Stichting Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly For The History of Art

The Old Testament as a Moral Code: Old Testament Stories as Exempla of the Ten
Commandments
Author(s): Ilja M. Veldman
Source: Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 23, No. 4 (1995), pp.
215-239
Published by: Stichting Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3780796
Accessed: 03-05-2019 21:15 UTC
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215
The Old Testament as a moral code: Old Testament stories

as exempla of the ten commandments*
IJja M. Veldman
Prefiguration was one of the mainsprings for the depic- jects in individual prints, largely due to the work of Lu-
tion of stories from the Old Testament in the late middle cas van Leyden.
ages. Certain episodes were interpreted as foreshadowing The growing popularity of Old Testament scenes is
events described in the New Testament, and they were thus attributable in the first place to the greater impor-
illustrated along with their New Testament antitypes in tance that was attached to the Bible-a development in
the Biblia pauperum and the Speculum humanae salvatio- which the Reformation was to play an important part. In
nis. Even as late as I530 the Amsterdam printer Doen addition to prefigurations and Bible illustration, various
Pietersz published a Biblia pauperum with an extensive Old Testament themes fulfilled another, more specific
series of woodcuts by Jacob Cornelisz and Lucas van function that is less well known, namely as exempla and
Leyden.' moral homilies. The purpose of this article is to demon-
In addition to this prefigurative type there was a sec- strate that many Old Testament stories served as a moral
ond visual tradition in which the Old Testament was guide in daily life from the fourteenth to the seventeenth
centuries. That tradition, which had its roots in four-
profusely illustrated, first in the shape of the Bibles mor-
teenth-century illuminated manuscripts, was extended
alisees and then most notably in the Netherlandish "his-
tory bibles" of the first half of the fifteenth century.2inBi-
Germany in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries
bles illustrated with woodcuts that were intended for a and subsequently manifested itself mainly in Nether-
wide public began appearing from the end of the fif- landish printmaking of the second half of the sixteenth
teenth century. The object was not just to embellish the century.
text but to clarify it. One work that had an enormous in-
fluence on the visual tradition was the Cologne Bible OLD TESTAMENT STORIES AS MORAL EXEMPLA In
printed by Heinrich Quentell around 1478. With more classical antiquity the exemplum was the rhetorical prin-
than ioo woodcuts accompanying the books of the Old ciple of the paradeigma a piece of evidence used to sub-
stantiate an argument. Myths and history provided the
Testament, it served as a model for later illustrators until
well into the sixteenth century.3 From then on, more and source material, as in Valerius Maximus's Facta et dicta
more bibles were published with the Old Testament lav- memorabilia. In the twelfth century, following this classi-
ishly illustrated, among them the Dutch Liesveldt Biblecal model, the exemplum was introduced in treatises and
(Antwerp 1526) and the Vorsterman Bible (Antwerp sermons and became a flourishing genre throughout
I 528).4 Old Testament stories also became common sub- Europe. An exemplum in the medieval sense can be de-
* The translation from the Dutch is by Michael Hoyle. (Rijksmuseum Het Catharijneconvent) & New York (The Pierpont
i J.P. Filedt Kok, "Een Biblia pauperum met houtsneden van Jacob Morgan Library) i989, pp. 129-45.
Cornelisz. en Lucas van Leyden gereconstrueerd," Bulletin van het 3 See A. Schramm, Der Bilderschmuck der Fruhdrucke, 23 vols.,
Rijksmuseum 36 ( I988), pp. 96 - I 14, figs. 3 and I7 - 28. Leipzig 1920-43, vol. 8 (1924): Die Kolner Drucker. The "Niederrhei-
nisch" edition made the text available to the population of the eastern
2 See R. Haussherr (ed.), Bible moralisie: Codex Vindobonensis 2554
Netherlands.
der Osterreichischen Nationalbibliothek, Graz etc. 1973; S. Hindman,
Text and image in fifteenth-century illustrated Dutch bibles, Leiden 4 For an overview of Bible illustrations see B. Rosier, De Nederlandse
1977; exhib. cat. The golden age of Dutch manuscript painting, Utrecht bijbelillustratie in de i6de eeuw (diss.), 2 vols., Amsterdam 1992.
2i6 ILJA M. VELDMAN
fined as a brief narrative containing reprehensible or which opens with stories from the Old Testament, de-
laudable examples, or both, illustrating a point of dogma fended the view that "living histories" teach more than
or morals. The reasoning was that people were more manuals composed of dead letters, for "had Adam been
readily convinced by concrete examples that were easy given an example instead of just the bare instruction and
to remember than they were by abstract theories. The a commandment, maybe both he and we would still be in
edifying examples usually contained supernatural ele- Paradise today."'0
ments (apparitions, visions, stories about the devil or
the Virgin Mary). The moralistic exempla dealt with OLD TESTAMENT STORIES AS EXEMPLA OF THE DEC-
good and evil, and were taken from classical stories, his-
ALOGUE IN LATE MEDIEVAL, DIDACTIC RELIGIOUS
tory or everyday life.5 L I T E R A T U R E The function of Old Testament stories

Although de Vooys in his standard work, Middelne- as moral exempla is seen most clearly in the clarification
derlandsche legenden en exempelen, does not mention the and illustration of the ten commandments. The Old Tes-
Old Testament as a source of exempla, biblical stories tament law that Moses received from God on Mount Si-
certainly did serve as moral object lessons.6 The Gesta nai (Exodus 20: I - 17) is, after all, best explained using
Romanorum (late thirteenth century), in which most of examples from its own context. The decalogue was re-
the exempla are taken from classical sources, also cites a garded as an ethical norm that also applied to Christians
few Old Testament stories, such as Naaman's leprosy, and not just as the law as the road to salvation in the Jew-
Nebuchadnezzar's dream and Jael slaying Sisera.7 Manyish sense. The importance of Moses's commandments in
more Old Testament exempla were used in the popular Christian ethics was based on Christ's interpretation of
Dat scaecspel (the Middle Dutch adaptation of the four- them in Matthew 5:17-48 ("Think not that I am come
teenth-century Ludus scaccorum of Jacobus de Cessolis) to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to de-
and in Dat kaetspel, which was based on it.8 The exam- stroy but to fulfil"), as well as on their exemplary func-
ples included the story of Susanna, Belshazzar's feast, tion for Christian behavior and the punishments pro-
Noah's drunkenness and Jacob's ladder. In other moral- posed for those who break them. "
istic and didactic treatises, too, one finds retellings of Old The ten commandments grew in importance in the
Testament stories, almost invariably as guides to correct, late middle ages due to the sacrament of confession, for
ethical conduct. The basis for this was the tropological they were held up as models from which the believer
exegesis of the Bible-commentaries that emphasized could recognize and understand his sins. "Thou shalt
the moral lessons to be drawn from a story for the pur- have no other gods before me" and "Thou shalt not
make unto thee any graven images" were conflated to
pose of ethical instruction and the attainment of a "forma
virtutis."9 form the first commandment. The last commandment,
The exemplum as demonstration in a speech or lesson "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house, thou shalt
also retained its importance in the sixteenth century. Se- not covet they neighbour's wife, nor his manservant, nor
bastian Franck, for example, in his Chronica of 1536, his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing
5 C. G. N. de Vooys, Middelnederlandsche legenden en exempelen: 43-46, vol. 2, pp. 549-620.

bijdrage tot de kennis van de prozaliteratuur en het volksgeloofder middel-IO Sebastian Franck, Chronica: tytboeck ende gheschietbibel, van aen
eeuwen, The Hague 1926, pp. I-4. begin tot in dit teghenwoordichj7aer verlengt, n.p. I 563, fol. iiiiv: "Hadde
6 See also C. Bremond, J. Le Goff and J. C. Schmitt, L 'Exemplum Adam zijns Vals een Exempel voor hem ghesien/ ende niet alleen bloot
(Typologie des sources du moyen-dge occidental, vol. 40), Brepols & de leeringe ende gebot gehadt/ by avontueren ware noch hy ende wy
Turnhout 1982, p. 39. hedent ten dage int Paradijs."
7 W. Trillizsch (ed.), Gesta Romanorum. Geschichten der Romer: ein ii G. Schiller, Ikonographie der christlichen Kunst, 5 vols., Guters-
Erzdhlbuch des Mittelalters, Frankfurt am Main 1973, nrs. 211, 213 and loh I968-9I, vol. IV-i (1976): Die Kirche, p. I2I. The importance of
233. the ten commandments is also stressed in the Speculum humanae salva-
8 See G.H. van Schaick Avelingh, Dat scaecspel, Leiden 1912, pp. tionis, in which the scene of the Israelites receiving the ten command-
lxix-cxvi, and J. A. R. Frederikse, Dat kaetspel ghemoralizeert, Leidenments is treated as a prefiguration of the descent of the Holy Ghost; see,
19I5, pp. xxxv-lxix. for example, H. Appuhn (ed.), Heilsspiegel: die Bilder des mittelalter-
9 On the tropological exegesis of the Bible see H. de Lubac, Exegeselichen Erbauungsbuches "Speculum humanae salvationis", Dortmund
medievale: les quatre sens de lPcriture, 2 vols., Paris 1959-64, vol. I, pp. I98I, ch. 32/34, figs. a and c.
The Old Testament as a moral code 2I7
that is thy neighbour's,"

