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phonological rule. The output of that process is the phonetic representation of the
pronunciation (4).
underlying
representation Phonological rules Phonetic representation
Mohanan (1982:112)
Also phonological rules are used with lexical phonology in a sense that it is a
theory in which morphological and phonological rules are brought together within a
single framework (McMahun,2000,35).
Katamba ( ibid.) states that the rules needed to account for the above examples
are listed as follows:
(a) voiceless stops are aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable;
(b) consonants are labialized (rounded) before rounded vowels;
(c) velar consonants are fronted ( palatalized ) before high front vowels.
The above formal representation of the phonological rules will be changed into
algorithms using distinctive feature and formal notation. The restatement of the rules
from the forms above into the forms below will give us a clear conception about the
basic formal conventions of GP :
Input becomes output in the environment
(a)[-cont , - voice] → [+aspirated] / _ (c) [-cons , +stress]
e.g. /k/ becomes [kh] before a stressed
vowel ( as in acoustic
(b) [+cons] → [+round] / _ [-cons , +round]
e.g. /t / becomes [tw] before a rounded vowel
(as in too)
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(3) what occurs to the right of the arrow is the output of the rule;
(4) following the output, there is a diagonal line '/ ' to the right of the line is the
environment, the ─ line which forms part of the environment shows exactly where the
changed segment is located;
(5) the brackets round an element like (c ) indicates that a given element is optional.
In this instance, it indicates that a voiceless plosive is still aspirated even when a
consonant intervenes, as in prayer.
3- Generative Theory
Generative phonology (GP) is the application of generative grammar to
phonology. Generative means rules that will describe possibilities in the language,
grammar, or phonology, they are developed to analyzed phonological systems of
languages around the world. These rules have proposed by Chomsky and Halle(1964)
as a central procedure of GP. The goal of this theory is to make precise and explicit
the ability of native speakers to produce and perceive or understand utterances of a
particular language. In generative phonology, the level of the phoneme is redefined to
match the deeper level of abstraction aimed for in the most efficient conception of
phonological processes. It is the task of the phonological rules to account for the
predictable aspects of pronunciation whether they relate to alternate pronunciations of
the same basic morpheme or different phonetic forms that a sound can take. These
rules, made to look like "mathematical formulas", provide an explicit means of
capturing the general principles of various phonological processes: 1) assimilation, 2)
dissimilation, 3) deletion, 4) insertion, and 5) metathesis. The incorporation of
distinctive features into a generative phonology allows the linguist to state explicitly
important generalizations about the phonology of a language (1).
4- Types of Phonological Rules
Phonological rules can be best understood through the following phonological
processes:
4-1 Assimilation
Hyman (1952:221-3) states that assimilation refers to all adaptive
modifications of a segment in a chain of segments by a neighboring segment.
According to Driven (2004:119), assimilation is a process whereby one sound causes
an adjacent sound to be “more similar” to itself.
Sounds become more like neighboring sounds
[n] ➝ [m]/__ [+bilabial]
Assimilation can be conditioned by preceding or following sounds.
Concerning types of assimilation, Hyman suggests that scholars classify
assimilations differently and he presents the following figure for this classification.
Types of Assimilation
Distinctiveness and stability Direction of change
of change
Progressive Regressive
Phonetic Morphologic
(Free variation) (Morphophonemic)
(Contextual) (Historical)
Phonemic
( Neutralization)
(Syncretism)
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From the point of view of distinctiveness and stability of change, assimilation
patterns manifest three sub- types:
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(iv) [ŋ] before velar consonants (e.g. when [k or g] follows)
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where the sound contrasts may be difficult so the rule is applied for ease of
production and perception (6).
In other words, a phonological process that changes feature values of segments to
make them less similar.
Annual annular
sexual secular
cultural cellular(cell)
penal perpendicular (7)
4-3 Deletion
When a sound, such as a stressless syllable or a weak consonant, is not
pronounced; for example, most American English speakers do not pronounce the [d]
in "handbag", [n] in "condemn", [k] in " know" (6).
