Nama : Lina Andriyani Kelas : Keperawatan – C

Nim : 841416084 Tugas :Manajemen

Keperawatan

Jurnal 1 :
A Clinical Supervision Model In Bachelor Nursing Education - Purpose,
Content and Evaluation
Marie Louise Hall-Lord, Kersti Theander, Elsy Athlin

The findings indicated that the supervision model evaluated in this study
could contribute to the fulfilment of goals for the clinical nursing education and to
the assessment of students. Deficiencies in academic level of the clinical
education led to the development of the supervision model. Nurse lecturers are
probably more concerned about this than clinical nurses, which may have biased
the nurse lecturers’ attitudes.
The idea of four supervision levels in this model was meant to compensate
for the fact that many clinical nurses who are assigned to students as preceptors
are lacking academic competence in nursing (Mc Carthy and Murphy, 2010;
Borch et al., 2012). Our study revealed that the personal preceptors had many
years of nursing experiences, but most of them lacked specialisation, as well as
academic and pedagogic courses. The main preceptors and clinical lecturers were
considered to be the more experienced and more highly educated nurses, who
should provide support and knowledge, both to students and personal preceptors.
Our findings showed that these expectations were only partly met, as half of the
main preceptors were lacking post-graduate courses, and one quarter lacked a
pedagogic course. This must be seen as a great failure, since this group of
preceptors was expected to bridge over the lack of academic and pedagogic
competence of the personal preceptors in the daily care. The most probable reason
for the low competence of the main preceptors is that there are still too few
clinical nurses with higher education working in clinical practice (Josefsson et al.,
2007; Gardulf et al., 2008).
Notable was that two of the clinical nurse lecturers were lacking in formal
qualifications, which indicates difficulties in recruitment of academically
competent nurses also in the university (Smith and Crookes, 2011).
It was interesting that the personal preceptors scored higher than both the
main preceptors and the nurse lecturers regarding their own contribution to the
students’ fulfilment of goals. They scored higher than the main preceptors
regarding their opportunity to support students in learning by reflection. This
conviction among preceptors of being very important for nursing students is found
elsewhere, and may be understood as a consequence of their commitment to their
role (Danielsson et al., 2009; Courthney-Pratt et al., 2012). However, as personal
preceptors are often lacking both academic and pedagogic competence, the risk is
that they only take the practical aspects of nursing in consideration in their
supervision, and focus merely on practical issues in their reflection together with
the students. If so, there is a risk that these preceptors with low academic and
pedagogic competence may serve as a conserving factor in nursing, instead of
being proactive in their supervision and role-modelling (Allan et al., 2011).
Our study illuminated the need of improvement of the supervision model.
The findings indicated that one way could be to extend the main preceptor role, in
line with previous trials using so-called clinical facilitators (Henderson et al.,
2009) or linkteachers (Williams and Taylor, 2008) with a clear supernumerous
status. The present study showed that the main preceptors’ protected time of 8
h/week/group of students mostly could be used. As they also had higher academic
and pedagogic competence than the personal preceptors, they would better
contribute to the goals that were set in the nursing education. The personal
preceptor role could be replaced with ‘daily supervisors’; nurses responsible for
patients assigned to nursing students on each shift basis. The expectation on these
nurses would mainly be to supervise students in clinical skills together with the
inevitable and important role-modelling (Perry, 2009).
Methodological considerations
Some important limitations must be addressed. The sample used,
comprised the total population with few participants in some of the groups, but the
response rate was satisfying in all groups, which strengthened the validity of the
findings (Polit and Beck, 2008).
Nursing students should have been included in the questionnaire survey.
Their opinions and experience about the supervision model would have provided
additional understanding about the pros and cons of the model. However, in
addition to current study, ten nursing students in clinical placements during the
same period were interviewed about their experiences of the supervision model,
its impact on their clinical learning, and the supervision they had received. The
findings, which accorded well with the findings of this study, are reported
elsewhere (Hall-Lord and Athlin, 2005).
Jurnal 2 :
High Core Self-Evaluators Maintain Creativity: A Motivational Mode Of
Abusive Supervision
Hongping Zhang, Ho Kwong Kwan, Xiaomeng Zhang and Long-Zeng Wu

