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Impact of environmental and operating conditions in oil refineries on concrete

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 ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title no. 93-M34
Impact of Environmental and Operating Conditions
in Oil Refineries on Concrete Properties
by Osama E. K. Daoud and Iman A. Ibrahim
Concrete deterioration was observed in footings in one of the oldest oil
refineries (1949) in the Arabian Gulf. A field survey was carried out to
record the degree of deterioration and the physical conditions in more than
1000 footings. Samples are cut from the footings to study their condition
and determine the cause of deterioration. The impact of the refinery’s envi-
ronment on the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties has been
identified, and recommendations for prolonging concrete life are given.
Results show that exposed concrete not only degraded noticeably when
compared with buried concrete, but also the correlation between these
properties has changed It is found that the relationship between the voids
ratio and compressive sfrength is insensitive to the degree of exposure. The
opposite is true for the bulk density relation with strength. The relation-
ships of other properties varied between these two. It was clear that high-
performance concrete would be more suitable for use in such industrial
facilities where durability plays a more dominant role in the design.
Keywords: absorption; bulk density; carbonation; concrete properties;
deterioration; drying; exposure; modulus of elasticity; reinforced con-
cretes; strength; ultrasonic pulse velocity; voids ratio; wetting.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete has been used for the past 80 years in many dif-
ferent fields of construction and has proven its long-term ser-
viceability and durability. However, concrete used in major
industrial projects is subjected to harsh conditions that make
it prone to construction defects and/or poor service life. This
may arise from three sources:
1. Industrial projects are normally designed and built by
large international contractors who specialize in this area.
The contractors normally sublet the civil/structural work to
other contractors whose work may not be of the same caliber.
2. The concrete in these projects is subjected to harsh op-
erating conditions not experienced in other normal works;
the designers may not be aware of these conditions.
3. In most cases, the maintenance staffs in the industrial fa-
cilities have mechanical, electrical, or chemical backgrounds.
Thus, defects in the concrete elements are not diagnosed until
later stages when the damage is quite advanced.
Oil refineries in the Arabian Gulf states represent a major
source of income to these countries; these large facilities
have been built since the 1950s by international contracting
companies from North America and Europe. Many of the fa-
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
TECHNICAL PAPER
cilities are still in operation, many have been expanded, and
few have been put out of service. Due to the high initial in-
vestment in the facilities, their design life is normally much
longer than other structures. However, with the exception of
a recent paper published by O’Connor,1 there is a lack of in-
formation on the field performance of concrete in these facil-
ities. O’Connor’s work presented an extreme case of failure
due to the use of seawater in concrete mixing in an industrial
facility in the Arabian Gulf. The current paper presents the
findings of a research study carried out on concrete cores cut
from foundations in one of the oldest oil refineries in the
Gulf states. It presents the actual performance of concrete
subjected to a refinery environment and the changes ob-
served in the concrete properties due to the exposure.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
In this investigation, seven out of 63 production units in an
old refinery (built in 1949) located on the Gulf shore in
Kuwait were initially selected and included. They are:
Unit Name Abbreviation Age (yrs)
Hydrocarbon Platforming Plat 32
Crude Distillation Unit No. 3 CDU3 32
Fractionating Unit No. 1 FUl 27
Fractionating Unit No. 2 FU2 24
Washery Wash 40
Bitumen plant Bit 11
Production loading pump house PLPH 32
The ages previously shown were as of 1990. The concrete
elements under investigation are the footings supporting the
equipment, which vary in shape, dimension, and condition.
The information available on the design specifications and
construction data was limited. The concrete grade specified
for the units was 21 MPa. Ordinary portland cement was
ACI Materials Journal, V. 93, No. 4, July-August 1996.
Received Feb. 7, 1995, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright
 1996, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of
copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discus-
sion will be published in the May-June 1997 ACI Materials Journal if received by
Feb. 1, 1997.
307
Osama E. K. Daoud is Head of Management of the Construction and Contracts
Department, Dar Al-Handasah Consultants (Shair and Partners), Cairo, Egypt. He
received his BSc from Ain Shames University, Egypt, in 1972 and his PhD from the
University of Southampton, England, in 1978. He is a corresponding member of
RILEM Technical Committee TC 124, Strategies for the Repair of Corrosion-Dam-
aged Reinforced Concrete Structures. He has published more than 20 papers in the
field of concrete technology, quality control, fracture mechanics applications to rein-
forced concrete, and performance of building materials.
Iman A. Ibrahim is Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, Uni-
versity of Cairo. She received her BSc from the University of Cairo in 1978, her MSc
from Ohio State University in 1981, and her PhD from Cairo University in 1988. Her
research interests include concrete technology and the mechanics of failure in com-
posite materials.