havior in general,was
in word, thought
split or deed, both
intowithin two,
hibition against desiring one's neighbor's wife generally marriage and outside it. The prohibition against theft
becoming the ninth commandment and that against cov- also applies to usurers, receivers of stolen property and
eting his possessions the tenth. That order was occasion- people who in general harm others. False testimony also
ally reversed, by Luther and Melanchthon for example. covers lying, mockery, gossip and legal fraud. The ninth
Calvinist theologians later split the first commandment commandment about not coveting one's neighbor's wife
into two and combined the ninth and tenth. is comparable to the sixth commandment, and forbids all
From I400 more and more exegeses of the decalogue physical desire outside marriage. The tenth (against cov-
appeared in verse or dialogue form. The ten command- eting one's neighbor's goods) covers greed of every kind
ments were analyzed in sermons, confession booklets and and is associated with the seventh commandment against
all manner of moralistic religious treatises, initially in theft. I4
manuscripts and later in printed works.'2 The point was
that eternal life was reserved for those who observed the The Concordantiae caritatis
ten commandments. In Coninx summe, the Dutch ver- As Christiane Laun has explained, the typology of the
sion of La somme le roi, the ten commandments precede ten commandments combined with Old Testament sto-
the discussion of the seven deadly sins.'3 In most of the ries and their visualization was probably introduced by
Specula or Spiegels, moralistic and didactic treatises of Abbot Ulrich of the Cistercian monastery at Lilienfeld
the late fourteenth and fifteenth century, the ten com- in Austria.'5 His lavishly illustrated Concordantzae cart-
mandments were linked to a discussion of those sins. tatis, which was executed shortly after 1351, is a large ty-
Each commandment was accompanied by an account of pological work written for preachers, and contains a col-
the various ways in which man sinned against that com- lection of exempla of the decalogue. At least six manu-
mandment, and those transgressions were often illu- scripts of the Concordantiae caritatis are illuminated, in-
strated with instances drawn from daily life and from lit-
cluding Ulrich's original manuscript, which is kept in
the Lilienfeld monastery (ms. I5i). The other versions
erary sources of every kind, which helped underscore the
date from the end of the fourteenth or from the fifteenth
evil of the act. The breaches are far more varied than one
would expect from the actual text of the Bible. People century. The latest, of I47I, is in the Bibliotheque Na-
also sin against the first commandment (against having tionale in Paris (nouv. acq. lat. 2129). An illuminated
other gods) if they are scoffers, ingrates, heretics or page divided into several compartments is devoted to
heathens, or become involved with or believe in sorcery. each commandment. At the top, God the Father holds a
Those who break the second commandment (against tak- banderole with the text of the relevant commandment.
ing the name of God in vain) naturally include blasphe- He is surrounded by four prophets. In the central com-
mers, people who curse or commit perjury, but also those partments the commandment is then clarified and illu-
who swear an oath unnecessarily. The commandment to strated with two scenes from the Old Testament showing
observe the sabbath day is violated by those who do not its violation or observance. In the bottom section it is ex-
go to church, who work on Sundays and feast-days, or emplified by a depiction of one of the ten plagues visited
who dice, dance, make music or go out seeking amuse- on Egypt (Exodus 7:14 and 8- i i) and a scene from the
ment. The commandment to honour one's parents is ex- New Testament.'6
tended to cover respect for priests. The injunction not to The Old Testament exempla are as follows. The first
kill also covers the desire that someone should die. The commandment (fig. i), "Thou shalt have no other gods
commandment against adultery applies to unchaste be- before me," is illustrated with the story of the three He-
12 See J. Geffcken, Der Bildercatechismus des fiinfzehnten Jahrhun-pp. 150-57.

derts und die catechetischen Hauptstucke in dieser Zeit bis auf Luther, vol.
I5 C. Laun, Bildkatechese im Spatmittelalter: allegorische und typolo-
i, Die Zehn Gebote, Leipzig i855, pp. 28-i06. gische Auslegungen des Dekalogs (diss.), Munich I979, pp. 63-88. See
13 D. C. Tinbergen, Coninx summe, Groningen i900, pp. 89-goalso andE. Kirschbaum, Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie, 8 vols.,
I22-41. Rome i968-76, vol. I, cols. 459-6i.
14 P. Bange, Spiegels der Christenen: zelfreflectie en ideaalbeeld in i6 For these manuscripts and a list of all the exempla see Laun, op.
laat-middeleeuwse moralistisch-didactische traktaten, Nijmegen i986, cit. (note Is), pp. 78-8i.
2i8 ILJA M. VELDMAN
brew youths who refused to worship Nebuchadnezzar's who laid a false charge against Susanna (Daniel I3:6I-
idol and were cast into the fiery furnace, from which they62).
emerged unscathed (Daniel 3:2I-26). The second exem- The illustration to the ninth commandment (fig. 3),
plum is Moses punishing the Jews for their idolatrous here given as "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's
dance around the golden calf (Exodus 32: I -29). goods," shows Moses causing the earth to swallow up
The second commandment, "Thou shalt not take the Dathan and Abiram, who had risen against him (Num-
name of the Lord thy God in vain," is accompanied by bers i6:28-33), and Ahab, who gained possession of Na-
scenes of KingJosiah destroying the idols (2 Kings 23:4- both's vineyard by deceit and murder (I Kings 2I: I - I6).
i8), Elijah triumphing over the priests of Baal with his The tenth commandment (fig. 4), here "Thou shalt
sacrifice on Mount Carmel (i Kings i8:26-35), Saul per- not covet thy neighbour's wife," has Amnon raping his
suading the witch of Endor to summon up the ghost of half-sister Tamar (2 Samuel I3: IO- I4) and Nathan fore-
Samuel (i Samuel 28:5-20), and Mattathias killing a telling the death of the son of David and Bathsheba as
Jewish idolator and destroying the heathen altar (i Mac- punishment for their adultery (2 Samuel 12:7- I4).
cabees 2:23-25). Most of the illustrations, then, depict the punishment
The third commandment, "Remember the sabbath for breaking a commandment, but in a few cases they
day," has an illustration ofJews refusing to worship idols
show people upholding it, such as the three Jewish
or fight on the sabbath (i Maccabees 2:32-38) and the youths in the fiery furnace and Solomon honoring his
stoning of the Israelite who gathered wood on the sab- mother. Several of these stories, incidentally, are also de-
bath (Numbers 15:32-36). picted in the Biblia pauperum as examples of prefigura-
The fourth commandment, "Honour thy father and tion. '7
thy mother," is illustrated with Solomon honoring his
mother Bathsheba (i Kings 2:i9) and with the death of The Zielentroost
Absalom, who had risen in revolt against his father David Another work that devotes considerable space to Old
(2 Samuel 8:9-15). Testament exempla in elucidating the ten command-
The fifth commandment, "Thou shalt not kill," has as ments is the Zielentroost, a work based on the four-
its exempla David sparing Saul's life (i Samuel 26:7-12) teenth-century Grosse Seelentrost, which was written in
and Solomon having Joab put to death for killing the the Low German that was also spoken in the eastern part
generals Abner and Amasa (i Kings 2:29-34). of the Netherlands.'8 It is a treatise on the decalogue, the
The sixth commandment (fig. 2), "Thou shalt not contents of which are explained with the aid of numerous
commit adultery," has Potiphar's wife trying to seduce examples. In addition to exempla from the Old Testa-
Joseph (Genesis 39:7-I2) and Phinehas killing an Israe- ment (in very free renderings and with no references to
lite who bedded a Midianite woman (Numbers 25:6-8). the text of the Bible), there are legends and stories from
The seventh commandment, "Thou shalt not steal," classical and contemporary history. The typology of the
is illustrated with Tobias accusing his wife Anna of steal- Old Testament exempla corresponds in part to that in
ing a kid (Tobias 2:14-15), and with the stoning of the Concordantiae caritatis. The examples, however, are
Achan, who defied Joshua's order and hid stolen treasure
far more numerous. The many manuscripts and innu-
in his tent Joshua 7:2I-25). merable printed editions testify to the popularity of this
The eighth commandment, "Thou shalt not bear false work, particularly in northwest Germany and the Neth-
witness," has the spies whom Moses sent out to Canaan erlands. Under the title Troost der sielen or Der zielen-
and gave a distorted account of the land they had recon- troost there are at least six known Dutch editions from
noitered (Numbers I3:25-33), and the stoning of those the fifteenth century and I3 from the sixteenth. One of
17 See A. Henry, Bibla pauperum: afacsimile and edition, Ithaca I 987 ram, and p. 74 for Nathan foretelling the death of David and Bathshe-
(with illustrations from a block-book of ca. 1460 in Dresden), pp. 59 ba's son.
and I I i for the three young Hebrews in the furnace and Moses punish- i8 See the text edition by M. Schmitt, Der Grosse Seelentrost: ein
ing the Israelites, p. i i8 for Elijah's sacrifice, p. 79 for Absalom, p. go niederdeutsches Erbauungsbuch des vierzehntenjahrhunderts, Cologne &
for Joab killing Abner, p. 123 for the punishment of Dathan and Abi- Graz 1959; and Laun, op. cit. (note I5), pp. 88-89.
The Old Testament as a moral code 2I9
I~~~~~~~~~~~~I
iiThe three young Hebrews in thefiery furnace and The dance a round th e golden ca lf as exempla of the first command
cartatus. Lienfeld Monastery, ms 151, U 239v
Tv~~~~~~~~~~~E .
2 Potiphar 's wifr trying to seduceJoseph and Phrnehas killing an Israehiefor whoring with a Mzdtanite woman as exempla of the sixth commandment in
the Concordanuiae caritatis. Lilienfeld monastery ins. 151, fol. 244V
220 ILJA M. VELDMAN
the seventeenth-century versions, an abbreviated Ant- by Judith and Jael, and Gideon's victory were tradition-
werp edition of i650, has an approbation dated i622 de- ally regarded as heroic deeds, whereas their inclusion
claring the book suitable for schoolchildren. The last here suggests that the protagonists should have acted dif-
Dutch edition appeared in i 8oo.'9 ferently.
As exempla of the first commandment the book not The sixth commandment, concerning adultery, is
only has the dance around the golden calf, the Jewish broadened in the Zielentroost to "Thou shalt not be un-
people being punished for their idolatry and the three chaste." Once again, the Old Testament provides plenty
youths in the furnace, but also Adam's breach of the of examples, although not all of them seem particularly
relevant: Noah escaping the flood in his ark (Genesis
commandment not to eat from the tree of the knowledge
6:13-22), the destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah and
of good and evil (Genesis 3:I-7), Daniel in the lions' den
(Daniel 14:32-40) and Daniel refusing to worship Baal three other cities (Genesis I9:15-26), Adonijah trying
and slaying the dragon in Babylon (Daniel 14:4-27). to persuade Bathsheba to give him Abisag, who was
The second commandment is elucidated with the pro- tending the aged David (i Kings 2: I3- i8), and the ex-
fane story of the man throwing dice who became blind emplum from the Concordantiae caritatis of Potiphar's
because he swore so much by the eyes of God, and that wife attempting to seduce Joseph.
of the man who committed perjury and was struck The seventh commandment is elucidated with the
dumb. Although these are not Old Testament stories, above-mentioned story of Achan, who was stoned to
they are mentioned here because cursing, swearing an death for concealing treasure in his tent that he had sto-
oath and perjury are also frequently found in illustra- len from Jericho in direct contravention of Joshua's or-
tions of this commandment in an exclusively Old Testa- ders. The eighth commandment is also illustrated with
ment context. a familiar Old Testament type: Susanna before Daniel
Exempla of the third commandment include the story the judge, falsely accused of adultery by the two elders.
from the book of Numbers found in the Concordantiae No Old Testament example is cited for the ninth com-
caritatis, about the man who gathered wood on the sab- mandment (not to covet one's neighbor's goods), but it is
bath. Among the explanations of the fourth command- for the tenth (about coveting one's neighbor's wife). This
ment is the story cited in the same source of Absalom is explained not only with the story of David desiring
who rose up against his father David, and the new exem- Bathsheba already mentioned, but also with the uplifting
plum of Ham mocking Noah, his father, who drank too tale of Abimelech who took Sarah, Abraham's wife, away
much wine and fell asleep with his genitals exposed. from her husband in the mistaken belief that she was the
Upon waking, he cursed Ham for his lack of respect latter's sister, but who immediately restored her when he
(Genesis 9:20-27). discovered the truth (Genesis 2o: i -8). Abimelech also
Given the nature of the Old Testament, the fifthforbade
com- his people to touch Rebecca, Isaac's wife (Gen-
mandment prohibiting murder has examples in abun- esis 26:7 -I I).o
dance: Cain killing Abel (Genesis 4:4-8), Pharaoh's The Dutch editions have no specially commissioned
daughter discovering the infant Moses, who shouldillustrations.
have In Der sielentroost printed by Peter van Os
been killed (Exodus 2:5-6), Judith killing Holofernes at Zwolle in 1486 there are ten woodcuts with scenes
(Judith 13:8), Jael slaying Sisera (judges 4:21), Gideonfrom classical history from woodblocks originally made
killing io,ooo men of the army of the Midianites afterfor Gerard Leeu's I48i edition of the Gesta Romano-
his men drank from the river (Judges 7:4-22), Abimelech
rum.2' The early German editions, however, are suitably
killing his 70 brothers (judges 9:5), and the story ofJoab,
illustrated, albeit not with Old Testament scenes. Each
who slew the generals Abner and Amasa (2 Samuel 3:22- of the commandments in the Blichlein das heisset der Sele
27 and 20:8- io). Interestingly, the murders committed trost printed by Anton Sorg in Augsburg in I478 is ac-
19 See Schmitt, op. cit. (note i8), pp. 32-34, for a list (albeit incom-
Ende isghetogen wt velegoede boecken als wt der bibeln, wt scholastica his-
plete) of printed Dutch editions. For the transmission of the manu- toria ende wt vele andere diverse boecken, Antwerp (Eckert van Hom-
script see also G. Reidemeister, Die Ueberlieferung des Seelentrostes,borch) I 509 (The Hague, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, shelfmark 227 A 3).
Halle 1915. 21 W.M. Conway, The woodcutters of the Netherlands in the fifteenth
2o One of the editions I used is Der zielen troost, is dit boeckghenoemt.
century, Cambridge i884, pp. 22I-22, nr. 6.
The Old Testament as a moral code 221
a 1Q=- 4-v ,~~~~~~ 1
4, iY * ftEt? >k000 s 8 3
* Te: puihmn of tha an: a an Kin Ahab on hi-s way --B Nab
caiai (I4 .Prs ilohqeN toae ov c.lt |; I 29 fEl 2
4 Amnon raping his half-sister Tamar and Nathanforetelling

