PRIME MOVERS AND FLUID

MACHINES
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus
 BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

Hydraulic Turbines
Hydraulic Turbines

• Water flowing under pressure has two forms of energy,

kinetic and potential energy.
• The kinetic energy of water depends upon the available
mass of water flowing with high velocity, and
• the potential energy possessed by the water particles is
the result of the difference of water level between two
points known as head.
• The device which converts this kinetic and potential
energy into mechanical power is called as hydraulic
turbine.

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Elements of a hydroelectric
power plant
• The available water has to be stored in a reservoir
before it can be used to generate electric power.
• The dam is a structure constructed at the appropriate
site to store water and create head.
• The level of water in the storage reservoir is called the
head race.

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Elements of a hydroelectric
power plant
• Water from the storage reservoir is carried to the power
house through pipes of large diameters, usually made of
steel or concrete. These pipes are called penstocks and
water flows through them under pressure.
• The power house is usually located at the base of the
dam. If the power house is located at a far distance from
the storage reservoir, another smaller reservoir, called
the forebay, may be constructed at a short distance
downstream of the main reservoir.

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Classification of hydroelectric
power plants
HPPs are classified according to the following:
a) The available head:
(i) High head power plants – The head is usually greater
than 300 m. Heads up to 1800 m have been utilized.
Pelton turbines are usual choice for high heads power
plants.
(ii) Medium head plants – The head usually lies
between 50 m to 300 m. Francis or Deriaz turbines are
used in medium head power plants.
(iii) Low head plants – The head is usually less than 50
m. Kaplan and propeller turbines are used in low head
plants.

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Classification of hydroelectric
power plants
HPPs are classified according to the following:
b) With or without storage reservoir: When a river is
flowing through a hilly region, the flowing water is
directly fed to turbines, i.e., water is not being stored
and the output from the turbines is limited both to the
extent of flow available in the river at a given instant and
to the capacity of the plant. The power plant is known as
Run-off River Plants

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Classification of hydroelectric
power plants
HPPs are classified according to the following:
c) The load capacity: Based on load capacity,
hydroelectric power plants are classified into ‘Base load
plants’ and ‘Peak load plants’. The base load plants
generate power continuously.
When the base load power plants are under operation
and are generating more power than required during off
hours, the extra available power is utilized to lift water
from the trail race and store it into the reservoir. The
stored water can be utilized to produce power during
peak load hours. Such types of peak load plants are
called pumped storage plants.

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Classification of Turbines

The turbines in general are classified in three ways:

a) according to the direction of flow of water through the

runner
b) according to the action of water on the runner blades
c) according to their specific speed

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Classification of Turbines

The turbines in general are classified in three ways:

a) according to the direction of flow of water through the
runner
i) Axial Flow turbines: When the path of flow of water
through the runner remains parallel to axis of the shaft, it
is an axial flow turbine. The Kaplan and propeller
turbines are axial flow turbines.
ii) Radial flow turbines: In this case, the path of flow of
water remains in the radial direction and in a plane
normal to runner shaft.

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Classification of Turbines

The turbines in general are classified in three ways:

a) according to the direction of flow of water through the
runner
iii) Tangential flow turbines: The water strikes the
blades or buckets of the runner in a direction tangential
to the path of rotation or when the flow is tangential to
wheel circle, it is tangential-flow turbine.
iv) Mixed flow turbines: When the water enters the
runner radially and comes out axially and there is
gradual change of flow from radial to axial in the runner,
the flow is called mixed flow.

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Classification of Turbines

The turbines in general are classified in three ways:

b) according to the action of water on the runner blades
i) Impulse turbines: If the runner of a turbine is rotated
by the impact or impulse action of water, it is an
impulse turbine.
ii) Reaction turbines: The static pressure at inlet to the
runner is higher than the static pressure at the exit, and
there is a gradual conversion of static pressure into
kinetic energy while water is flowing through the runner.
The rotation of the runner is partly due to impulse action
and partly due to change in pressure over the runner
blades, and hence the turbine is called reaction turbine.

