical Pe-
riod" of drilling and completion operations. And there
is universal agreement that effective primary cementing
is a critical requirement for effective completions and
minimal operating problems. Without zone isola:tion, sub-
sequent stimulation, reconditioning and recompletion will
be less productive and more costly, at best. And secon-
dary recovery efforts will be much more difficult to
monitor and control.
Perhaps the most important primary cementing pro-
cedure is accurate and detailed documentation of the
casing running and cementing operations. This infor-
mation is invaluable for evaluating cement jobs-it is
absolutely essential if improved procedures and equip-
ment are to be developed.
Recommended job documentation
Casing details
Size, weight, grade, equipment (centralizers, scratchers, float
shoes and collars, stage collars, petal baskets, etc.), inspection
procedures, special handling, joint make-up tests and procedures,
running speed, details of movement during cementing (if any),
landing practices, etc.
Cement details
Volume, type and composition, density, rheology characteris-
tics, displacement procedure (rate, use of top and bottom wiper
plugs, preflush and spacer fluids including description and
volume, etc.)", service company, pressure and rate charts, surface
circulating temperature, anticipated set time, etc.
Other details
Lost circulation, premature build-up of pressure, detail of any
operating problems like pump break down or delays, poor mud
conditions, etc.
CEMENTING EQUIPMENT INNOVATIONS
The Pack/Perf Completion system, developed by Com-
pletion Technology Co. and manufactured by Lynes,
Inc., provides one technique for assuring a positive bar-
rier to vertical fluid movement in the casing-wellbore
annulus. And, borehole wall support is established that
substantially exceeds such support obtained through con-
ventional cementing methods.
The completion consists of locating one or more in-
flatable external casing packers (ECPs) opposite zones
to be perforated. Following conventional cementing op-
erations, and before cement sets, the ECPs are inflated
with cement. This procedure: Purges by-passed movable
mud; encourages casing centralization; and mechanically
dehydrates residual mud cake against the formation.
Cement inside the casing is drilled out after necessary
71
 SMALL. DIA. TUBING
ELEMENTS
__ DEFLATED INFLATED
, TOOLaD 2 "/16"
Fig. 86-New through-tubing inflatable bridge plug can be run
through 3V2-inch tubing, on macaroni string or coiled tubing,
and set in casing as large as 7o/s-inch. Tool holds 700-psi
differential pressure (photo courtesy Lynes, Inc.).
wac time, and cement filled ECPs are perforated to
establish exclusive communication to zones of interest,
Fig. 85.
The need for remedial squeeze cementing for zone
isolation should be eliminated. Casing will be centered
in the borehole at the ECP and a unifonn cement sheath
thickness will exist.
Isolation packing, ball sealers, chemical diverters, etc.
are frequently used to ensure that each perforation re-
ceives treating fluids. However, after improper conven-
tional cementing, such fluids may move vertically in the
annulus even though they entered individual perfora-
tions. The Pack/Perf system contacts the formation with
a pressurized rubber seal, backed by non-contaminated
cement, that positively blocks vertical fluid movement in
the annulus. Acid, hydraulic frac fluid, chemical sand
consolidation fluid and other treatments will enter the
fonnations for which they are intended.
Increased borehole wall support can be a significant
advantage where wells are completed in weak fonna-
tions or where the reservoir is geopressured. Such for-
mations are particularly subject to failure if mechanical
72
DRILlPIPE
CASING
STARTING MILL
WITH PilOT
WHIPSTOCK
PERMANENT PACKER
MODIFIED TO
RECEIVE AND lATCH
WHIPSTOCK
Fig. 87-Schematic of new whipstock anchor offered by Baker
Packers. System provides positive seat without danger of dis-
turbing tool when bit is pulled back through casing window.
Permanent packer is set first in oriented position (if desired)
then whipstock anchor is run on the pilot mill and stabbed
into the packer. Additional set-down weight then shears mill
free to begin sidetrack operation.
support is not provided. Mud channels or pockets left
from conventional cementing can be "drained" when
the well is perforated and produced. This can remove
lateral support and cause failure of the formation rock.
In unconsolidated sands, lateral support can be a fac-
tor preventing initial sand movement that leads to sand
control problems. This new support mechanism pro-
vides the means to establish stabilized arch sand control-
a method that could increase productivity at minimum
cost.204,205
Through-tubing bridge plug. Lynes Inc. has recently
introduced a new tool that can supplement, simplify
or even eliminate certain cement plug back operations
in casing (or possibly open hole) below an existing
tubing string, Fig. 86.
The pennanent through-tubing inflatable bridge plug
device has a 2 11/16-inch aD. It can be run, on a
macaroni string or coiled tubing, through 3~-inch tubing
and be expanded with fluid and set inside casing, up to
7 5/8 inches. Once set, the plug is capable of with-
standing up to 700 psi differential pressure.
The tool can be used to bottom a cement plug or,
WORLD OIL 1977
 by itself, to shut-off bottom water from a perforated
interval, etc.