Concordantiae caritatis. Lilienfeld monastery, ms. I5 I, fol. 2
222 ILJA M. VELDMAN
companied by a woodcut with a scene from

A demon whispers evil thoughts into the ear
women wearing contemporary dress, who ar
appropriate actions.2
OLD TESTAMENT EXEMPLA OF THE TEN COMMAND-
MENTS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY Surviving fif-
teenth-century examples of decalogue illustrations are

mainly from Germany. Given the importance attached
to the sacrament of confession it is not surprising that
the commandments were also depicted on the walls of
churches. However, whether in churches, prints or
paintings, the illustrations in this early period almost al-
ways take the form of profane scenes in which figures in
contemporary dress sin by breaking one of the ten com-
- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'- mandments.23 The Old Testament context is usually
Ar.
evident from the introductory scene of Moses receiving
the tables of the law on Mount Sinai. One example is
found on the wall of the second chapel on the south side
of the Church of St Jodok in Landshut (fig. 5), where
that scene is given the greatest space. In the aisle of St
Marien in Lemgo there are also medallions with the ten
plagues visited on Egypt, which also feature in the Con-
cordantiae caritatis.24
One exception to this profane tradition is the central
section of a triptych in Hannover from the workshop of
the "Meister des Gdttinger Jacobikirchenaltares" (ca.
1410) in which all the exempla are from the Old Testa-
ment (fig. 6).25 The sequence is from left to right, with
5 oesrcevngte ale ftela ndSensilutrtn
tasrsin of the ten comnmns adsuSntoo the text of the relevant commandment written on a ban-
derole held by the half-length figure of God up in hea-
ven. The second commandment has the story of Saul
condemning Jonathan to death because he had inadver-
tently failed to comply with Saul's order that no one
should eat until Saul had revenged himself on his ene-
mies (i Samuel I4:24-44). The illustration of third com-
mandment is apparently not based on a specific Old Tes-
tament story but portrays David, two other kings and the
priest Jozadak kneeling before the altar with the ark of
the covenant. The fourth commandment is illustrated
22 R. Muther, Die deutsche Buicherillustration der Gothik und Fnihre- 24 Laun, op. cit. (note I5), pp. 55-56. I am grateful to Thea Vignau
naissance (I 460-1530), 2 vols., Munich & Leipzig i884, vol. I, p. i8, Wilberg-Schuurman for the photograph of the Ten commandments in St
Jodok's in Landshut.
nr. 72, figs. 28-30; Schiller, op. cit. (note i i), pp. 124-25, figs. 288-89.
23 See also E. Murbach, "Die zehn Gebote als Wandbild: ein Bei- 25 G. von der Osten, Katalog I der Gem/dde alterMeister der nieder-
trag zur Darstellung des Dekaloges im spaten Mittelalter," Unsere sdchsischen Landesgalerie, Hannover 1954, nr. I96; Schiller, op. cit.
Kunsndenkmdaer 20 (i96i), pp. 225-30. One of the last instances of the
(note iI), pp. 123 and 127, fig. 296 (Schiller does not seem to be aware
use of profane scenes is a panel of I 5i6 attributed to Lucas Cranach
of in
the existence of typological examples); and Laun, op. cit. (note I 5),
the Reformationsgeschichtliches Museum in Wittenberg. pP 94-102.
I ~~~~~2K
6 Fragment of a triptych from the workshop of the "Meister des Gojttingerjacobikirchenaltares" with Old
Testament exempla of the ten commandments. Hannover, Niedersachsische Landesgalerie
with the young Tobias kneeling and listening to the ad- the seventh and eighth specifically to that of the Zielen-
vice of his old father, who is instructing him to honor his troost. The wings with the first, fifth, sixth and tenth
mother, give alms, marry one of his own people and un- commandments are lost, but going by the tradition one
dertake other acts of piety (Tobit 4:3-20). The seventh could now suggest some of the scenes they might have
commandment has Joshua ordering the thief Achan to depicted: the three young Hebrews in the fiery furnace
be stoned for concealing treasure stolen from Jericho in or the dance around the golden calf as the first, Solomon
his tent, thereby incurring the wrath of the Lord (Joshua condemning Joab to death for murdering Abner and
7), the eighth Susanna kneeling before Daniel's seat of Amasa as the fifth, Potiphar's wife trying to seduce Jo-
justice accompanied by the two elders who have falsely seph or Phinehas killing the adulterous Israelite as the
accused her of adultery (Daniel I 4), while the ninth (withsixth, and Amnon raping Tamar or Nathan cursing Da-
property this time taking precedence over one's neigh- vid for his adultery as the tenth.
bor's wife) shows Naboth refusing to sell his vineyard Two engravings by Israhel van Meckenem after Mas-
and Ahab listening to his wife Jezebel, who is suggesting ter E. S. (ca. I467) depicting the third and eighth com-
that he get possession of Naboth's vineyard by falsely ac- mandments were probably part of a complete series and
cusing him (i Kings 2i). The last three exempla corre- also appear to have been influenced by the typology of
spond to the typology of the Concordantiae caritatis, andthe Concordantiae caritatis. They depict the story from
224 ILJA M. VELDMAN
Numbers I 5:32 of the Israelite who gathered wood on the

sabbath, and the eighth plague of locusts (Exodus IO: I2-
1 5)26 In the case of the third commandment it is not the
actual stoning that is shown but three men arresting the
sinner, who still has the bundle of wood on his back, and
leading him before the judge. God, up in heaven, con-
firms the sentence.
CATECHISM ILLUSTRATIONS AND REFORMATION
PRINT SERIES Whereas the commandments were

mainly illustrated with profane scenes in the fifteenth
century, the Reformation revived the popularity of Old
I ' C!!
Testament exempla. The reformers, Melanchthon in
particular, adhered to the literal meaning of the biblical
texts and also advocated the tropological interpretation
of the Bible. Since God's commandments and the reve- 4A~
lation of the articles of faith were sacrosanct for Me-
beor Danie tE jug (ail 3l5) Th nin
lanchthon, he placed great stress on the ten command-
ments in his work. In his view exempla were a good form
of argumentation because they do not give a new mean-
ing to the stories but supply a metaphor, like the New
Testament parables. In addition, the biblical message
emerges more clearly in discursive argumentation. In
the intellectual climate of the Reformation, Mel-
anchthon's preference for tropological interpretation as
argumental exemplum opened the door to the inclusion
t Luc
of much of the traditional, allegorical legacy.27
The "Ten commandments" of Lucas Cranach

The large woodcut known as the Haustafel that Lucas Achan
theds i
Cranach the Elder executed around i527 is probably
Melanc
based on directions supplied by Melanchthon.28 It has
ten compartments, each one elucidating a command-
ment with an Old Testament scene and a brief explana- before Daniela the judoges(Daniemals-) Then nintha
tion. The first commandment is illustrated with Moses rommandmnto (which ithe Ga paedrmance Refrmaytrionpwa
receiving the tables of the law on Mount Sinai and the oftheion parohibtigroetpountesso one'as naebigthbtor'
dance around the golden calf (Exodus 32:3-6); the sec- goods)eisaillustrated withgtheitric Jacob plaed whent her
ond with the blasphemer who was stoned by the entire demande ihr of Labn' flocks (fig.s 095 3). Jiacob, saident
congregation on Moses's orders (Leviticus 24:10- I6; thmatdheonlyli claim tonte anoteimals wi othseke coat's,
fig. 7); the third with a Sunday sermon, and in the back-
ground the man from Numbers I 5:32-36 who gathered oife)i thillsrbark, wiherepontheanimas gave brirth to sdc
wood on the sabbath and was accordingly stoned to
death; the fourth with Noah, whose nakedness was
Joseph (Genesis 39:II - z).
mocked by his son Ham (Genesis 9:20-29); and the fifth
with Cain slaying Abel (Genesis 4:4-8; fig. 8). The sixth It will be clear from the earlier discussion of the late
shows David spying on Bathsheba as she bathed (2 Sa- medieval treatises that Melanchthon relied heavily on
muel II:2), which led to their adultery; the seventh the established tradition for his iconography and was
: si
h ~ ~~~~~~~~~~ AM A|
. '.
s r *v: : i: :: . :::S :#!::E.;:iES0E :EDUE~~'
4'- =i tv
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
t ::;:: :~~~-
'--< ' 2.'^ f