Fig. 1—Concrete footing showing surface failure
and loss of cover with high degree of steel corrosion
used in all units except for the Bitumen Plant, where sulfate-
resisting cement was specified. The mix proportion was
specified as 1:2:4 for cement:sand:gravel, respectively, with
a cement content of 300 to 320 kg/m3 . No information on the
w/c ratio was given and no special additives were used to en-
hance the resistance to moisture. In very limited cases,
waterproof paint was required in the specifications. Two of
the units investigated were out of operation due to the aging
of the equipment. The concrete suffered from surface crack-
ing, spalling, steel corrosion, discoloration and disintegra-
tion. Other types of distress were found but in fewer
elements. Most of the footings were buried under the ground
with a few centimeters exposed. This was particularly true
for footings supporting tall structures, such as towers or foot-
ings supporting mechanical equipment such as pumps. Foot-
ings supporting long equipment, such as heat exchangers,
had pedestals emerging above-ground carrying the equip-
ment; these were more prone to environmental attack than
other footings.
In addition to the harsh arid environment of the Arabian
Gulf, the concrete in the refinery is subjected to severe
308
macroenvironmental conditions rarely found in other loca-
tions. They are:
1. Heat arising from the heating towers that results in ther-
mal cracking due to the varied thermal coefficient of expan-
sion of concrete components.
2. Sulfate attack could result from the sulfuric gases, such
as H2 S and SO2 , produced during the refinery operations that
are byproducts of the oil industry. Due to the high humidity
in the refinery due to its proximity to the Arabian Gulf, sul-
furic acid and acid rain are formed and attack the concrete.
The most important chemical reaction of SO2 on concrete in
the presence of humidity leads to the formation of calcium
sulfate, which is easily washed away by water due to its
greater solubility; thus, causing leaching of the surface.2
Consequently, the strength of concrete is reduced consider-
ably, particularly under prolonged action of SO2 .3,4 More-
over, the calcium sulfate that is produced crystallizes as
gypsum if it has not washed out, which, in turn, interacts
with the cement, producing thaumasite, which causes severe
softening of the paste. 2 The rate and extent of deterioration
due to sulfate attack depends on the concentration of sulfate,
the type of sulfate salts, permeability, and porosity of con-
crete. The most severe condition occurs when concrete is ex-
posed on one side to water pressure and on the other side to air.5
3. Wetting and drying arising from leaking connections
and cyclic washing of the concrete floors with seawater
used to wash spilled residues of hydrocarbons. Due to its
high cost, potable water is not used for this purpose. Fire hy-
drants with seawater under pressure were used daily. This
results in alternate expansion and contraction and hydration
and dehydration, causing mechanical damage when the salt
crystals form and dissolve within the pores of the paste and
porous aggregate.
4. Chloride and sulfate attacks resulting from the alternate
wash by the seawater causing continuous buildup of salts on
the concrete surface. With time, as the salts penetrate the
concrete, steel corrosion and concrete cracking take place.
5. Vibration from pumps and motors with high frequencies
causing internal cracking to the concrete.
6. Steam and gases from leaking pipes and steam-relief
valves disintegrate the concrete surface and could create
large holes through loss of concrete components.
In addition to these harsh conditions, the concrete rarely re-
ceived any maintenance. Most of the maintenance is devoted
to the mechanical equipment, during which the concrete ele-
ments may be harmed. Chemicals used in the maintenance
process are often spilled on the floor, and this is usually ac-
companied by water. Mechanical damage could also result
during the removal of some of the equipment for cleaning or
replacement. This happens often with heat exchangers. It was
noticed that one of the two pedestals carrying the heat ex-
changer was always badly cracked. Upon investigation, it
was revealed that the internal piping system is pulled out from
the cracked side for cleaning. As a result, some of the 1000
footings in the selected units showed an alarming degree of
deterioration. Fig. 1 to 4 show examples of the extreme cases
observed. The batch work used in the maintenance has esca-
lated to a very costly and time-consuming operation. This re-
search study was initiated to help prepare a repair strategy and
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
 Fig. 3—Concrete footing supporting pump showing high
degree of spalling due to corrosion of steel reinforcement

Fig. 2—Pedestal carrying heat exchanger with exposed part

badly cracked with high degree of steel corrosion

management system to maintain the units in safe and opera-

tional conditions for the next 20 years.

RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
This research investigates the reasons for concrete deteri-
oration in oil refineries and identifies the major causes of
failure through an investigation on field-cut samples. The
significance of this work arises from the limited information
available in literature on the impact of the local environment
of industrial facilities, such as the oil refinery, on the proper-
ties of concrete. Most of the available data in literature are
deduced from laboratory investigations where the changes in
properties are due to one type of exposure and, in most cases,
produced under unrealistic conditions to accelerate the reac-
tion with concrete. This field investigation reports the actual
performance of concrete under combined attack for 40 years
in severe operating and environmental circumstances.
RESEARCH PLAN
A data collection sheet that can be supported by a comput-
erized system was developed as an inspection tool. This was
necessary to handle the large amount of data resulting from
the field investigation. All visible defects, their degree, and
their possible causes were included. The equipment supported
by the footing and its degree of importance were listed to es-
tablish the priorities for the sampling and repair work. Also,
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
Fig. 4—Concrete footing showing surface degradation
due to loss of cement mortar and corner spalling
the proposed method for repair work was initially identified
to assist in obtaining an estimated cost for budgeting purposes.
The data collected was used to identify the locations from
which concrete samples were to be taken. A total of 102
cores, 100 mm in diameter, were cut under stringent safety
conditions to prevent any sparks. The samples were cut
from exposed and buried portions of the footings, as well as
damaged and intact portions of the footings. The cores were
coded to reflect this information and were photographed on
arrival to the laboratory. The code name included the unit-
abbreviated name, the direction of the cut (H = horizontal, V =
vertical), the position with respect to ground (A = above, B =
below), and the footing serial number. Each core was visu-
ally inspected and measured. The carbonation depth, exist-
ence of cracks, color, maximum aggregate size, type of
aggregate, existence of reinforcement, and degree of com-
paction were recorded on arrival. Each core was divided
into three portions, and each portion was subjected to the
following experimental tests.
309
Table 1 only one footing in this category was found in poor condi-
Number of cores tion. The previous information indicates that the visual in-
No. of Percent of cored spection showed that concrete has generally performed well
Unit name footings Total elements Buried Exposed in the harsh conditions of the refinery.
Plat 138 18 13.0 8 10 The strategy of selecting the core locations from the total
CDU3 238 20 8.4 15 5 number involved considered the condition and the degree of
FU1 101 14 13.9 7 7 importance of the footings. The high-importance footings in
FU2 316 22 7.0 6 16 poor conditions were given the highest priority. Tables 1 and 2
Wash 55 7 12.7 2 5
show the number of cores taken from each unit and the dis-
Bit 169 10 6.0 2 8
tribution of the cores with the degree of importance and the
PLPH 61 11 18.0 4 7
general condition of the footing. As can be seen, the percent-
Average
Total 1078 102
9.46 percent
44 58 age of cored footings is reduced with improved conditions
and a lower degree of importance.
The total number of cores from footings in poor, medium,
Table 2 and good conditions were uniform. In addition to the previ-
Degree of importance High Medium Low ous considerations, the coring position was also taken into
Element condition G M P G M P G M P account. To obtain sound statistical results, it is always ad-
Total inspected elements 51 13 1 173 87 16 421 239 65 visable to take samples representative of the entire unit and
Number of cored elements 15 9 1 9 9 6 6 4 12 from each concrete batch cast during construction; in the ab-
Percent of cored elements 30 70 100 5 10 38 1.4 1.7 18 sence of the actual construction sequence, it had to be as-
Total inspected elements 65 276 725 sumed. Table 1 shows the number of cores was proportional
Cored elements 25 24 22 to the number of footings within each unit. However, some
Percent of cored elements 38 8.7 3 variations were made for exceptionally large units, such as
CDU3 and FU2, where a lower percentage of cored footings
was used to reduce costs. The opposite is true for small units,
Portion 1: This was the top 50 mm of the core that was such as PLPH and Washery, where a larger percentage was
subjected to the environment. This portion was used to deter- used to have a more representative number of cores. On the
mine the chemical composition and salt attack by analyzing average, 10 percent of the footings were cored. Out of the
powdered samples obtained by power drilling at three differ- 102 cores cut, 82 were subjected to the physical and mechan-
ent levels along the length: 0 to 10 mm,;10 to 30 mm; and 30 ical tests, and half of these were cut from the exposed portion
to 50 mm. They were labeled A, B, and C, respectively. The
of the elements. Because of certain limitations and surface
profiles of chloride, sulfate (SO4 ), calcium carbonate
conditions, not all cores could be used for chemical analysis.
(CaCO3 ) contents, and pH value were determined using wet
Hence, 42 cores were analyzed chemically and 27 were cut
chemistry, and the cement content was determined using the
from the exposed part of the footings.
ASTM C 85 method.