This study sought to test a model centered on intrinsic motivation and

individual differences to explain the boundary conditions of abusive supervision’s
impact on creativity. Within this model, perceptions of abusive supervision serve
to undermine employees’ intrinsic motivation, particularly for those who evaluate
their worth, competence, and capability negatively (i.e., low core self-evaluators).
Consequently, employees begin to lose their enjoyment in the work itself and their
external focus on performance. A result of this loss is that employees are less
likely to devote their attention to diverse and relevant information, challenge the
status quo, put effort toward and persist in innovative goals, and create novel and
useful ideas.
Applying multiwave, multisource research design, we found support for
all of our hypotheses: Intrinsic motivation mediated the effect of abusive
supervision on creativity with particularly pronounced negative effects for
employees who possess low CSE. In focusing on both mediating and moderating
effects together, our model helps to explain both how abusive supervision
undermines creativity and whose intrinsic motivation and creativity will suffer the
most damage at the hands of abusive supervision. In so doing, our investigation
not only offers strong evidence for the arguments that abusive supervision can
affect creativity (D. Liu et al., in press), but also enriches our realization of how
such a relation emerges. Our work integrates Amabile’s (1996) model of
creativity and behavioral plasticity theory (Brockner, 1988), explaining how and
when abusive supervision influences employee creativity most negatively.
 Recent research has revealed the overlap among various constructs
associated with interpersonal mistreatment, such as bullying, incivility, abuse,
undermining, and social isolation (Tepper & Henle, 2011). Given that these
constructs all relate to interpersonal mistreatment that is likely to represent
unfavorable social environments that undermine intrinsic motivation and
creativity, future research can easily apply our framework to study these other
constructs as well.
One strength of our motivational model of abusive supervision is that it
explains a mediator that associates unfavorable situations with creativity.
Although research has provided evidence that links abusive supervision with
reduced emotional resources (Aryee et al., 2008), organizational justice (Aryee et
al., 2007), and organization-based self-esteem (Jian et al., 2012), Amabile’s
(1988) model and a comprehensive review of creativity (Shalley et al., 2004) have
asserted that linkages between contextual factors and creativity might be via
intrinsic motivation. For example, empirical investigation has revealed that
intrinsic motivation is a proximal predictor and a key underlying mechanism of
creativity (Zhang & Bartol, 2010). Although recent research has provided
evidence for the claim that abusive supervision should negatively affect creativity
(D. Liu et al., in press), it is unclear how and why employees exposed to abusive
supervision experience a reduction in their creativity. Within a motivational
model of abusive supervision, reduced creativity follows a decrease in enjoyment
of the work itself and of an external focus on performance. Abusive supervision
has been conceptualized as negative evaluations from supervisors connoting
employee incompetence in which the supervisors express their disappointment in
employees’ low-level job performance (Tepper et al., 2011), often applying a rude
manner with the ultimate aim of promoting employee job performance (D. Liu et
al., in press).
 A second strength of our motivational model of abusive supervision is that
it offers a fruitful model for future research that focuses on the outcomes of
abusive supervision. As previously discussed, intrinsic motivation represents a
broad underlying mechanism with a number of insights into organizational
behavior that can be steadily applied to future abusive supervision studies. Hence,
aside from motivating employees to create novel and useful ideas, intrinsic
motivation represents another important mechanism through which one might
perform other work and family behavior.
Jurnal 3 :
Effective and Ineffective Supervision
Nicholas Ladany, Yoko Mori, and Kristin E. Mehr