Cat-c
$ V.
9 ua rncjcb' utrug naqiighssaeo h
flcs ooctacopnig h ithcmadentih
1~~~~~~~~~ Te omnmnssre nPilpMlnhhnsDrken
8 Lucas Cranach, Cain slaying Abel, woodcut accompanying

the fifth commandment in the Ten commandments series in Philip
CaLechisus Wittceso'nbterg u in1554g i s
Melanchthon's Der kleine Catechismus, Wittenberg 1554
not particularly original, as Schiller believes.29 Only the

illustrations for the second commandment (the stoning
of the blasphemer) and the ninth Jacob obtaining the
finest portion of Laban's flocks by deception) are typo- 26 M. Lehrs, Geschichte und kritischer Katalog des deutschen, nieder-
logical innovations. However, what sets Cranach's exam- ldndischen undfranzisischen Kupferstichs im XV. J7ahehundert, 9 vols.,
Vienna i908-34, v0o. 9, pp. 3-4, nr. 253, fig. 25I; Laun, op. cit. (note
ples apart from the earlier typology is that they all show a
I5), pp. I02-04.
commandment being broken. A reader with some knowl- 27 M. Spies, "'Poeetsche fabrijcken' en andere allegorieen, eind
edge of the Bible was well aware what punishment x6de-begin I7de eeuw," Oud Holland 105 (I99'), pp. 228-43, esp. p.
234, with a reference to Melanchthon's Elementorum rhetorices libri duo,
awaited the transgressor, even if it was not actually de-
in Philippus Melanchthon, Opera quae supersunt, 28 vols., Halle I 834-
picted.
6o, vol. 13 (i846), ed. G. Bretschneider, cols. 466-74.
Cranach's woodcuts were reproduced or copied in 28 Schiller, op. cit. (note iI), pp. 1 19, 127-29, figs. 297-306. For the
many versions of Luther's and Melanchthon's cate- attribution of the text to Melanchthon see F. Cohrs, Philipp Melanch-
tons Schriften zur praktischen Theologie, vol. I, Katechetische Schrnften,
chisms.30 The catechism, a book for instructing the laity
Leipzig 1915, (Supplementa Melanchtonia, se Abt.), pp. xxii-xxiii, 74-
in Christian doctrine, was a discovery of the Reformation
75 and 424-43. See also E. GrUneisen, "Grundlegendes ftir die Bilder
and met the need for a commentary and a set framework.
in Luthers Katechismen," Luther-Jahrbuch 20 (1938), pp. I--44.
29 Schiller, op. cit. (note i i), p. 127.
In addition to an elucidation of the decalogue, cate-
30 For a list see ibid., p. I29. Compare also the facsimile edition of
chisms included an explanation of the Credo and the Melanchthon's Der kleine Katechismus (I554) in Cohrs, op. cit. (note
Lord's Prayer. 28), pp. 42I-43.
226 ILJA M. VELDMAN
Followers of
oath at all, either by heaven, the Cranac
earth, Jerusalem or one's
Cranach's illustrations for the ten commandments estab- own head. The third commandment, to honor the sab-
lished the canon for the rest of the sixteenth century, bath day, also applies to children, servants, foreigners
both for catechisms and individual prints. If a publisher and even cattle. Moreover, one must do good on the sab-
was unable to get hold of the original woodblocks, he bath and must certainly avoid doing evil. "Thou shalt
would order faithful or free copies to be made after them.
not kill" is expanded to include "love thy enemies."
Printmakers who adopted the iconography of Cranach's The commandment against adultery states that a man
Old Testament parallels included Erhard Schon (I53I), also commits adultery in his heart if he so much as looks
Hans Sebald Beham and Jost Amman.3' In Germany at a woman covetously. Added to "Thou shalt not steal"
this tradition lasted into the eighteenth century; the Oldare "thou shalt not deceive," "part with what one is
Testament stories from Cranach's woodcuts can also be asked for" and "sooner allow an injustice to be done to
seen in the background of the print series of the ten com-
oneself than do an injustice to others." Instead of stealing
mandments by Martin Engelbrecht of Augsburg (I 684- one must work honestly with one's hands in order to earn
I756).3 a living. The eighth commandment covers not only false
Free copies after Cranach's woodcuts also appeared in witness but also malicious gossip ("Avoid attracting gos-
Dutch literature of a didactic and religious nature. One sip as a result of unchastity, impurity or parsimony").
work that is closely related to the catechisms is the book-The ninth and tenth commandments, finally, contain a
let Hoe Christus ons leert bidden. Den Vader onse. Die . xii. warning against desiring to be rich.
articulen des gheloofs. Ende die .x. gheboden, published in
Antwerp in I548.33 It is illustrated with small, rather Lieven de Witte's illustrations for the "Corte instruccye
simple woodcuts, the iconography of which is almost ende onderwijs" (1545)
identical to Cranach's.34 As was customary in the Neth- Cornelis van der Heyden's booklet, Corte instruccye, ende
erlands, the scene with Joseph and Potiphar's wife stands onderwijs, hoe een ieghelic mensche met God, ende zynen
for the ninth commandment, and Jacob receiving his even naesten, schuldigh es, ende behoort te leven, which
share of Laban's flocks for the tenth. was printed by Joos Lambrechts in Ghent in I 545 to-
The booklet contains brief expositions of each com- gether with a French version, is related to the catechistic
mandment which are largely based on the medieval tra- literature but stresses above all meditation and self-ex-
dition. Under the first commandment it is stated that one amination in the context of confession.35 It discusses the
may not worship or serve images, because the Lord is decalogue, the Credo and the Lord's Prayer, and in-
powerful and jealous and punishes the children of any- cludes instructions for baptism, holy communion and
one who hates him to the third and fourth generation. rules of conduct. It is illustrated with woodcuts by the
The text accompanying the second commandment about Ghent artist Lieven de Witte.6 The section with the
misusing God's name explains that it is not only forbid- ten commandments contains Old Testament scenes, the
den to swear a false oath but that one must not swear an iconography of which is derived partly from Cranach but
31 Ibid., pp. 130-31, figs. 307-12 and 315-23. Witte bij "Dat leven ons Heeren " (1537), Haarlem & Brussels i989, p.
32 Ibid., figs. 322-23; F. Schott, Der Augsburger Kupferstecher und 92, fig. 120.
Kunstverleger M. Engelbrecht und seine Nachfolger, Augsburg I924, p. 35 Heijting, op. cit. (note 33), vol. ", pp. 346-48, nr. E 13. See also J.
I I4. Decavele, De dageraad van de reformahie in Vlaanderen (1520-I565), 2
33 Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, see W. Heijting, De catechismi
vols., Brussels 1975, vol. 2, pp. 238-40. The booklet is in the University
en confessies in de Nederlandse reformatie tot I585, 2 vols., Nieuwkoop Library at Ghent. For an edition of the text, with introduction, see F.
i989, vol. I, p. 350, nr. E I5. The French edition of the booklet, printed Pijper, Bibliotheca Reformatoria Neerlandica: geschriften uit den tijd der
by Weduwe van Liesvelt in Antwerp in I553, probably has the same hervorming in de Nederlanden, 5 vols., The Hague 1903-14, vol. 4
woodcuts (Heijting, nr. E I5.2). I am grateful to Wim Heijting for (I906), pro- pp. 3-77.
viding me with photocopies. 36 De Witte's name is not documented in connection with this book-
34 The eighth commandment, though, does not have Susanna be- let but his authorship cannot be doubted when one compares the illus-
fore the judge but a conclave of elders, which is a copy after a woodcut trations with those in Dat /even ons heeren of 1537 (cf. Veldman and van
Lieven de Witte made in I 537, The decision to killJesus, see I. VeldmanSchaik, op. cit. [note 34]).
and K. van Schaik, Verbeelde boodschap: de illustraties van Lieven de
is also enriched with new exempla. Here, too, the Old mance of the works of charity in the background. The
Testament scenes deal solely with transgressions. The commandment is addressed to those who do not go to
arrangement of the commandments follows the later Cal- church on Sunday but squander their time by idling,
vinist canon. Such was the Reformational tone of the playing or drinking. They should listen instead to God's
booklet that it was immediately placed on the Index and word, distribute alms and visit the poor and the sick.
the printer imprisoned. The commandment "Honour thy father and thy
The decalogue is introduced with the traditional de- mother" is illustrated with the mocking of Noah's na-
piction of Moses receiving the tables of the law (Exodus kedness (fig. io), which featured in both Cranach and
3 I: i8), with the text (in translation) "By the law is the the Zielentroost. It does contain quite an original touch
knowledge of sin" (Romans 3:20). The tablets serve as in the background, though, with the stoning of the rebel-
''a mirror in which all can clearly perceive the state of lious son from Deuteronomy 21:i8-21. He was a drun-
their souls." The woodcut to the first commandment kard and a wastrel who refused to listen to his parents,
(prohibiting the making of graven images) shows the idol even though they chastised him. He was punished by
Dagon lying smashed on the ground (i Samuel 5:I -4), being stoned to death by the men of the city. The author
which was a decidedly original choice of exemplum. explains that one should honor not only one's parents,
The story goes that the Philistines had captured the ark but priests, teachers and the civil authorities as well.
of the covenant and carried it off to Ashdod, where they The illustration to "Thou shalt not kill" shows Cain
placed it beside the statue of their god Dagon. The next slaying Abel. In the background is a second Old Testa-
morning they discovered that Dagon had fallen on his ment exemplum that had been quoted in the Zielentroost:
face, before the ark. He was raised up again, but by the Joab killing Abner in the gate of Hebron, stabbing him in
next day the head and hands had been hacked off and the belly to avenge the blood of his brother Asahel (2 Sa-
were lying on the threshold of the temple. In the back- muel 3:22-27). (The killing of Joab himself had been
ground of the woodcut people are bowing down before used in the Concordantiae caritatis). It is explained that
heathen idols. Others worship the statue of the Fons Pie- one must not bear hatred in one's heart or be jealous,
tatis-Christ and the Cross stand in the spring filled with and that one must forgive one's enemies. However, if
the blood from his wounds. The inscription is from Mat- the civil authority pronounces the death sentence justly
thew I 1:28, "Come unto me." The commandment is di- it does not sin against this commandment.
rected at idolatry, superstition and false religions. The Lieven de Witte illustrated "Thou shalt not commit
actual making of images is not forbidden provided they adultery" with the exemplum illustrated in the Concor-
serve for instruction, recollection and example and are dantiae caritatis (fig. 2): Phinehas killing an adulterous
not misused by being worshipped. couple in bed (fig. ii). The people of Israel had been
The second commandment is illustrated with a pro- whoring with Moabite women, who also seduced them
fane scene of a merchant swearing by a crucifix and into worshipping Baal. Phinehas, the grandson of the
dice-players cursing. This is fully in the tradition of the priest Aaron, followed Moses's orders and killed an Is-
fifteenth and early sixteenth-century German tradition raelite and his Midianite paramour with a javelin after
of the illustrated Seelentrost, individual prints, a few the couple had withdrawn into their tent in the sight of
panels and catechism illustrations.37 The commentaryeveryone. The names of the victims are recorded in
states that one may not curse, blaspheme or invoke God Numbers 25:14-15; the Israelite was called Zimri and
when committing perjury, but one may swear on God's the woman Cozbi. In the background of this woodcut is
honor or the well-being of one's fellow men. The com- a second exemplum: Bathsheba in her bath being spied
mandment to remember the sabbath day also has no Old upon by David. The purpose of the commandment is to
Testament exemplum. The illustration depicts a ser- instil feelings of shame and encourage virtue and to warn
mon, with the distribution of the host and the perfor- against lechery and desires of every kind.
37 For the cursing dice-players see, for instance, Schiller, op. cit. Bartsch, vol. I3, New York i98i, p. i82), and Baldung Grien's wood-
(note ii), pp. 123-25, figs. 283, 286, 292 and 313. For cursing when cuts in Markus von Lindau, Die zehe gebot in diesem buch erclert und
playing dice and swearing by a crucifix (or committing perjury) uszgelegt,
see also Strasbourg 15i6, reproduced in M. Bernard, Hans Baldung
the catechism illustrations of 1533 by Erhard Schon (The illustrated Grien: Handzeichnungen, Druckgraphik, Munich I978, p. 394.
228 ILJA M. VELDMAN
1~~~~~~
10 Lieven 12
de Lieven
Witte, deTh
W
of the the household
rebellious son, woi
the Corte the Corte
instruccyeinstr
en
Library Library
"Thou shalt not bear false witness" shows Susanna