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General layout of a hydro
elecric power plant

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ENERGY CONVERSION

Let us consider a rotating wheel in which number of curved

blades or vanes have been fixed radially as shown in Fig
A. Let
V1 = Absolute velocity of the jet at the inlet
u1 = Velocity of vane at the inlet
Vr1 = Relative velocity of jet at the inlet
α1 = Angle of absolute velocity at the inlet with the direction
of motion of vane also know as Guide vane angle at inlet
β1 = Angle of relative velocity at the inlet with the direction
of motion of vane also know as Blade angle or Vane
angle at inlet

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 ENERGY CONVERSION
Vw1 = the component of velocity of jet at inlet V1 in the direction of
motion, also known as velocity of whirl at the inlet
Vf1 = the component of velocity of jet at inlet V1 in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane, also known
as velocity of flow at inlet
V2 = Absolute velocity of the jet at the outlet
u2 = Velocity of vane at the outlet
Vr2 = Relative velocity of jet at the outlet
α2 = Angle of absolute velocity at the outlet with the direction of
motion of vane also know as Guide vane angle at outlet
β2 = Angle of relative velocity at the outlet with the direction of
motion of vane also know as Blade angle or Vane angle at
outlet
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ENERGY CONVERSION

Vw2 = the component of velocity of jet at outlet V2 in the

direction of motion, also known as velocity of whirl at the
outlet
Vf2 = the component of velocity of jet at outlet V2 in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
vane, also known as velocity of flow at outlet

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ENERGY CONVERSION

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ENERGY CONVERSION

Let ω = the angular speed of the wheel

Now mass of water striking per sec for series of vanes =
mass of water coming out from nozzle per second
= ρaV1
where a = area of jet of water
Momentum of water striking the vanes in the tangential
direction per second at the inlet = mass of water per
second x component of V1 in the tangential direction
= ρaV1 x Vw1

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ENERGY CONVERSION

Similarly moment of water at the outlet per sec

= mass of water per second x component of V2 in the
tangential direction
= ρaV1 x ( - V2 cosα2) = - ρaV1 x Vw2
Negative sign is taken as the component of V2 at the outlet
is in opposite direction.
Now the angular momentum per second at the inlet
= moment at the inlet x radius at the inlet
= ρaV1 x Vw1 x r1

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ENERGY CONVERSION

Angular momentum per second at the outlet

= moment at the outlet x radius at the outlet
= - ρaV1 x Vw2 x r2
The net efflux of moment of momentum between the inlet
and outlet control surfaces for a steady state analysis is
equal to the torque on the wheel about the axis of
rotation passing through O.

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ENERGY CONVERSION

Torque exerted by the water on the wheel = rate of change

of angular momentum
= initial angular momentum per second – final angular
momentum per second
= ρaV1 x ( Vw1 x r1 + Vw2 x r2 )
Power P = torque x ω = ρaV1 x (Vw1 x r1 + Vw2 x r2 ) x ω
P = ρQ x (Vw1 x u1 + Vw2 x u2)

As aV1= Q i.e. discharge and u = r x ω

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ENERGY CONVERSION

If the angle α2 is an obtuse angle than the power will be

given as
P = ρQ x (Vw1 x u1 - Vw2 x u2 )
Therefore, the general expression for power on the wheel
P = ρQ x (Vw1 x u1 ± Vw2 x u2 )
If u1= u2 = u, i.e. the blade tips at the inlet and exit are
equidistant from the axis of rotation, we get
P = ρQ x (Vw1 ± Vw2) x u
If the discharge is radial at the outlet, then α2 = 90o Vw2= 0,
so and the power
P = ρQx Vw1 x u1

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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
The general expression for power on
the wheel
P = ρQ x (Vw1 x u1 ± Vw2 x u2 )
From the inlet velocity triangle drawn,
let us find out Vw1 u1 and Vw2 u2 ,

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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
The general expression for power on
the wheel
P = ρQ x (Vw1 x u1 ± Vw2 x u2 )
From the inlet velocity triangle drawn,
let us find out Vw1 u1 and Vw2 u2 ,

V  V  V  V  V  Vw1  u1
1
2 2
w1
2
f1
2
w1
2
r1  
2

 Vw21  Vr12  Vw21  u12  2Vw1 u1


 Vw1 u1  V12  Vr12  u12 / 2 
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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
From the outlet velocity triangle, we
have

Vr22  V f22  u2  Vw2 
2

 V f22  u22  Vw22  2u2Vw2

 ( V f22  Vw22 )  u22  2u2Vw2

 V22  u22  2u2Vw2


Vw2 u2  Vr22  V22  u22 / 2
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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
Since the direction of Vw1 is opposite to Vw2, the energy
transfer per unit mass flow E is, Euler’s equation,

V V Vr22  Vr12 u12  u22

 
2 2
E  Vw1 u1  Vw2 u2  1

2

2 2 2
It is quite clear from Eq. that the energy transfer per unit mass
does not depend upon the shape of the path taken by the
fluid in moving from inlet to outlet. It simply depends upon
the velocities at inlet and outlet.