Portion 2: This comprised the next 150 mm of the core
Chloride and sulfate attacks
and it was used to determine the compressive strength
Fig. 5 shows the chloride content expressed as a percent-
(ASTM C 39), modulus of elasticity (ASTM C 469), dry
age of the cement weight (defined in the original mix design
density, and pulse velocity (ASTM C 597).
at 320 kg/m3 ) at the three depths for all 42 samples. Results
Portion 3: This was the bottom 60 to 70 mm of the core
indicate that the highest concentration always occurred at the
and it was used to determine the voids ratio, water absorp-
shallowest depth (A), except for a few cores, e.g., Core
tion, and specific gravity using ASTM C 642. These proper-
PLAT (114)HA in the Platformer unit. The core taken from
ties were determined by submerging the concrete in boiling
this footing (Fig. 6) indicates that the concrete suffered from
or cold water, both of which alter the chemical composition
poor concrete proportions. Loose paste was also removed
of the matrix. Hence, they were not used for chemical analysis.
during the coring, indicating a lower cement content and a
higher voids ratio.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Visual survey and sampling Chloride content as high as 8 percent was recorded for a
The field inspection results indicated that only 8 percent of sample in the Washery unit. The chloride content in many
the total population is in poor condition. Most of these were samples taken from the exposed portions of the footings ex-
low-importance footings, including pipe racks, footings sup- ceeded the upper limit of 0.15 percent allowed in ACI 318.6
porting small tanks, heat exchangers, small pumps, and col- This may explain the high percentage of steel corrosion in
umns carrying small structures. These footings can be these elements. A chloride content less than 0.1 percent by
replaced or repaired without a serious impact on the unit op- weight of cement is considered negligible, whereas a chlo-
eration. The medium-importance footings totaled 276 and ride content between 0.1 and 1 percent has a significant in-
supported large pumps, heat exchangers, storage tanks, and fluence on concrete durability.7 The chloride content
others. These would not be difficult to replace or repair since threshold for active corrosion of reinforcing bars is defined
partial shut-down can be arranged. The high-importance as approximately 0.8 kg/m3 of free chloride at the level of re-
footings totaled 65 and require a full shut-down for replace- inforcement, 8 which is equivalent to 0.27 percent of the ce-
ment. They support large vessels, stacks, or heavy structures; ment content in the concrete.
310 ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
 Fig. 6—Core sample cut from badly deteriorated footing in
Platformer unit showing loss of mortar during coring oper-
ation due to low cement content

Fig. 5—Chloride content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed

and buried concrete

Samples taken from the buried portions contained a much

lower chloride content; Fig. 7(a) shows the mean values of
the readings. This explains the lack of corrosion cracking in
the buried portions and shows that the chloride contamina-
tion is due to external rather than inherent factors. This is
mainly caused by the daily wash by seawater or due to the
surrounding chloride-polluted environment (a result of the
refinery location on the Gulf shore).
Fig. 8 shows that the sulfate content for exposed concrete,
expressed in terms of SO4 , is consistently higher than that for
buried concrete. The 4 percent limit, identified by most
codes, was exceeded in many areas in five production units; Fig. 7—Mean values for chemical results at Depths A, B,
and C for concrete located above- and below-ground
the units where SO 2 and H2 S gases were released in the air
during their operation. They were essentially the same as
those with high chloride contamination. Fig. 7(b) shows that tent at Depth C may originate from the basic constituents of
the mean sulfate content in samples taken from above- and the concrete: cement, water, and aggregates.
below-ground ranged from 2.5 to 3.5 percent of the cement Webster and Kukacka9 indicated that dry gases will not
weight. A gradual reduction in SO4 was observed at deeper substantially harm building materials, yet, in combination
locations, where exposed and buried concrete produced with moisture, they tend to form an aggressive solution that
almost the same result. Higher sulfate was observed at Depth A penetrates into the binding agents and deteriorates the con-
for exposed concrete, which may be due to the exposure to crete. In general, dry SO2 (sulfur dioxide) is not deleterious
the sulfate-bearing air and to SO2 from the nearby stacks. to cement products. However, since 1 volume unit of water
The highest SO4 concentration was obtained at the Bitumen will dissolve 45 volume units of gas, the sulfurous acid solu-
Plant, which contained the highest polluted atmosphere (ob- tion thus formed is aggressive to concrete. At industrial
served in the field survey). Also, buried concrete produced plants, where sulfur dioxide escapes through smoke stacks
relatively higher sulfate content at Depth A in this unit, and combines with atmospheric moisture, forming a sulfu-
which may result from surface water infiltrated through the rous acid (H2 SO3 ) that gradually reacts with oxygen to form
joint between the footing and the floor slab. The sulfate con- sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), both create acid rain, which is aggres-
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996 311
Fig. 8—Sulfate content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed and
buried concrete
sive to steel and concrete. This was one major source of the
loss in density and strength experienced in this plant. This is
explained through the following reactions
SO ⋅ H O
2 2 1
CaCO 3 + ----------------------------→ CaSO 3 ⋅ ---H 2 O +
2 ature is higher than 25 F, which is the case in Kuwait.