before the judges the example that had been used by
1 Cranach. In the background is the cause of the court case:
Susanna in her bath with the two elders leering at her.
This commandment also covers lying and duplicity.
The illustration to "Thou shalt not steal" is another
familiar exemplum: Achan burying the stolen treasure
(fig. I2). A second violation of the commandment can
be seen in the background: Laban searching in vain for
the stolen household gods that Rachel has hidden under
her skirt (Genesis 31:33-35). This commandment ap-
plies not only to thieves but also to usurers, misers and
people who display no charity.
The tenth commandment, that one should not covet
anything belonging to one's neighbor, including his wife,
i i Lieven was illustrated
de Witte, by Lieven de Witte withPhineh
the familiar ex-
bathing, woodcut
ample of Joseph seeking from a
to escape the advances of Poti- ser
instrucye ende onderwijs, G
phar's wife. In the background is a man holding a
money-bag with the inscription "Hand. 8". Acts 8:i8-
24 ("Handelingen" in Dutch) tells of Simon Magus,
who wanted to buy the secret of St Peter's ability to call
down the Holy Ghost by laying on hands. Without the
inscription, though, one would have suspected that this
was the familiar exemplum from the Zielentroost of Ahab
trying to buy Naboth's vineyard (i Kings 2 I:2).
The text closes with the statement that the basis of the
ten commandments lies in the two great command-
ments: the first five enjoining us to love God a

ond five to love one's neighbor as oneself Thi
illustrated with a woodcut of Moses's tables of the law
bearing the text of the double commandment about love
from Matthew 22:34-40 and Mark I2:28-34, flanked on
one side by a personification of Love in tattered clothes
with a burning heart in her hands and the tetragram in
the sky, and on the other side by the Good Samaritan
(Luke 1O:25-37).
The "theatrum historicum "ofHondorffand Lonicer The

stories used to explain the ten commandments appear to
have taken on a life of their own, and as time passed they
were expanded with more and more examples. In I575
the Theatrum historicum sive promptuarium illustrium ex-
emplorum was published in Frankfurt. The full Latin
title reads, in translation: "Historic stage or store of
g ',ttr 4r. __ _
famous exempla, as a book of examples enabling people
of every sex and position to live virtuously, piously and
happily, garnered from both ancient and recent stories
from biblical and profane history and divided into ten
groups in accordance with the commandments given to
Moses."'8 According to the title page the book was --'9- ,soz
started by Andreas Hondorff(ius) and completed by Phi-
lip(pus) Lonicer(us). It is, in fact, one large mirror of vir-
tues containing examples of good or unacceptable beha-
13 Hendrick Golt
vior drawn from a wide variety of sources and arranged to
commandments, e
match the ten commandments. The Old Testament ex- Museum
empla are given first and are followed by examples of
martyrs and other saints and object lessons from ancient any story from the historical books of the Bible in a moral
and modern history. Each chapter opens with a woodcut context.
of an Old Testament exemplum that follows the icono- A Dutch translation of the Theatrum historicum by G.
graphy of Cranach's ten commandments. The ninth van Broekhuizen was published in Amsterdam in i 685 as
and tenth, however, are combined, with the scene ofJo-
De Tien Geboden des Heeren, uit verscheidene, zo oude als
seph and Potiphar's wife doing double duty. The Old nieuwe schryvers, met geestelijke en wereldlijke historien en
Testament exempla are divided into laudable and repre- voorbeelden verrijkt. Although the commandments are
hensible examples. They include almost all of those dis- now formulated according to the Calvinist canon, the ex-
cussed so far, supplemented with a considerable number amples from the lives of the saints and from the biblical
of new ones. For "Thou shalt not kill," for example, apocrypha are retained. The latter would certainly not
there are no fewer than ten Old Testament exempla, have upset the Calvinists, for it is stated in the introduc-
and for "Tlrou shalt not commit adultery" i2. It is clear
tion to the first book of Maccabees in the Reformed
from the long recital just how inexhaustible the Old Tes- Deux-Aes Bible of I 58i that apocryphal stories are use-
tament was as a source for the awareness of and instruc- ful to the faithful because they "present very fine exam-
tion in good and evil and how easy it is to place virtuallynles of faith."
38 Theatrum historicum sive promptuarium illustrium exemplorum, ad historiarum monumentis collectum, in decem classes secundum Mosaieae
honeste, pie, beateque vivendum culusuis generis, et conditionis homines in- legispraecepta distinctum.
formantium, ex antquis simul ac recentiori bus sacrarum & prophanarum
230 ILJA M. VELDMAN
SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRINTS OF THE TEN COM-
MANDMENTS Up to the Reformation, most ofthe sur-

viving depictions of the ten commandments are from
German-speaking regions, but in the second half of the
sixteenth century the theme was also appearing in indivi-
dual Netherlandish prints. The growing importance of
the decalogue is reflected first and foremost in depictions
of Moses with the tables of the law, some of which bear
the text of the ten commandments. Prints of Moses
(sometimes accompanied by Aaron) were made by Cor-
nelis Anthonisz (ca. 1545), Frans Huys after Lambert
van Noort (1556), Hendrick Goltzius (1583; fig. 13),
Crispijn de Passe I, and possibly by Zacharias Dolendo
after Jacques de Gheyn II (ca. I 595).39 The tables of the
law have no lettering in the prints by Anthonisz and de
Gheyn. In Huys's print they are formulated according to
m -- B ~~~~~~~~~~~~at the traditional canon, and in Goltzius's, both in the Ger-

man and the Dutch version, they follow the Calvinist ca-
14 HermanJansz. Muller after Maarten van Heemskerck, The dance around non.
the Throughout the sixteenth century, boards display-
golden calf, engraving from a series of The ten commandments. London, British
ing the ten commandments were regularly depicted as
Museum
part of domestic furnishings,40 and scenes of Moses's ta-
bles of the law were frequently listed in the inventories of
ordinary citizens.4'
Altarpieces were removed from the churches after the
Alteration of i572. Embellishments that were added
were beautifully calligraphed panels with quotations
from the Bible. Boards with the text of the ten command-
ments, which Calvinists regarded as the foundation of
God's covenant with his people, were given a prominent
place above the screen at the entrance to the choir, where
they proclaimed God's fundamental precepts for life on
earth,42 which needless to say were also reflected in secu-
39 For Cornelis Anthonisz's print see C. M. Armstrong, The mora-

lizing prints ofCornelisAnthonisz, Princeton 9ggo, fig. io6; for Lambert
van Noort's, Z. van Ruyven-Zeman, Lambert van Noort Inventor,
Maastricht i9go, pp. 202-03, cat. nr. P.1, fig. 46; for Goltzius's, W.L.
Strauss, The illustrated Bartsch, vol. 3, New York I980, p. I0; for Cris-
piun de Passe i, F. W. H. Hollstein, Dutch and Flemish etchings, engrav-
ings and woodcuts ca. 1450-1700, in progress, Amsterdam I949-, vol. I6
(1974), nr. gad (ill.), and for the one after de Gheyn, J.P. Filedt Kok,
"Jacques de Gheyn ii: engraver, designer and publisher. II. A catalo-
gue," PrintQuarterly 7 (1990), pp. 370-96, fig. 2I9, cat. nr. i.
15 Herman Jansz. Muller after Maarten van Heemskerck, Bathsheba receiving40 For example, in a painting of the Holy Family (ca. I 55-25) by
the Master of the Legend of St Magdalen, Catalogus schilderkunst 4e-
David's messenger, engraving from a series of The ten commandments. London,
British Museum I~e eeuw van het Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten Antwerpen,
cat. nr. 948, fig. 36; the print Concord, or The harmoniousfamily (1589)
by Crispijn de Passe i, reproduced in I. M. Veldman, "Keulen als toe-
vluchtsoord voor Nederlandse kunstenaars (1567-i6i2)," Oud Hol-
land I07 (1993), pp. 34-58, fig. i i. Maarten de Vos's Portrait of the
Panhuys family (1574-75; Utrecht, Rijksmuseum Het Catharijnecon-
The Old Testament as a moral code 23I
lar law. It is very likely, then, that commentar

ten commandments and the associated exempla
delivered from the pulpit as a practical exhortation to
lead a Christian life.
It will be clear from the above that the ten command-
ments were held in just as much respect in Catholic as in
Protestant circles. That also emerges from the fact that in
the traditional canon they provided the subject matter
for individual prints in the second half of the sixteenth
century, freed from their original context as illustrations
in religious treatises.
The "Ten commandments" ofMaarten van Heemskerck