The purpose of our discussion is to summarize the results along two lines
of findings or themes: (a) effective and ineffective behaviors and supervisor
competencies and (b) salient variables for understanding supervision process and
outcome.
What did our participants tell us about effective and ineffective supervisor
skills, techniques, and behaviors? First, the identified effective supervisor skills,
techniques, and behaviors arguably can be seen as a primer for supervisor
competencies. Across both the best and worst supervisors, a series of consistent
behaviors were identified.
The supervisor as expert clinician also was identified as an effective
supervisory skill. Specifically, supervisors who were able to demonstrate their
clinical knowledge, that is, to self-disclose clinical information that was relevant
to the supervisees presenting concerns and was in the service of the supervisee,
seemed particularly helpful. This finding coincides with theoretical, empirical,
and practical writings on supervisor self-disclosure (Ladany & Walker, 2003).
Finally, feedback that was positive and challenging seemed to be uniquely
beneficial to supervisees. Hence, these results suggest that supervisors would do
well not to offer unbridled optimism about supervisees and recognize that
supervisees can handle challenges, and in fact, may welcome challenges,
especially within a positive supervisory relationship. One interesting aside is that
the effective and ineffective supervisor skills, techniques, and behaviors did not
seem to differentiate supervisees who were at different experience (i.e.,
developmental) levels. This lack of finding coincides with questions about
developmental hypotheses discussed in the theoretical literature that to date have
limited empirical support (Ladany & Inman, in press). Moreover, it calls into
question a fundamental assumption about the competency benchmarks, that is, the
assumption that there are developmental changes that should take place in the
supervisor’s approach.
As the identified effective categories offer a primer for supervisor
competencies, the identified ineffective categories perhaps offer a primer for
supervisor incompetence. Results from our study coincide with findings from
Magnuson, Wilcoxon, and Norem’s (2000) qualitative investigation of “lousy
supervisors.” One of our more striking findings was how supervisors, at times,
depreciated or devalued supervision. As has been found in the literature,
supervision can be a place where supervisees are harmed (Ellis, 2001). As can be
seen in the examples, presumably what is clearly not acceptable in a counseling
relationship (e.g., answering phone calls) was deemed acceptable in supervision.
A weakening of the supervisory relationship was understandably problematic for
supervisees. What is unclear, however, is if the weakening was a rupture in the
supervisory alliance that was irreparable (Ladany, Friedlander, & Nelson, 2005).
In supervision, it would be expected that, at times, supervisors would not perform
expertly. The question remains whether the supervisory alliance was strong
enough to withstand potentially problematic supervisor behaviors. In sum, the
results related to ineffective supervisor skills, techniques, and behaviors speak to
the challenges that many supervisors seem to possess and have implications for
training sites that may offer little guidance or accountability of supervisor
performance (Ladany, 2007).
Jurnal 4 :
Pengembangan Model Supervisi Klinis Berbasis Informasi Dan Teknologi
Rugaiyah