O ⋅H O
2 2
CO 2 ------------------------→ CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H2 O
and
CaCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 + H 2 O → CaSO4 ⋅ 2H 2 O + CO 2
The previous component in Eq. (2) will react with cement
components and produce ettringite, also known as calcium
sulfo-aluminate, following this reaction
3 ( CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2O ) + 3CaOAl 2 ⋅ O3 ⋅ 6H2 O + 20H2 O →
3CaO ⋅ Al 2 O 3 ⋅ 3CaSO4 ⋅ 23H 2 O
Ettringite is easily soluble in chloride and is washed away
during the daily seawater wash. The high voids ratio ob-
312
Fig. 9—CaCO3 content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed
and buried concrete
served at the surface (discussed later) may have contributed
to the high sulfate attack on the concrete. These voids could
be the result of poor curing during the construction phase or
high water/cement ratios. 4 It could also result from the con-
tinuous leaching of calcium sulfate or gypsum. Aggression
due to SO2 attack is further increased if the ambient temper-
An acidic moisture containing hydrogen sulfide and nitro-
gen dioxide is precipitated on the footings from the highly
(1) humid atmosphere. When permitted to penetrate the con-
crete, it is highly corrosive. Concrete saturated with precipi-
tation tends to dry in summer, and this gives rise to
efflorescence of salts on the outside surfaces, which may ex-
plain the high concentration of salts at the outer surface of
(2)
the concrete, as well as the lower cement content. It may also
explain the low density of exposed samples due to leaching,
as will be seen later.
Carbonation
Fig. 9 and 7(c) show the localized and mean CaCO3 con-
centrations, respectively. Results indicate a gradual decrease
in CaCO3 with depth in both exposed and buried concrete.
However, the rate of reduction in CaCO3 is higher in samples
(3) taken from exposed areas. At Depth C, exposed and buried
concrete contained almost the same CaCO 3 concentrations;
26.5 percent, which is normally experienced in hardened
concrete. Exposed concrete contained CaCO3 up to 100 per-
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
cent of cement weight. It is interesting to note that samples
with low CaCO3 at Depth C are those with the high sulfate
content at the same depth. This is clear in Samples
WASH(19)HA, CDU3(89)HA, BIT(50)HA, and
PLAT(114)HA, and this could be attributed to the observa-
tions made by researchers that carbonation may enhance the
early resistance of concrete to sulfate attack by blocking the
voids; hence, reducing the penetration of external gases to
the interior.10-12 CO 2 dissolved in water first leads to the for-
mation of a thin layer of CaCO3 in the area of concrete close
to the surface. Moreover, the carbon dioxide dissolves the
calcium hydroxide present in the hardened cement paste,
forming CaCO 3

CO 2 + C a( OH )2 → CaCO 3 + H 2 O (4)

Additional CO2 dissolves the CaCO3 to form Ca(HCO3 )2 ,

which is removed by water, causing leaching to the concrete
surface. Grube et al.10 stated that lime-attacking carbonic acid
dissolves the calcium from its bonds. As a result, the concrete
is progressively destroyed from the surface to the inside.
The carbonation limit was also determined by applying
phenolphthalein to freshly cut concrete. It was found that for
all buried samples, no carbonation was recorded. The car-
bonation depth in exposed concrete ranged from 5 to 52
mm. However, Hensel12 had reservations on determining
the carbonation depth using phenolphthalein, since the solu-
tion shows a color change towards a reddish-pink at a pH
value of only 9. He also claimed that the reddish color, prov-
ing the existence of calcium hydroxide, may be wrongly in-
terpreted. This is because in reality, the color change taken
for a carbonation front could be caused by the alkali carbon-
ates and/or alkali hydroxides, while the calcium is already
present as CaCO 3.
Cement content and pH
Fig. 10 shows the wide variation in cement content in mortar
with respect to depth and location. For exposed concrete, ce-
ment content as little as 3 percent cement content was ob-
tained in the Bitumen Plant and CDU3 at Depth A. The
sample shown in Fig. 6 from the Platformer unit produced
cement contents of 12 and 20 percent at Depths A and C, re-
spectively. This indicates the poor mix proportions in this
footing, and hence, explains the high chloride content at
deep levels. At Depth C, the cement content ranged from 20
to 50 percent. However, for buried concrete, the cement at
Depth A ranged from 20 to 45 percent, except for two sam-
ples at the PLPH unit, which was recovered at deeper levels.