So, it is a process by which a sound present in the phonemic form is removed
from the phonetic form in certain environments forease of production (3).
Lass (1984:186) suggests that there are three types of deletion: aphaeresis which
is initial deletion as in ( I am --- I'm, I have ----I 've ) or the initial loss of /k/ before /n/
as in know, knight , syncope is formative internal deletion: the term is most frequently
used with vowel loss, but some writers extend it to consonants as well. This can be
seen in American and British forms of certain words: /s kr t ri/ vs. /s kr tr /
'secretary', ' sign ', assign. Apocope is the loss of a final element as /t/ before a word
beginning with another consonant, ' last time, also low stress words may loss their
finals as in 'and', 'of'. Deletion is found in the Arabic language and the following
examples are stated form the holy Quran:
ﺍﻨﺎﺭ----- ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺭ
ﺍﺸﻤﺱ----- ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺱ
ﻤﻨﻔﺱ---- ﻤﻥ ﻨﻔﺱ
ﺍﺭﻜﻤﻌﻨﺎ---- ﺍﺭﻜﺏ ﻤﻌﻨﺎ
ﻴﻠﻬﺫﻟﻙ----- ﻴﻠﻬﺙ ﺫﻟﻙ
ﺍﻅﻠﻤﻭﺍ----- ﺍﺫ ﻅﻠﻤﻭﺍ
ﻗﺎﻟﻁﺎﺌﻔﺔ---- ﻗﺎﻟﺕ ﻁﺎﺌﻔﺔ
ﻗﺘﺒﻴﻥ---- ﻗﺩ ﺘﺒﻴﻥ
4-4 Insertion
Nathan (2008:82) asserts that not only can segments be deleted, sometimes
they can be inserted instead. There seem to be two basic reasons for insertion:
preventing clusters of consonants that violate syllable structure constraints in the
language, and easing transitions between segments that have multiple
incompatibilities. We’ll deal with each kind in turn. Again, there are Greek-based
terms for insertions at the beginning, middle and end.
Insertion at the beginning is observed in Spanish, where the language does not
permit onset clusters. Words that are inherited from Latin with such clusters changed
to have an initial /e/ inserted:
especial [espesial] ‘special’
estudiante [estudiante] ‘student’
escuela [eskwela] ‘school’
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A particularly strange, but well-known kind of insertion is the famous
‘intrusive/linking r’ of British and some dialects of [American English]. In these
dialects a historical /r/ has been deleted in word-final coda position, but when the
word is followed by vowel initial words under complex and not-completely-
understood circumstances, the /r/ reappears, an example of ‘intrusive r’ is:
idea [aI diə]
idea is [aIdiərIz]
All of the examples we have seen so far involve insertion of vowels to break up
sequences of consonants that violate syllable structure constraints. In other cases the
/r/ reappears even when there was never an /r/ there in the first place (this is known as
‘intrusive r’). Typical examples of ‘linking r’ are
rear [riə]
rear end [rirεnd]
He adds (ibid.) that there are two types of insertion: prothesis and epenthesis, the
former refers to the insertion of a segment at the beginning while the latter refers to
the insertion inside a word.