Penelitian Model Supervisi Klinis Berbasis Teknologi Informasi

dikembangkan dari konsep Glickman Et Al (2010: 288-289) menjelaskan lima
langkah Supervisi Klinis :
1) Pra Konferensi Dengan Guru (Tahap Persiapan)
Pada tahap awal dilakukan pertemuan yang selanjutnya dilakukan
melalui pemanfaatan informasi berbasis teknologi dan informasi bisa
menggunakan email, SMS, atau via telepon. Adapun persiapan untuk
membuat RPP dan dikonsultasikan dengan supervisor (kepala sekolah atau
pengawas binaan), yang biasanya diserahkan dalam bentuk hardcopy, pada
model ini dilakukan melalui email. Supervisor dapat menganalisis dan
memberikan masukan kepada guru yang bersangkutan melalui email pula.
2) Observasi Kelas
Supervisor tidak langsung masuk ke dalam kelas, tetapi dilakukan
dengan melakukan rekaman video. Untuk melakukan rekaman ini
diperlukan panduan yang dijadikan dasar untuk melakukan rekaman
sehingga hasil rekaman sesuai kebutuhan dalam menganalisis hasil
supervisi klinis. Pada hasil rekaman dapat dilihat dengan jelas selama
proses pembelajaran secara utuh, mulai dari kegiatan pembukaan, inti dan
penutup. Pada kegiatan pembukaan merekam kegiatan guru dengan close
up sehingga jelas terlihat apa saja yang dilakukan dan dibicarakan oleh
guru. Pada kegiatan inti dihasilkan rekaman gambar yang memperlihatkan
kegiatan guru dalam mengelola pembelajaran, cara interaksi dengan siswa,
dalam menggunakan metode, interaksi siswa selama pembelajaran,
penampilan guru, yang menampilkan ekspresi ketika proses pembelajaran.
 Pada kegiatan penutup merekam kegiatan gambar aktivitas guru dan siswa
saat mengakhiri pembelajaran di kelas..
3) Analisis Interpretasi Observasi Dan Menetapkan Pendekatan Konferensi
Pada model ini dikembangkan menjadi dua analisis :
a) Analisis dilakukan oleh guru
Guru memutar kembali rekaman video pembelajaran dirinya,
kemudian melakukan self assessment yang berhubungan dengan kegiatan
mengajarnya. Penilaian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan format
penilaian mengajar yang telah disediakan oleh supervisor yang dikirim
melalui email. Setelah guru melakukan penilaian mandiri maka hasil
tersebut dikirim kepada supervisor.
b) Analisis kolaboratif
Analisis kolaboratif berarti yang dilakukan oleh supervisor dalam hal
ini dapat dilakukan oleh kepala sekolah atau oleh pengawas pembina.
Penilaian juga dilakukan melalui tayangan rekaman video mengajar guru
dengan menggunakan format penilaian yang telah disediakan. Setelah
melakukan penilaian masing-masing aspek, melakukan analisis hasil
pembelajaran tersebut, penilaian ini bersifat kolaboratif dengan
menggunakan prinsip kesejawatan. Supervisor bukan seorang atasan tetapi
sebagai kolega yang dapat membantu guru untuk memperbaiki mengajar.
Penilaian ini menggunakan format penilaian yang telah disediakan.
4) Pertemuan Yang Dilakukan Setelah Melakukan Observasi
Pada tahap ini terjadi pertemuan kolegial membahas tentang proses
pembelajaran guru yang bersangkutan, sambil melakukan pemutaran ulang
video tersebut, bila diperlukan pada tahap ini supervisor lebih banyak
menggali hal-hal apa yang dialami oleh guru terkait kemampuan
mengajarnya. Pada tahap ini pengawas tidak banyak memberikan saran
kepada guru tetapi lebih banyak menggali hal-hal apa yang dinilai guru
 perlu untuk diperbaiki dalam upaya meningkatkan kompetensi
mengajarnya.
5) Pelaksanaan Kritik Empat Langkah Sebelumnya
Studi awal menemukan bahwa persepsi guru dan kepala sekolah
tentang supervisi klinis belum dipahami secara optimal, karena supervise
yang dilakukan disekolah adalah supervise akademik.

Penelitian ini mengembangkan model supervisi klinis berbasis teknologi

dan informasi yang membedakan model tersebut dari konsep awal adalah antara
satu tahap dengan tahap yang lain dapat menggunakan informasi dan teknologi.
Penggunaan teknologi dan informasi dapat memotong siklus keterbatasan ruang
dan waktu. Model tersebut dapat di divisualisasikan pada Gambar dibawah ini :
Jurnal 5 :