In 1566 Maarten van Heemskerck made designs for a se-
ries of Ten commandments which were engraved by Her-
man Jansz. Muller and published by Hieronymus
Cock.43 The arrangement of the commandments follows
tNON CONCVPISCES VXOREM PROXIMI TVTlt T v
the traditional program. Heemskerck was more consis-
tent than Lieven de Witte in basing his iconography on i6 Herman Jansz. Muller after Maarten van Heemskerck, Joseph evadin
advances ofPotiphar 's wife, engraving from a series of The ten comman
Cranach's woodcuts, but even he introduced a few varia-
London, British Museum
tions.
The first commandment is illustrated with the dance
around the golden calf (fig. 14). A gruesome punishment
was visited on the revelers: each of the Levites had to kill
a blood relative. The illustration to the second com-
mandment is the only one not to follow Cranach's icono-
graphy, but shows the two profane exempla depicted by
Lieven de Witte. A man stands beside a crucifix with his
C1~~~~~~~~~~~~~c
hand raised and swears an oath before a judge. In the
background, soldiers in contemporary dress are playing
dice and cursing.
The third commandment is represented by an open-
vent) is an example of a group portrait with the tables of the law; it is

reproduced in exhib. cat. Ketters en Papen onder Filips II, Utrecht
C ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(Rijksmuseum Het Catharijneconvent) & The Hague i986, p. 85, fig.
26.
41 For example, there are no fewer than seven mentions of scenes of
the ten commandments in estate inventories in the archives of the Or-
phans' Chamber in Leiden for the period 1579-1600; see M. L. Caron,
"Boeken en taferelen in bezit van de molenaarsweduwe, de geestelijke
cultuur van Leidse burgers in de i6de eeuw," exhib. cat. Huisraad van WON O IESYDIRABIS DOMVM SIVS, NON SRWMJ NqM ANCiAM
ttON BOVXM NON ASINVM NC OMNIA QV N I IS SVNT -
een molenaarswedume, Rotterdam (Museum Boymans-van Beuningen)
& The Hague i986, pp. 75-77. 17 HermanJansz. Muller after Maarten van Heemskerck, acob bargaining with
42 C. A. van Swichem, "Kerkborden en kolomschilderingen in de Laban over his share of theflocks, engraving from a series of The ten
St.-Bavo te Haarlem," Bulletin van het Rijksmuseum 35 (I987), pp. commandments. London, British Museum
21I-23, esp. p. 215.
43 The new Hollstein: Dutch S Flemish etchings, engravings and
woodcuts I450-1700, Maarten van Heemskerck, pt. I, ed. I.M. Veld-
man, Roosendaal 1993, nrs. 65-74.
232 ILJA M. VELDMAN
air sermon with the man who gathered wood on the sab- Heemskerck's series was reprinted until well into the
bath in the background. The fourth commandment seventeenth century by Philips, Theodoor and Johannes
shows Ham mocking his father's nakedness. His two Galle. His prints were also copied in an Italian Catholic
brothers, their heads averted, cover the offending part catechism, the Catechismus ex decreto concilii tridentini ad
of the sleeping Noah's anatomy with a cloth, while Ham parochos Piu V published by Aldus in Venice in 1575.44
stands laughing at him. "Thou shalt not kill" is exempli-
fied by Cain killing Abel. The prohibition against adul- _an Snellinck 's print of the "Ten commandments"
tery is illustrated with the story of David and Bathsheba Around 1575 Jan Snellinck designed a series of prints on
(fig. Ii). Heemskerck depicts the moment when Bath- theological subjects, one of which is devoted to the ten
sheba, titivating herself by a fountain in the garden of commandments (fig. i8). It was probably engraved by
David's palace, is handed a letter by a messenger in Hans Collaert the Elder. The first edition has no publish-
which David asks her to visit him (2 Samuel 4). David er's address, but it was later issued by Eduard Hoes-
stands on the palace roof looking on in hopeful expecta- winckel and then by Johannes Bussemacher.45 The cen-
tion. tral compartment shows Moses displaying the tables of
For the subject of "Thou shalt not steal" Heemskerck the law to the people of Israel. The text is the two great
chose the story of Achan burying the stolen treasure in commandments about love. At the bottom is a Latin
his tent. The punishment for the theft is depicted in the quotation from John I:I7: "For the law was given by
right background: the stoning of Achan and his family. Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ." In
The elders' false accusation against Susanna and her ac- the semicircular compartment above, Moses is receiving
quittal by Daniel are the subject of the eighth command-the tablets on Mount Sinai, accompanied by a quotation
ment. Joseph fleeing the enticements of Potiphar's wife from Exodus 20: I -2. Crowning the scene in the top cor-
illustrates the ninth (fig. i6). The tenth commandment, ners are the personifications of Justice and Temperance.
against coveting one's neighbor's belongings, is probably The Old Testament exempla associated with each com-
represented by the story of Jacob bargaining over his mandment surround the central compartment. Once
share of Laban's flocks (fig. 17), which had enjoyed great again the arrangement follows the traditional canon,
popularity since its introduction by Cranach. Although and the exempla fully correspond with Heemskerck's
the depiction differs considerably from Cranach's (fig. series: the dance around the golden calf, bearing false
9), in which the trough with the animals and the strip- witness, an open-air sermon on the sabbath (the preacher
ping of one of the branches are the central motifs, probably beingJohn the Baptist) with a wood-gatherer in
Heemskerck's scene clearly shows the act of bargaining the background, the mocking of Noah's nakedness, Cain
between an elderly Old Testament figure (Laban) and a killing Abel, Bathsheba spied upon by David, Achan
young man (Jacob). The woman and child to the left hiding the stolen treasure in his tent, Susanna before
could be Rachel andJoseph (or one ofJacob's other wives the judge, Joseph and Potiphar's wife, and Jacob bar-
and children). Nevertheless, the scene also seems to con- gaining over his share of the flocks.
tain non-biblical references to this commandment; mak-
ing off with a horse, a cow and a sheep could be inter- The "Ten commandments" ofMaarten de Vos
preted as stealing one's neighbor's goods. However, the In I586, Maarten de Vos designed a print series with the
fact that Cock, the publisher, did not add quotations ten commandments. It was published by Philips Galle in
from the Bible to this print (in contrast to the other Old Antwerp and engraved by Adriaan Collaert (nrs. I -5 and
Testament scenes; the drawings have no such quota- 7), Johannes Collaert (nrs. 6 and 9), Theodoor Galle (nr.
tions) might indicate that the scene was not easy to iden- 8) and Crispijn de Passe (nr. 1o).46 The intention is made
tify, even in the sixteenth century. clear by the Latin title: Decalogus cum acerbissimis prae-
44 My thanks to Henry Defoer for alerting me to this catechism. pp. 29-83, fig. 7. For the design, which is in the Louvre, see F. Lugt,
45 H. Mielke, "Antwerpener Graphik in der 2. Halfte des i6. Jahr- Inventaireginiraldes dessins des 6coles du Nord: maitres des anciens Pays-
Bas nis avant 1550, Paris I968, nr. 454. I am grateful to Angelika Lo-
hunderts. Der Thesaurus veteris et novi Testamenti des Gerard dejode
(I585) und seine Kunstler," Zeitschrift fur Kunstgeschichte 38 (1975),
renz for the photograph of the print.
.. E i .; . E E -, iR fi!E E i~~~~..... a...... '$ :g
ii HasClarthEleafeJa nellicMsswt h tale ofh la w an l etmn xml f e
comnmns enrvig Mintr Ietdice Ladsmsu _frKntudKlugshc
234 ILJA M. VELDMAN
varicatorum poenis (The decalogue, with the severest

punishments for those who have broken the command-
ments). The title page shows Moses with the tables of the
law inscribed with the ten commandments in the tradi-
tional canon. He is surrounded by scenes of Solomon
dedicating the temple, Christ driving the money-chan-
gers from the temple, Moses receiving the ten command-
ments on Mount Sinai and the parable of the Good Sa-
maritan. There is also a dedication from Philips Galle,
the publisher, to Laevinius Torrentius, (Lieven van der
Beke), who was appointed Bishop of Antwerp in 1587
and was a great lover of the arts and sciences.47 This se-
ries, too, was reprinted by Johannes Galle in the seven-
teenth century.
De Vos's choice of Old Testament stories is quite var-
W,~~~~~ ied. Those illustrating the first, third, fourth, seventh
and eighth commandments correspond to those in
g9 Adriaan Collaert after Maarten de Vos, foab killingAmasa, engraving from
Heemskerck's prints.
a series of The ten commandments. Amsterdam, Rijksprentenkabinet However, the subject of the print
for the second commandment, the stoning of the blas-
phemer (Leviticus 24:Io-i6), seems to have been bor-
rowed from Cranach. De Vos broke with this tradition
in his exemplum of the fifth commandment, "Thou shalt
not kill," which is Joab's treacherous murder of Amasa
(fig. i9) from 2 Samuel 20:8-io. At a meeting between
the two generals, who were also nephews of David, Joab
asked after Amasa's health and then immediately ran him
through with a sword he had concealed beneath his cloak.
Joab's punishment is shown in the left background: he in
turn is killed on David's orders in front of the altar where
he had sought sanctuary. De Vos may have known the
first exemplum from the Zielentroost or the Theatrum his-
7. -m
toricum of I 575. Joab's punishment was illustrated in the
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ -I Concordantiae carittatis.
For the sixth commandment, "Thou shalt not commit
adultery," de Vos followed Lieven de Witte (fig. io) by
depicting the story of the Israelite who took a Midianite
woman to bed and was killed by Phinehas (Numbers
25:6-8; fig. 2o)-an exemplum that was also used in the
zo Johannes Collaert after Maarten de Vos, The whoring ofZimri and CozbI, Concordantiae caritatis (fig. 2). The print shows an Israe-
engraving from a series of The ten commandments. Amsterdam, lite soldier entering the tent of the nude woman in the
Rijksprentenkabinet
presence of various onlookers. On the left the people are
lamenting at the entrance to the tent of the congregation.
46 All but three of the drawings are dated 1586; see W.T. Kloek,
Beknopte catalogus van de Nederlandse tekeningen in het prentenkabinet
van de Uffizi te Florence, Utrecht 1975, nrs. 305- 1 5, and Hollstein, op.
cit. (note 39), vol. 45 (1995), ed. C. Schuckman, nrs. 72-82.
In the right background Phinehas, the grandson of