Snoopy + /e/ ➝ /esnupi/ ( prothesis)
glass + plural /s/ ➝ /glæsəz/ (epenthesis)
ϕ ➝ [+stop] / [+nasal] __ [+fricative]
ϕ ➝ [ə] / [s] __ [z]
There is a special kind of epenthesis which involves inserting a schwa between
a liquid and another consonant. This occurs in nonstandard English between [θ] and
/r/ or /l/ in words such as the following:
arthritis [aəθəraInIs]
athlete [aθəlit]
Furthermore, he (ibid.) suggests that here is a different kind of epenthesis that is
fairly wide spread, involving the insertion of a stop between a nasal and a voiceless
fricative. Since movement from a nasal stop to a voiceless fricative involves three
simultaneous articulatory changes (lift velum, release closure, open vocal cords)
languages often prefer to sequence the three gesture changes as follows: lift velum
and open vocal cords simultaneously, then release closure. This amounts to inserting
a voiceless stop after the nasal. This change is an ongoing process in English, and has
also been a historical change. Here are some synchronic examples:
‘warmth’ [warmpθ]
‘hamster’ [hampst]
‘strength’ [strεŋkθ]
‘youngster’ [jϕ ŋkstә]
4-5 Metathesis
Phonological process that changes the order of phonemes
Old English vs. Contemporary English
asterix(ks) asterisk
comfterble comfortable
intregal integral
relator realtor
revelant relevant (7)
Lass (1984: 188) states that in old English there are interchanges of /p/ and
/s/ , as shown in spelling variants: /ps/ --- /sp/ in waspe 'wasp' , /sp/---/ps/ in apse aspe
'aspen' , cosp cops 'cope' , wlips 'lisping'. He adds that the metathesized forms wasp,
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copse are now standard. Another metathesis involves nasal sequences, specially /m/
and /n/: emnity for enmity, anemone for amenone.
5- Optional and Obligatory Rules
Some scholars make a distinction between optional phonological rules and
obligatory ones in a sense that the former may or may not apply in an individual's
speech such as palatalization, friction dissimilation, voiceless stop insertion, deletion;
they contribute to rate/style of speech, dialect variation; whereas the latter are applied
in the speech of all speakers of a language or dialect, regardless of style or rate of
speech such as nasalization, aspiration, devoicing , palatalization; they contribute to
native- sounding accent (3).
6- Characteristics
Hayes (2009) lists the following characteristics that all phonological rules have in
common.
1-Language specificity: A phonological rule that is present in one language may not
be present in other languages, or even in all dialects of a given language.
2-Productivity: Phonological rules apply even to new words. For example, if an
English speaker is asked to pronounce the plural of the nonsense word "wug" (i.e.
"wugs"), they pronounce the final s as [z], not [s], even though they have never used
the word before. (This kind of test is called the wug test ).
3-Untaught and unconscious: Speakers apply these rules without being aware of it,
and they acquire the rules early in life without any explicit teaching.
4-Intuitive: The rules give speakers intuitions about what words are "well-formed" or
"acceptable"; if a speaker hears a word that does not conform to the language's
phonological rules, the word will sound foreign or ill-formed (10).
7- Functions of Phonological Rules
Phonological rules have a number of functions, among them are the following:
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Dirven, R. (2004) Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics. University of
Duisburg.
Hyman, L. (1952) Phonology Theory and Analysis. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Katamba, F. (1989) An Introduction to Phonology. Longman and New York.
Lass, R. (1984) Phonology. CUP.
Nathan, G. (2008) Phonology. A Cognitive Grammar Introduction. USA.
McMahon,A.2000. Lexical Phonology and The History of English. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.Mohanan,K.P.1982.Lexcical Phonology
http://lolita.unice.fr/~scheer/interface/Mohanan%2082%20PhD%20-
%20Lexical%20Phonology.pdf
Sited Weds
(1) www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_&ERICExt.
(2 )http://www.ehow.com/info_12142585_purpose-phonological-
rules.html#ixzz2AmjSHQya
(3 )www.writework.com/essay/significance-function-phonological-rules
(4) coral.lili.uni-bielefeld.de/.../Summer04/HTHS/Salffner/phonrules.html
(5) www.tutorgigpedia.com/ed/Phonological_rule
(6) pediaview.com/openpedia/Phonological_rule.
(7) Phonology 2005 Linguistics An Introduction to Language and
Communication.
(8) 24.900: Introduction to Linguistics Phonology Class 3 April 13, 2005
(9) ocw.mit.edu/courses/linguistics-and-philosophy/24-900-introduction
(10) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_ rule.
(11) clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonology/generative/
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