Fig. 7(d) shows that the mean average of cement content for
buried concrete is maintained at 30 percent, which complies
with the mix proportions given in the specifications, where
the cement-to-sand ratio was 1:2. For exposed concrete, the
mean cement ratios at Depths A, B, and C were 13, 23, and
29 percent, respectively. The loss of cement near the surface
may be due to leaching or abrasion during the daily seawater
wash under pressure.
The pH values for buried concrete ranged from 11 to 12,
except for Sample PLPH(22)HB, which was below this
range at the surface layer. It is interesting to note that this
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
Fig. 10—Cement content at Depths A, B, and C for exposed
and buried concrete
particular sample was the one that contained the least cement
in Fig. 10. The visual inspection of this sample showed that
it was taken from a badly deteriorated footing, as seen in Fig. 1.
As will be seen later, this footing produced some of the low-
est results for compressive strength, modulus of elasticity,
and ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV) among all cores. The
pH values for buried concrete ranged from 11 at Depth A to
12.1 at Depth C. Exposed concrete at different depths pro-
duced pH values ranging from 9 to 12.5. This finding sup-
ports the visual inspection observations where steel
corrosion was noted only on the exposed concrete. Fig. 2
shows a case where a badly cracked footing had a corrosion
crack stopped at the ground surface. The pH mean average
for buried and exposed concrete is shown in Fig. 7(e).
From the previous information, it can be seen that ex-
posed concrete contained four to five times the degree of
chloride contamination, 10 to 14 percent more SO4, 50 to 70
percent higher CaCO3 , 10 to 50 percent less cement/mortar
ratio, and 7 percent less pH at the surface layer when com-
pared to buried concrete. This indicates that exposed con-
crete is prone to attack by the macroenvironment, and
hence, additional protection is required to maintain the con-
crete in serviceable condition.
Mechanical and physical properties
Fig. 11 and 12 compare the mechanical and physical prop-
erties measured for exposed and buried concrete. Buried
concrete produced higher strength, pulse velocity, modulus
of elasticity, and density, and lower voids and absorption for
313

Fig. 11—Voids ratio, absorption, and bulk density for
exposed and buried concrete (1 lb/ft3 = 0.016 T/m3 )
almost all the cores. It is interesting to note that samples with
higher strength and density are essentially those with low
voids and absorption. Modulus of elasticity and pulse velocity
follow the same pattern. In a few exceptional cases, this rule
was not applicable. Sample WASH(7)HB produced lower
strength, modulus of elasticity, UPV, and bulk density than
some exposed elements in the same unit. It had a high voids
content and absorption percent, which indicates the poor
quality of concrete used in its construction. Also, it had one
of the highest SO4 contents at Depth C (Fig. 8) and a relatively
low cement content (Fig. 10). On the other hand, Sample
FUl(18)HB, taken from buried concrete, produced the highest
mechanical properties and density and the lowest voids and
absorption percentages. It also contained low SO4 and chlo-
ride. Sample BIT HA (25), taken from the exposed part of
the footing, had the lowest mechanical and physical proper-
ties compared with other samples from the unit, and had al-
most the highest voids and absorption ratios and CaCO 3
content at the surface.
The mechanical properties for the whole sample, totaling
82 cores, were analyzed statistically by performing the
z-test. The test was used to ascertain that the properties ob-
tained for exposed and buried concrete are significantly dif-
ferent. The two samples were classified as two independent
samples with known standard deviation. Results showed that
with a confidence limit of 95 percent or more, the process av-
erages of the two samples are not equal. This implies that al-
though the two concretes were originally from the same
314
Fig. 12—Compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and
UPV for exposed and buried concrete (1 ft/s = 0.30S m/s; 1
ksi = 6.895 MPa)
source and had the same properties, they are now significantly
different in characteristics due to the exposure to the refinery
environmental conditions.
Fig. 13 summarizes the variations in the physical and me-
chanical properties of concrete due to exposure to the refin-
ery environment. The voids ratio increased from 12.7 to 16.5
percent for buried and exposed concrete, respectively, while
absorption increased from 5 to 7 percent. Thus, both proper-
ties increased by approximately 30 percent relative to buried
elements. The modulus of elasticity was reduced from
15,900 to 10,800 MPa, which represents a 31 percent reduc-
tion. Although the strength mean average for exposed con-
crete was 31 MPa, which is higher than the specified strength
(21 MPa), it is 25 percent lower than that of buried concrete
(41.6 MPa). This is attributed to the effect of the SO2 attack,
leaching, and internal cracking due to cyclic heating and
wetting and drying.