Model, Pendekatan, Dan Teknik Supervisi Pendidikan Di Perguruan Tinggi

Retno Djohar Juliani

Model, pendekatan dan teknik supervisi, dimana ketiga konsep ini saling
berkaitan satu dengan yang lain. Model berasal dari Bahasa Inggris Modle, yang
bermakna bentuk atau kerangka sebuah konsep, pola atau acuan, sedangkan
pendekatan berasal dari kata approach adalah cara mendekatkan diri kepada objek
atau langkah - langkah menuju objek, sementara teknik berasal dari kata technic
dapat diartikan metode yang digunakan.
1) Model Supervisi Pendidikan
Harjanto(2006)mengartikan model sebagai kerangka
konseptual yang digunakan sebagai pedoman atau acuan dalam melakukan
suatu kegiatan. Raulerson (dalam Harjanto, 2006) mengartikan model
diartikan sebagai "a set of parts united by some form of interaction"(artinya:
suatu perangkat dari bagian-bagian yang diikat atau dipersatukan oleh
beberapa bentuk hubungan saling mempengaruhi). Contohnya system tata
surya, sistem pencernaan, sistem kekerabatan. Khusus dalam bahasan ini
adalah model yang berkaitan dengan supervisi, lebih tepat menggunakan
istilah acuan yang dipakai dalam melaksanakan supervisi. Sahertian (2000)
membagi model supervisi menjadi empat bentuk, yaitu :
a) Model konvensional (tradisional)
Model ini tidak lain dari refleksi dari kondisi masyarakat pada
suatu saat. Pada saat kekuasaan yang otoriter dan feodal, akan
berpengaruh pada sikap pemimpin yang otokrat dan korektif. Pemimpin
cenderung untuk mencari-cari kesalahan. Perilaku supervisi ialah
mengadakan inspeksi untuk mencari kesalahan dan menemukan
 kesalahan. Perilaku seperti ini disebut snooper vision(memata-matai).
Pekerjaan seorang supervisor yang bermaksud hanya untuk mencari
kesalahan adalah suatu permulaan yang tidak berhasil.Mencari-cari
kesalahan dalam membimbing sangat bertentangan dengan prinsip dan
tujuan supervisi pendidikan. Akibatnya yang disupervisi merasa tidak
puas dan ada dua sikap yang tampak dalam kinerja yang disupervisi : 1)
Acuh tak acuh (masa bodoh), dan (2) Menantang (agresif). Praktek
mencari- cari kesalahan dan menekan bawahan ini masih tampak sampai
saat ini. Para pengawas datang ke sekolah dan menanyakan mana satuan
pelajaran. Ini salah dan seharusnya begini. Praktek-praktek supervisi
seperti ini adalah cara memberi supervisi yang konvensional. Ini bukan
berarti bahwa tidak boleh menunjukkan kesalahan. Masalahnya ialah
bagaimana cara kita mengkomunikasikan apa yang dimaksudkan
sehingga yang disupervisi menyadari bahwa dia harus memperbaiki
kesalahan. Caranya harus secara taktis pedagogis atau dengan perkataan
lain, memakai bahasa penerimaan bukan bahasa penolakan.
b) Model Supervisi Ilmiah
Supervisi yang bersifat ilmiah memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut:
- Dilaksanakan secara berencana dan kontinu,
- Sistematis dan menggunakan prosedur serta teknik tertentu
- Menggunakan instrumen pengumpulan data
- Ada data yang objektif yang diperoleh dari keadaan yang riil
Dengan menggunakan merit rating, skala penilaian atau checklist
lalu mahasiswa menilai proses kegiatan belajar-mengajar dosen di kelas.
Hasil penilaian diberikan kepada dosen sebagai balikan terhadap
penampilan mengajar dosen pada semester yang lalu. Data ini berbicara
kepada dosen dan dosen kemudian mengadakan perbaikan. Penggunaan
alat perekam data ini berhubungan erat dengan penilaian. Walaupun
 demikian, hasil perekam data secara ilmiah belum merupakan jaminan
untuk melaksanakan supervisi yang lebih manusiawi.
c) Model Supervisi Klinis
Supervisi klinis adalah bentuk supervisi yang difokuskan pada
peningkatan mengajardengan melalui siklus yang sistematik, dalam
perencanaan, pengamatan serta analisis yang intensif dan cermat tentang
penampilan mengajar yang nyata, serta bertujuan mengadakan
perubahan dengan cara yang rasional.Supervisi klinis adalah proses
membantu dosen memperkecil kesenjangan antara tingkah laku
rnengajar yang nyata dengan tingkah laku mengajar yang ideal.
d) Model Supervisi Artistik
Mengajar adalah suatu pengetahuan (knowledge), keterampilan
(skill), dan kiat (art). Sejalan dengan tugas mengajar , supervisi juga
merupakan kegiatan mendidik sehingga dapat dikatakan bahwa supervisi
adalah suatu pengetahuan, keterampilan dan juga kiat. Supervisi itu
menyangkut bekerja untuk orang lain (working for the others), bekerja
dengan orang lain (working with the others), bekerja melalui orang lain
(working through the others). Dalam hubungan bekerja dengan orang
lain maka suatu rantai hubungan kemanusiaan adalah unsur utama.
Hubungan antar manusia dapat tercipta bila ada kerelaan untuk
menerima orang lain sebagaimana adanya. Hubungan itu dapat tercipta
bila ada unsur kepercayaan.