Whipstock anchor. A new system is now offered for

setting an oriented, or non-oriented, whipstock on a
permanent packer arrangement prior to cutting a win-
dow in casing for sidetracking operations, Fig. 87. De-
veloped by Baker Packers, a Division of Baker Inter-
national Corp., the packer and anchor assembly positively
anchors the whipstock in place, preventing both rota-
tion and vertical movement. The packer also functions
as a permanent bridge plug to isolate the casing below
the window. It can be run on electric line or pipe. How-
ever, if directional orientation is required, the packer,
will have to be run on pipe.
The system is an alternative to a cement plug placed
for sidetracking operations. Generally, less rig time and
lower total cost will be realized for sidetrack operations
with this new innovation. And, it eliminates the potential
problem of whipstock movement when the bit is pulled
up through the window. Unless prevented, such move-
ment can cause re-entry difficulties.

LITERATURE CITED
178Teplitz, A.J. and Hasselbrock, W.E., "An Investigation of Oil Wen
Cementing," API 1946 Drillin~ & Production Practices.
119Folmar, L.W., "Methods of Detecting Top of Cement Behind Casing,"
API-Oil Well Cementing Practices in the U.S., 1959 (Chapter 12).
18.Gretener, P.E., "Temperature Anomalies in Wells Due to Cementing of
Casing," ]PT, February 1968.
'8' Farris, R.F., "Method for Determining Minimum Waiting-on-Cement
Time," Petroleum Technology, January 1946.
'8. Kading, H.W. and Hutchins, J.S., "Temperature Surveys: The Art of
Interpretation," API Drilling & Production Practices, 1969.
'83Young, V.R., "Testi!'$ of Primary Cement Jobs, API-Oil Well Cement-
ing Practices in the U.S., 1959, ChaRter 111'.
18.Anderson, W.L. and Walker, T., 'Research Predicts Improved Cement
Bond Evaluations with Acoustic Logs," ]PT. November 19611.
188Winn, R.H., Anderson, ,T.O., Carter, L.G., "A Preliminary Study of
Factors Influencing Cement Bond Logs," ]PT, April 1962.
'86Walker, T., "Case Histories of Bond Logging," O&G], May 7, 1962.
181Riddlo;., G.A., "Acoustic Wave Propogation in Bonded and Unbonded Oil
Well t.<asing," SPE 454, October 1962.
188Pardue, G.H., et ai, "Cement Bond Log-A Study of Cement and Casing
Variables," ]PT, May 11963.
180Flournoy, R.M., and Feaster, J.H.. "Field Observations on the Use of
the Cement Bond LOR and Its Application to the Evaluation of Cement-
ing Problems," SPE 632, 1963.
'90Harcourt G., Walker, T., and Anderson, T., "Use of the Micro-Seismo-
gram and Acoustic Cement Bond Log to Evaluate Cementing 'Techniques,"
SPE 798, '1964.
,., Anderson, T.O., Winn, R.H. and Walker, T., "A Qualitative Cement-
bond Evaluation Method," API Trans. 1964.
19.Walker, T., "A Full-Wave Display of Acoustic Signal in Cased Holes,"
]PT, August 1'968.
... Bade, I.F., "Cement Bond Logging ,Techniques-How They compare and
Some Variables Affecting Interpretation," ]PT, January 1963.
19.Chaney, P.E., Zimmerman, C.W., Anderson, W.L., "Some Effects of
Frequency Upon the Character of Acoustic Logs," ]PT, April 1966.
'96Fertl, W.H., Pilkington, P.E., and Scott, J.B., "A Look at Cement Bond
Logs," SPE 4512, 1973.
'00 Pilkington, P.E., and Scott, J.B.J. "Comparing Cement Bonds After
Ten-Plus Years," Pet. Eng., April 1:176.
,., Wilson, C.L., et ai, "How Good is That Wen Completion?" O&G],
June 26, 1955.
108Wade, R.T., et ai, "Production Logging_The Key to Optimum Wen
Performance," ]PT, February 1965.
,.. Kading, Horace W. and Hutchins, J.S., "Temperature Surveys,: The Art
of Interpretation," API-Drilling and Production Practices 11969.
'00Meunier D., Tixier, M.P., and Bonnet, J.L., ",The Production Combi-
nation Tool-A New System for Production Monitoring," SPE 2957, 1970.
20'Witterholt, E.J., Tixier, M.P., "Temperature Logging in Injection
Wells," SPE 4022, 1972.
... McKinley, R.M., Bower, F.M., Rumble, R.C., "The Structure and
Interpretation of Noise from Flow Behind Cemented Casing," ]PT,
March, 1973.
... Odeh, A.S., Jones, L.G., "Two-Rate Flow Test, Variable-Rate Case-
Application to Gas-Lift and Pumping Wells," ]PT, January 1974.
... Suman, G.O., Jr., "Unconsolidated Sand Stabilization Through Wellbore
Stress State Control," SPE 5717, '1975.
"'" Snyder, Robert E., "What's New in Well Completion," World Oil, May
1977.
End of series

WORLD OIL 1977 73