Knöfel and Röttger3 noticed that porous mortars (with w/c =
0.58) displayed a strength reduction of 15 percent when ex-
posed to SO2 with alternate wetting. Kayyali13 reported that
exposure of concrete to chloride may lower the strength, and
this is more pronounced if the concrete has not been cured
properly during its early life, as may be the case in the con-
crete under study. Bulk and dry densities were reduced by
0.90 and 2.50 percent, respectively. It was concluded that the
conditions of transport of the attacking and dissolved sub-
stances (SO 2) often have a much greater influence on the loss
of mass than the concentration of the attacking substances. 10
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
Fig. 13—Percentage of change in properties to exposed con-
crete compared to buried concrete
This phenomenon is due to a protective layer of SiO2 gel that
may be removed mechanically by subjecting the footings to
a jet of seawater during the daily wash.
Cohen and Mather14 reported that the failure criteria for
the loss of mass and strength dropped resulting from sulfate
attack. Previous research (Reference 14) defined loss of
mass limits at 5 and 2.5 percent for beams and cubes, respec-
tively. The loss of mass for a beam is double that for a cube
because of the higher surface-to-volume ratio. Strength drop
limit was defined at 25 percent. Accordingly, assuming that
the buried concrete properties represent the original material,
exposed concrete in this refinery has performed unsatisfac-
torily. This shows that the initial observation of the visual
survey, indicating that, generally, the concrete has per-
formed satisfactorily, may not be true, and that laboratory
evaluations should be used to verify the visual inspection results.
The high degree of deterioration in the properties of ex-
posed concrete may be due to the use of the siliceous aggre-
gate of Kuwait. The properties of this aggregate weaken the
concrete resistance against leaching and acid attack. It was
claimed15 that rocks containing carbonates (calcite) are more
resistant to acid gases than the components of the hardened
cement paste and are, therefore, recommended as aggregates
for concrete exposed to SO 2 and H2 S. The same is claimed
for concretes subjected to leaching due to carbonic acid.16
Daoud 17 reported that these aggregates were not available in
Kuwait until very recently.
Traditionally, it was always thought that strength reduc-
tions due to the effect of SO2 are negligible.3 Grube et al. 10
expressed their views that if concrete is exposed to acids, the
resulting loss of mass may be irrelevant to its use. This is of-
ten the case for structures such as foundations. The results
previously obtained prove that these traditional views should
not always be taken for granted, at least for the exposed por-
tion of the footing. The high percentage of variations in the
properties are the result of the highly corrosive environment
in the refinery.
Correlation between physical and
mechanical properties
In this section, the results from 82 cores were analyzed to
correlate different properties and the relationships obtained
were compared with available information in literature. Fig. 14
shows that the higher the voids content, the lower the
strength, and that the relationship between voids content and
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
Fig. 14—Relation between compressive strength and voids
ratio for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)
Fig. 15—Relation between compressive strength and bulk
density for concrete above- and below-ground (1 lb/ft3 =
0.016 T/m3 ; 1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)
strength, derived for exposed and buried concrete, is unique.
However, the results for the exposed concrete had a lower
range for strength and a higher range for voids content. This
indicates that the relationship between both properties is not
sensitive to the cause but more so to the magnitude of the
voids content. The exposed concrete experiences higher
voids due to leaching resulting from environmental attack.
Fig. 15 shows that higher bulk density, which is associated
with better compaction, generally exhibits higher strength.
The relationship between bulk density and strength is more
sensitive to the degree of exposure than the voids content.
Although the rate of change remained essentially the same
for exposed and buried concrete, the above-ground best-fit
was shifted downwards and to the left (Fig. 15). This implies
that exposure to the refinery environment reduced the density
and strength of concrete concurrently. Also, exposed con-
crete will produce lower strength than buried concrete if both
have the same density. This may be due to the fact that the
loss of mass is caused normally by loss of the binder (ce-
ment) due to leaching. Although the cement content at deeper
levels for exposed concrete was nearly the same as for buried
concrete [Fig. 7(d) and 10], it seems that its binding effect
(adhesion), as well as the collective performance of the con-
crete mass (cohesion), are weakened by the attack of SO2
and internal cracking due to cyclic heating and wetting and
drying. This shows the importance of insulating the exposed
part of concrete from the environment and the use of a low
w/c ratio to reduce the ingress of gases to the interior.