Aaron, enters the lovers' tent and stabs Zimri and Cozbi
with his javelin.
For the ninth commandment, "Thou shalt not covet
thy neighbour's wife," de Vos did not follow Cranach
and Heemskerck and depict the story of Joseph and Po-
tiphar's wife, but took the subject of David and Bathshe-
ba instead (fig. 2i), an exemplum that had also been used
in the Zielentroost; no attempted adultery but the real
thing. De Vos did not use the bathing scene in the palace
garden but chose the rarely depicted episode that fol-
lowed. Bathsheba has been received by David in his pa-
lace and their dalliance is in full swing. Bathsheba con-
ceived a son, and David decided to send her husband,
Uriah, off to war. He had to die so that David could take
Bathsheba as his wife. Through the door on the left,
though, one sees that the affair will end badly. The
prophet Nathan is telling David that their son will die 2i Johannes Collaert after Maarten de Vos, David and Bathsheba, engraving
from a series of The ten commandments. Amsterdam, Rijksprentenkabinet
as their punishment a prophecy that also served to il-
~~~~~~~~~~-2_
lustrate the commandment in the Concordantiae carita-
tis.
The tenth commandment is illustrated with the story
of Ahab and Naboth (fig. 22). A messenger comes to tell .... . _ ..Ss
King Ahab that Jezebel's ruse has succeeded and that
Naboth has been killed so that Ahab can lay his hands
on the coveted vineyard (i Kings 21:14). In the back-
ground dogs are licking up the blood of the dead Naboth
on the spot where it has been foretold that Ahab's blood
would also flow (2i :i9). When he arrives at the vineyard,
on the left, the prophet Elijah lays a curse on him and his
wife Jezebel for murder and greed (21:20-26). This ex-
ample was also used in the Concordantiae caritatis.
THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A GUIDE TO MORAL
BEHAVIOR As mentioned above, the topological in-

terpretation of the Bible, explaining stories in a moralis-
tic sense, became paramount in the Reformation. Under
the influence of humanism, people became increasingly
22 Crispijn de Passe the Elder after Maarten de Vos, Ahab taking possession of
aware of the moral aspects of life and realized that a prop-Naboth 's vineyard, engraving from a series of The ten commandments.
er upbringing and education were necessary in order toAmsterdam, Rijksprentenkabinet
prepare people for life on earth, which they would have
to bring to a good conclusion through their own efforts
47 Biographie nationale de Belgique, vol. 13, Brussels 1930-32, pp.

462-75; A. Roersch, Lhumanisme Belge d l'ipoque de la Renaissance:
itudes etportraits, 3 vols., Louvain 1933, vol. I, pp. 117-39.
236 ILJA M. VELDMAN
and punishment that one will receive for misdeeds,

strength of both ch
ligious and ethical dimension, particularly in the Nether- now and in the future."49 For people in the sixteenth
lands. Attempts to get people to lead a moral life and de- century the political defeats and other disasters that
velop a piety based on Christ's teachings are also found in overcame the Jewish people apparently served as an ex-
Erasmus. Lay people had to be trained so that they could emplum and warning against the consequences of misbe-
apply the Bible's Christian philosophy in their daily havior.50
lives. In view of the great importance of the Old Testament
The belief that the Old Testament stories formed an as a guide to human behavior, and that many of the Old
ethical lesson for the conduct of everyday life is also Testament exempla are depicted time and again, it seems
not inconceivable that even when a representation was
found from I 535 onwards in the foreword to the Lies-
veldt Bible and other Dutch bibles based on Luther's divorced from the context of the decalogue, people of
edition of the Old Testament. "Uninformed people be- the day would have perceived a direct or indirect moral
message in scenes with the Old Testament subjects dis-
lieve that the Old Testament was written for theJews and
contains only evil stories. But the Old Testament pro- cussed above.5' One occasionally finds incontrovertible
mises the coming of Christ and we can also meet him evidence for this. For example, in one of Jan Massys's
there.... For people should be well aware that the Old painted versions of Bathsheba at her bath, the figure of
Testament is an inflexible book of law that teaches us Moses with the tables of the law is included in a fairly
what we should and should not do."48 prominent position in the top right corner.52 Although
That Maarten van Heemskerck was pointing a con- it is more difficult to postulate a link with the ten com-
temporary moral in his many depictions of Old Testa- mandments for subjects that had always been very popu-
ment episodes can be deduced, for example, from his se- lar, the position may be a little different in the case of
ries The disasters of the Jewish people of I 568. The series those that were rarely depicted outside that context. Ac-
consists of 22 prints depicting the calamities that befell cording to Karel van Mander's biographer, the subject of
the Jews: the destruction of the Tower of Babel, the dis- the last painting that van Mander made was Phinehas
persion of the peoples, the destruction of the cities of So- from Numbers 25, "where the children of Israel sin by
dom and Ai, the death of Samson, the capture of the city whoring with the daughters of the Moabites, who try to
of Tirzah and the destruction and plundering of the tem- seduce the people to sacrifice to their gods.... And in a
ple in Jerusalem. The purpose of the series is explained hut far off, Phinehas, as one can see, thrusts through the
on the title page: "The disasters visited on the Jewish man of Israel and the Moabite woman." The biographer
people are as a mirror, an example ['exemplis'] of the wrote that van Mander "had something special in mind"
48 "Aenghesien dat die ongeleertheyt ende simpelheyt van veel was bound into a volume not long after I 572 shows that collectors could
menschen, den text der heyligher scriftueren des ouden Testaments, also arrange their prints according to their moral or ethical content. The
seer cleyn achten ende als niet daer af en houden, meynende dat al prints are divided into I 7 thematic sections, each of which opens with a
sulcken scriftuere alleen den joden gegheven si [...] en dattet alleen print
nyet bearing a biblical or classical quotation that broadly defines the
dan voor slechte geschiedenissen ende historien te verstaen en is. Nyetcontent. Although the arrangement is not entirely consistent, several
teghenstaende dat ons Christus geheelijc daer door bewesen ende be- of the Old Testament prints are provided with a topical lesson in daily
looft wort. [...] Ende weet sekerlick ende vast, dat dit boeck des ouden conduct; see A. de Bruin, F. van Daalen, J. P. Filedt Kok, I. van Leeu-
Testaments, een vast wetboeck is, dat welcke leert watmen doen ende wen and I. Veldman, "Conservatie, restauratie en onderzoek van een
laten sal." This quotation is from Den Bybel, Antwerp (Hansken van zestiende-eeuws prentenboek: het Heemskerck-album," Bulletin van
Liesvelt) 1538 (University Library, Amsterdam, shelfmark Ned. Inc.
hetRijksmuseum 38 (i990), pp. 173 -214.
51 Possible examples include Lucas van Leyden's triptych with the
I33), but is also found in bibles by other publishers, such as Den Bibel
of Henrick Peetersen van Middelburch (Antwerp 1535; University Li-
Dance around the golden calf(Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum) as an illustra-
brary, Amsterdam, shelfmark Ned. Inc. 13 I). For the connection with tion of the commandment "Thou shalt have no other gods before me,"
and the same artist's lost panel, Susanna before Daniel the judge (for-
Luther's prologue see C. C. de Bruin, De statenbijbel en zi/n voorgangers,
Leiden I937, p. I65. merly in Bremen) as a depiction of "Thou shalt not bear false witness."
49 New Hollstein, cit. (note 43), nrs. 237-58, with the text: "Damus Both exempla can be found in the Zielentroost and in Cranach's popular
tibi, benigne lector, uno libello tanquam in speculo exhibitas, memora- illustrations of the ten commandments.
bliores Iudeae gentis clades, ut delictorum semper comites, ita cum 52 L. Buijnsters-Smets, Jan Massys: een Antwerps schilder uit de zes-
praesenti, tum posterae aetati pro exemplis futuras." tiende eeuw, Zwolle 1995, cat. nr. 22, pp. 175-77 (present whereabouts
50 A collection of prints known as the "Heemskerck album" that unknown).
with this work, "for reasons known t

mans, a jeweller, for he said that it had
command."53 This seldom depicted story could not but
remind Putmans of the exemplum accompanying the
sixth commandment against lechery and adultery as il-
lustrated by Lieven de Witte and Maarten de Vos (figs.
ii and 20). Why exactly Putmans wanted a painting of
this subject remains obscure; perhaps the reason was a
rather private one. Van Mander, incidentally, had pre-
viously seen a painting with Phinehas, "in which two
naked, fornicating people are run through," by Joos van
Winghe at Melchior Wijntgis's house in Middelburg.54
That painting is now lost but its composition is pre-
served in an engraving of I 599 by Jacques Grandomanus
(fig. 23), which was made after a drawing by Jeremias van
Winghe, Joos's son.55
In printmaking, subjects familiar as exempla of the ten
commandments were depicted in extensive series. In the
Concordantiae caritatis and the Zielentroost, the three
young men in the furnace exemplified the first com-
E~~~~~~~~~~t~~~P
mandment, and in the Zielentroost Daniel also unmasks
the priests of Baal and slays the dragon. In I 565 Heems-
kerck depicted both stories at length in prints.56 Am-
non's rape of his half-sister Tamar (2 Samuel I3:0- 14)
was used to illustrate "Thou shalt not commit adultery"
23 Jacques Grandomanus after Jdos van Winghe, Phinehas killing
(or, according to the general interpretation, be unchaste),Zimri and Cozbil, 599, engraving. Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale
and this is another story that Heemskerck treated at
length, from the scene of Amnon's feigned illness (he
was lovesick) and the rape (fig. 24), up to and including Since it was possible to make all sorts of variations and
Amnon's punishment by death at the hands of Absa- elaborations on the Old Testament exempla, it may be
lom's servants. The story of Susanna, exemplifying thethat many more Old Testament scenes in addition to
seventh commandment, was twice depicted in print by those discussed here had a contemporary significance
Heemskerck, in I55i and I563. 57In I56i he made a ser-matching the contents of the ten commandments. Once