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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
V V Vr22  Vr12 u12  u22
 
2 2
E  Vw1 u1  Vw2 u2 1 2
 
2 2 2
The Eq. consists of three terms.
• The first term represents the change in the kinetic energy of
the fluid per.
• The second term represents the change in pressure due to
change in relative kinetic energy or it represents change in
static pressure energy, as per Bernoulli’s equation applied to
relative flow through runner passage by reducing the rotating
system into stationary system.
• The third term represents the effect of centrifugal head. We
know that energy change due to centrifugal action takes
place in the form of pressure energy.
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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
V V Vr22  Vr12 u12  u22
 
2 2
E  Vw1 u1  Vw2 u2 1 2
 
2 2 2

The conversion of energy of the first term is the dynamic

change and does not take place in the runner of the
machine. The energy transfer given by the other two terms
takes place in the runner of the machine.
The energy transfer given by the other two terms takes place
in the runner or rotor of the machine and is known as
reactionary part; the pressure change due to it is called as
reaction pressure. All the reaction machines consist of
reaction pressure to various degrees and there is always
some part of impulse action in the machine.
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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
• Degree of reaction of a rotating fluid machine is defined as
the ratio of second and third terms to all the three terms.
i.e., the degree of reaction R,

R 

 Vr22  Vr12 

u12  u22  E
 2 2 

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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
• Degree of reaction of a rotating fluid machine is defined as
the ratio of second and third terms to all the three terms.
i.e., the degree of reaction R,

R 

 Vr22  Vr12

 
u12  u22  E
 2 2 

• In most of the reaction turbines, the discharge is radial i.e.

α2 = 90o Vw2= 0

V12  Vw21  V f21  Vw21  Vr12  Vw1  u1 
2

Vr12 Vw21  u12  2Vw1 u1  V f21

Vr22  u22  V f22 as Vw2= 0
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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
Also, usually there is not much change in the flow velocity
inside the runner. Therefore Vf1 = Vf2
and E = Vw1 u1

Degree of reaction, R =

u22  u12  u22  V f22  ( Vw21  u12  2Vw1 u1  V f21 )

2Vw1 u1

Vw1 Vw1 u1
1   1
2u1 2u12

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Fundamental equation of
hydraulic machines
Degree of reaction, R = Vw1 Vw1 u1
1   1
2u1 2u12

If Vw1 =2u1 (as in case of Pelton turbine), the degree of

reaction is zero
If Vw1 = u1, the degree of reaction is 0.5
If Vw1 =0, the degree of reaction will be 1, but in that case
specific energy conversion or work done per unit mass flow
is also zero (E = Vw1 u1). Therefore, no machine can be a
100% reaction machine.

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Head and efficiencies of a
turbine
• Gross Head: The difference between the head race
level and tailrace level when there is no flow is called as
Gross Head. It is denoted by Hg.
• Net Head or Effective Head: It is the head available at
the turbine inlet. If hf is the head loss due to friction
between penstock pipes and water then net head or
effective head on turbine is given by H  H g  h f
4 f  L V 2
hf 
2g  D
• V= Velocity of flow in penstock, L = length of penstock, D
= Diameter of penstock and f = Coefficient of friction
(note that 4f is called as friction factor)

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Head and efficiencies of a
turbine
• Hydraulic efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the
power produced by the turbine runner to the power
supplied by water to the turbine at inlet.
power produced by the runner Runner power
h  
ρQgH Water Power
• This represents the effectiveness with which energy is
transferred from the fluid to the runner.

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Head and efficiencies of a
turbine
• Volumetric efficiency: When water enters the turbine,
there is a possibility that some water may go to the tail
race without doing any work (i.e. without flowing over the
runner blades). Therefore, the volumetric efficiency is
defined as the ratio of the volume of water flowing over
the runner blades to the total volume of water supplied to
the turbine.
Q  Q
v 
Q
Where Q = total quantity of water flowing through the
turbine, and Q = quantity of water not flowing over the
runner blades.

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Head and efficiencies of a
turbine
• Mechanical efficiency: The power available at the shaft
for use is always less than the power produced by the
runner due to the mechanical losses. Mechanical
efficiency is thus defined as the ratio of useful power
available at the shaft to the power produced by the
runner.
power available at the shaft Shaft power
m  
power produced by the runner Runner power

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Head and efficiencies of a
turbine
• Overall efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of useful
power available at the shaft to the power supplied by
water turbine at inlet.

power available at the shaft Shaft Power

o  
ρQgH Water Power

 h m v

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