Fig. 16 shows that the higher the absorption, the lower the
strength and that the relationship between the two properties
varies according to the degree of exposure. Concrete with the
315
Fig. 16—Relation between compressive strength and
absorption for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi =
6.895 MPa)
Fig. 17—Relation between compressive strength and modu-
lus of elasticity for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ksi
= 6.895 MPa)
same absorption will produce a higher strength if not ex-
posed. The increase in strength is approximately 15 percent
at an absorption value of 6 percent and the increase in
strength increases to 23 percent for an absorption of 4 percent.
The rate of change in the modulus of elasticity (E) with
strength is higher for exposed than buried concrete, as seen
in Fig. 17. The same is true in Fig. 18, where the UPV rela-
tionship is plotted with strength. For high-strength concrete
(fc > 50 MPa), the UPV for buried and exposed concrete was
almost the same. In the refinery case study, relatively low-
strength concrete (fc = 21 MPa) was used. This may have
contributed to the noticeable drop in the physical and me-
chanical properties of the concrete due to their exposure to
the refinery environment.
The results produced by Kayyali18 plotted in Fig. 18 com-
pared well with the buried concrete results. Laboratory-
cured samples by Kayyali produced the highest rate of
change (the slope) in the resulting linear correlation and the
relationship was gradually shifted upward for buried and ex-
posed concrete, i.e., as the degree of exposure was increased.
This shows that a consistent trend may be seen in these rela-
tionships; the higher the degree of exposure to environmental
conditions, the lower the slope of the relationship between
strength and UPV. Sullivan 19 provided upper and lower limits
for pulse velocity with concrete from in situ results. These
limits compare well with the determined results, as shown in
Fig. 18.
Mather20 identified concrete conditions from UPV data.
Excellent quality concrete usually provides UPV of 4600 to
4900 m/s. Velocities ranging between 3700 to 4600 m/s in-
316
Fig. 18—Relation between compressive strength and UPV
for concrete above- and below-ground (1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s;
1 ksi = 6.895 MPa)
dicate good quality concrete, and velocities from 3000 to
3700 m/s indicate concrete of questionable quality. As can
be seen from Fig. 13, most of the buried concrete cores in-
dicated good to excellent quality, while exposed concrete
ranged from questionable to good quality. This indicates
that the exposure to the local environment degraded the con-
crete, emphasizing the need to protect the concrete to main-
tain its quality.
CONCLUSIONS
1. This study revealed that slow degradation of the proper-
ties of concrete located above-ground should be expected in
oil refineries. This was not based on the results of some lab-
oratory accelerated tests that may be criticized for being un-
realistic, but on test results on concrete samples under actual
field exposure conditions.
2. Exposed portions of concrete exhibited four to five
times chloride content, 10 to 14 percent more sulfates, 50 to
70 percent higher CaCO 3, 10 to 50 percent lower cement
content, and 7 percent less pH value than buried concrete.
3. Exposed concrete showed a reduction in strength, den-
sity, modulus of elasticity, and UPV of 25, 2.5, 31, and 13
percent, respectively, when compared to buried concrete.
On the other hand, voids and absorption increased by 29 and
30 percent, respectively. This shows that the concrete has
suffered major degradation in the performance that contra-
dicts the results of the initial observation made during the
visual survey. Thus, a laboratory evaluation of concrete
samples is necessary to reach a thorough assessment of the
concrete condition.
4. The relationship between concrete strength and voids
ratio is unique and insensitive to the cause of the increased
voids. However, the loss of cement due to leaching or the
degradation in the cementing action due to sulfate attack and
internal cracking can cause a noticeable reduction in strength
and density. Hence, it is essential to protect concrete exposed
to harsh conditions from the external environment to main-
tain its properties.
5. In oil refineries and similar industrial installations, high-
performance concrete may be more appropriate to endure the
existing harsh environmental conditions in such facilities. In
the long run, this will result in savings in maintenance and
associated shut-down costs. Designers should consider dura-
bility as the major criteria for concrete in such facilities.
Higher cement content (not less than 400 kg/m3 ), lower
ACI Materials Journal / July-August 1996
water/cement ratio (not more than 0.45), and consistent qual-
ity concrete production may be necessary to enhance the du-
rability of concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Dar Al-Handasah Consultants for providing
facilities to produce this paper and to the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Re-
search (KISR) in Kuwait for financing this research. The authors are also
grateful to Mr. Gamal Al-Qazweeni and Mr. Khaled Hijab for their help and
assistance in the field survey and laboratory evaluation and to the staff of the
KISR Building Department and the KISR Central Analytical Laboratory for
their help.
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