ies about Ahab, Jezebel and Naboth, the familiar exem- again it is print series by Heemskerck that might provide
plum of the ninth commandment.8 Heemskerck depicts some evidence for this. Like the above-mentioned series
Ahab's illness, which was brought on by his frustrated of Daniel who outsmarted the priests of Baal and killed
the dragon, and that of the three youths in the furnace,
desire to lay his hands on the vineyard, Jezebel's success-
ful attempt to get rid of Naboth by slandering him, Eli- the story ofJosiah, who restored the true religion and de-
jah's curse, and finally the end of the wicked Jezebel, who stroyed several heathen temples, statues and altars, may
was thrown from the window of her palace and torn to have conjured up associations with the commandment
pieces by dogs. not to worship other gods rather than having anything
53 H. Miedema (ed.), Karel van Mander, The lives of the illustriousdelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt (inv. nr. 7363).
Netherlandish painters, vol. i, Doomspijk 1994, p. 33. 56 New Hollstein, cit. (note 43), nrs. 170-73 and 226-35.
54 Ibid., p. 317- 57 Ibid., nrs. I I 0- I5, 215 - I 8 and zI29 -24.
55 G. Poensgen, "Das Werk Jodocus a Winghe," Pantheon 28 58 Ibid., nrs. 132-37.
(1970), pp. 504-15, fig. io. The drawing for the print is in the Sta-
238 ILJA M. VELDMAN
to do with
as Old Testament exemplathe
of patient endurance.63 Jo-Ico
siah served to
hannes Stradanus, in his Seven gifts ofthe Holyexe
Spirit en-
Theatrum historic
graved by Adriaen and Carel Collaert, illustrated the
The instances of and punishment for lechery (covered gifts with Old Testament scenes.64 Spiritus sapientiae is
by the sixth commandment) are legion in the Bible, and exemplified by the judgment of Solomon, Spiritus intel-
here too Maarten van Heemskerck's prints offer ample lectus by Joseph interpreting Pharaoh's dreams, Spiritus
source material. His history of Dinah and Shechem consi/ji by Daniel explaining Nebuchadnezzar's dreams,
(Genesis 34:1-26) of ca. 1569 shows how Dinah, the Spiritus fortitudinis by Samson slaying the Philistines
with the jawbone of an ass, Spiritus pietatis by the sacri-
daughter ofJacob, went out alone and aroused the desire
of Shechem, "who took her, and lay with her, and defiled
fice of Cain and Abel, and Spiritus timoris domini by Job
her." Even though he then married her officially, a making burnt offerings for the good of his children.
dreadful punishment was in store for him: despite the There are numerous examples of Old Testament sto-
fact that all the men of his tribe had themselves circum- ries or figures that illustrate a moral lesson. One need
cised for the occasion they were slaughtered by Dinah's only recall the theme of women's wiles that was so popu-
brothers, Simeon and Levi.60 Heemskerck's print series lar in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with the cau-
of Judah and Tamar (Genesis 38) also deals with un- tionary examples of Eve, Lot's daughters, Jael, Jezebel,
chaste behavior. Although Tamar bore twins, one of Delilah, Solomon's wives and even the virtuous Judith.
whom was an ancestor of Christ, Heemskerck evidently The Old Testament heroes Joshua, David and Judas
considered her behavior very sinful, for although the Maccabeus serve as exempla in series of the Nine
Bible says nothing about her being punished, the inscrip- worthies. Their female counterparts are Susanna, Esther,
tion on the last print, the scene of the twins' birth, says Jael, Jephthah's daughter and Judith.
that "it became possible to punish her after the birth, so The moral exegesis of Old Testament stories re-
that Judah's judgment was upheld."6' mained popular until well into the seventeenth century.
In addition to the ten commandments, Old Testament This can be seen from the commentaries on the stories in
stories or figures could also serve as moral exempla in an- the Theatrum biblicum, the print Bible published by
other context. In a series of The eight beatitudes (MatthewClaes Jansz. Visscher in i643, the Emblemata sacra of
5:3 -IO) of ca. 1566 after Heemskerck, four of the bles- i654 by Jan Philips Schabaelje, and the Historiae sacrae
sings are illustrated with Old Testament stories. Job (Amsterdam, n.d.) with copies after the Icones biblicae of
learning of his afflictions (Job I:14-21) stands for Matthias Merian. In the seventeenth century the moral
"Blessed are the poor in spirit"; the scene of Miriam lessons to be drawn from Old Testament stories were of-
and Aaron, who take Moses to task for marrying an ten directed at the civil authorities. In i669, for instance,
Ethiopian woman (Numbers I 2: i-2), symbolises "Bles- Ferdinand Bol painted a Joseph selling corn in Egypt for
sed are the meek"; Tobias, who buries the dead, clothes the churchwarden's room in Amsterdam's Zuiderkerk.65
the naked and feeds the hungry (Tobit I:I7-21) epito- Joseph, who had stored up corn in the seven years of
mizes "Blessed are the merciful"; and Abigail, who paci- plenty so as to be able to disburse it to the people in the
fies David (I Samuel 25:23-35) illustrates "Blessed are lean years was held up as an example to the churchwar-
the peacemakers.,,62 In Heemskerck's Triumph of pa- dens who, like Joseph, set out to be wise governors who
looked to the future without thought of enriching them-
tience of I 559, Isaac, Joseph, David, Job and Tobit serve
59 Ibid., nrs. 143 -50. These and other prints by Heemskerck are as- 62 Ibid., nrs. 3 I3 -20.
sociated with the Iconoclasm in E. A. Saunders, "A commentary on ico- 63 New Hollstein, cit. (note 43), Pt. 2, ed. I.M. Veldman, Roosendaal
noclasm in several print series by Maarten van Heemskerck," Simiolus 1994, nrs. 437-41-
IO (1978-79), pp. 59-83. 64 Hollstein, op. cit. (note 39), vol. 4, P. 20 I, nrs. 3-9. The excepti
6o New Hollstein, cit. (note 43), nrs. 31-34. is Spiritus scientiae, which has a scene from the Acts of the Apostles
6i Ibid., nrs. 39-42, with the inscription "Post Thamar geminos vi- 65 Exhib. cat. Het Oude Testament in de schilderkunst van de Gou
tales aedit in auras possitur ad poenas, sic stat sententia iudae." The Eeuw, ed. C. Tumpel, Amsterdam Goods Historisch Museum) &
second half of the sentence was removed in the third edition of Claes Zwolle i99i, nr. i6.
Jansz. Visscher's Theatrum biblicum of i643 as being incompatible with
the text of the Bible.
I _ ~~~~~~
24 Philips Galle after Maarten van Heemskerck, Amnon raping his half-sister Tamar, 15597 engrav
series of The history of Tamar and Amnon. Leiden, Prentenkabinet
selves. The same subject was painted in the town hall of line between the Old Testament exemplum as a guide to
Amsterdam as a fitting exemplum for temporal rulers. moral behavior and the Old Testament as typology of
Also in the town hall were paintings of Moses and Solo- contemporary history a typology that was often used
mon to exhort the city's administrators to be just and
in both literature and the visual arts. Although that, too,
is an area meriting the attention of art historians, it lies
wise.66 Elisha refusing the gifts of Naaman was a popular
subject for the governors of leper-houses, for the prophet
outside the scope of this article.
had cured Naaman of leprosy but refused any reward.
His selflessness was held up as a model for the regents
who were responsible for the well-being of lepers.67 FREE UNIVERSITY
These latter examples, however, stand on the dividing AMSTERDAM
66 Ferdinand Bol painted Moses with the tables Frans

oftheHalslaw,
Museum).
and Ferdinand
Govert Bol painted the same subject in i66i
Flinck Solomon praying for wisdom (i658); see for A. the leper-houseKunst
Blankert, in Amsterdam,
als see Blankert, op. cit. (note 66), pp.
43-46, and idem,
regeringszaak in Amsterdam in de I7de eeuw, Amsterdam Ferdinand
1975, pp. 24Bol, i6i6-I68o, Rembrandt's pupil,
and 33-35- Doornspijk i982, pp. 94-95, nr. I 4, fig. 41 (now in the Amsterdam His-
67 Exhib. cat. Het Oude Testament, cit. (note 65), nr. 3 I: a painting oftorical Museum).
1537 by Pieter de Grebber for the Haarlem leper-house (now Haarlem,

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The Old Testament as a Moral Code: Old Testament Stories as Exempla of the Ten

Stichting Nederlandse Kunsthistorische Publicaties is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize,

The Old Testament as a moral code: Old Testament stories

tory or everyday life.5 L I T E R A T U R E The function of Old Testament stories

5 C. G. N. de Vooys, Middelnederlandsche legenden en exempelen: 43-46, vol. 2, pp. 549-620.

that is thy neighbour's,"

12 See J. Geffcken, Der Bildercatechismus des fiinfzehnten Jahrhun-pp. 150-57.

a 1Q=- 4-v ,~~~~~~ 1

caiai (I4 .Prs ilohqeN toae ov c.lt |; I 29 fEl 2

4 Amnon raping his half-sister Tamar and Nathanforetelling

companied by a woodcut with a scene from

OLD TESTAMENT EXEMPLA OF THE TEN COMMAND-

MENTS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY Surviving fif-

teenth-century examples of decalogue illustrations are

- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'- mandments.23 The Old Testament context is usually

Numbers I 5:32 of the Israelite who gathered wood on the

CATECHISM ILLUSTRATIONS AND REFORMATION

PRINT SERIES Whereas the commandments were

The "Ten commandments" of Lucas Cranach

'--< ' 2.'^ f

1~~~~~~~~~ Te omnmnssre nPilpMlnhhnsDrken

8 Lucas Cranach, Cain slaying Abel, woodcut accompanying

not particularly original, as Schiller believes.29 Only the

"Thou shalt not bear false witness" shows Susanna

ments: the first five enjoining us to love God a

The "theatrum historicum "ofHondorffand Lonicer The

SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRINTS OF THE TEN COM-

MANDMENTS Up to the Reformation, most ofthe sur-

m -- B ~~~~~~~~~~~~at the traditional canon, and in Goltzius's, both in the Ger-

39 For Cornelis Anthonisz's print see C. M. Armstrong, The mora-

lar law. It is very likely, then, that commentar

The "Ten commandments" ofMaarten van Heemskerck

vent) is an example of a group portrait with the tables of the law; it is

.. E i .; . E E -, iR fi!E E i~~~~..... a...... '$ :g

ii HasClarthEleafeJa nellicMsswt h tale ofh la w an l etmn xml f e

comnmns enrvig Mintr Ietdice Ladsmsu _frKntudKlugshc

varicatorum poenis (The decalogue, with the severest

In the right background Phinehas, the grandson of

THE OLD TESTAMENT AS A GUIDE TO MORAL

BEHAVIOR As mentioned above, the topological in-

47 Biographie nationale de Belgique, vol. 13, Brussels 1930-32, pp.

and punishment that one will receive for misdeeds,

with this work, "for reasons known t

These latter examples, however, stand on the dividing AMSTERDAM

66 Ferdinand Bol painted Moses with the tables Frans

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