AIR COMPRESSOR SYSTEM

COMPRESSOR FUNDAMENTALS

In this paper, we will discuss, in general, the mode of operation and construction of a
centrifugal compressor. It is not intended to make you designers, but only to familiarize
you with the basic principles of compressors.

The compression element of a centrifugal compressor is the impeller (figure 1) or wheel.

Strictly speaking, the exit portion is the impeller, and the inlet portion is the inducer, or eye.

Imagine an impeller is caused to rotate. As the impeller rotates, the air caught between the
blades is forced to move outward, away from the eye of the impeller. As the air moves
outward, it increases in speed. Also, because the air molecules will tend to travel in a
straight line, they will oppose the press of the impeller blades so that air pressure is
increased. Therefore both velocity and pressure of the air increase as the air passes
through the impeller.

Since the air moves in a direction away from the center of rotation, the forces involved are
centrifugal (Figure 2). A machine that uses this centrifugal phenomenon to impart velocity
and pressure to a gas is a centrifugal compressor.

The motion of the air away from the eye causes a low pressure area at the eye that sucks
more air into the impeller to establish a smooth continuous flow. Obviously, it takes work
to rotate the impeller. This work is expended on the air by the impellers. It is converted to
the pressure and velocity energy of the air.

As the air exits the impeller, it enters a passage way called the diffuser (Figure 3). At this
point, the impeller does no further work on the air. As the air passes through the diffuser, it
slows down and its pressure increases. The kinetic energy, or velocity of the air, is
converted to static energy or pressure in the diffuser.

From the diffuser, the air passes into the scroll volute (Figure 4) where the process of
converting velocity to pressure is completed.

Before we go further into details, let’s review how this compression takes place in a typical
multistage intercooled compressor (see Figure 5).

Ambient air enters the first stage through the inlet valve, where it is accelerated by the first
impeller. A diffuser converts the velocity in the air to pressure and the process is completed
in the scroll volute. The air ducted through interstage piping to the first intercooler, then to
the second stage impeller, again through a diffuser and scroll volute to the second
intercooler. Air from the intercooler moves through a third impeller, diffuser and volute
where it reaches the final discharge pressure before discharging to the air system.

Intercooling

There are physical and economic considerations which limit the pressure rise that can be
achieved in a compressor stage.

Intercooling reduces the work input required to compress air to a given discharge pressure
resulting in a more efficient compressor. Intercooling may permit the compression to the
achieved in few stages, thus centrifugal air compressor are available in configurations of two
to four stages with one to three intercoolers.
Some of the advantages of intercooling are offset by the pressure drop across the cooler
and by the mechanical losses consumed in driving the stags. It is worthwhile to explore
their effect on efficiency.

Aerodynamic work input to a centrifugal compressor is proportional to polytropic head and

mass flow of air to which the head is imparted. Polytropic head is measured in foot-pounds
(work) per pound of air or more simply as feet of head. Power is then obtained by
multiplying head times total mass flow and considering mechanical losses and efficiency.

Polytropic head is obtained by:

H= ZRT n P2 n-1
n-1 P1 n
-1

Where:

H = Polytropic head in ft / Ibs /Ib

R = gas constant (1545 / molecular weight)
T = inlet air temperature (ºR)
P2 = discharge pressure (psia)
P1 = inlet pressure (psia)
Z = compressibility factor (air = 1.0)

n =n k
n-1 k-1 where n is Polytropic

efficiency and k is the ratio of specific heats.

For a given gas and considering impellers with a fixed efficiency:

H = Constant x T P2 Constant
P1 -1

From this relationship, it is apparent that for a given pressure ratio P2

P1 , the lower
the inlet temperature the lower the head necessary to achieve it. Therefore, repeated
intercoolings will lower the required total head required and consequently lower the power.

Example:

We can now study the effect of intercooling for a compressor using one, two, and three
stages of intercoolings:

Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 psi (1.013 bar) gage

Inlet pressure = 14.5 psi (1.0 bar) absolute
Discharge pressure = 100 psi (6.9 bar) gage or 114.7 psi (7.9 bar) absolute

Pressure Ratio = 114.7 = 7.91

14.5
Inlet air temperature = 95ºF (35ºC) or 555ºR Cooling water temperature = 80ºF (27ºC)
Intercooler approach temperature = 15ºF (8ºC) Air temperature after cooling = 95ºF (35ºC)
or 555ºR
Gas Constant = 53.35 (Ignoring humidity in the air) Polytropic efficiency = 80%
Ratio of specific heats = 1.396

n = 0.80 x 3.53 = 2.82

n-1

Drop across each intercooler increases pressure ratio by 1%

a) For a compressor with two stages and one intercooler, the adjusted pressure ratio =
1.01 x 7.91 = 7.989

Pressure ratio per stage 2√7.989 = 2.826

H= 53.35 x 555 x 2.82 2.826 1 -1

2.82

= 83498 x (1.44539 -1)

= 83498 x 0.44539
= 37190 ft (11336 m)

Since this is equal for each stage, the total head = 2x 37190 = 74380 ft (22671 m)

b) For a compressor with three stages and two intercooler, the adjusted pressure ratio
= 1.02 x 7.91 = 8.1473

Pressure ratio per stage 4√8.1473 = 1.689

H= 53.35 x 555 x 2.82 1.686 1 -1

2.82

= 83498 x (1.20437 -1)

= 83498 x 0.20437
= 37190 ft (5201 m)

Since this is equal for each stage, the total head = 4x 17065 = 68260 ft (20806 m)

These preliminary results are tabulated to show the theoretical effect of intercooling
on aerodynamic work:

No. of stage No. of % Total Head

intercoolers Aerodynamic
Work
2 One 100 74380 22671
3 Two 94.3 70137 21378
4 three 91.5 68260 20806

Thus the addition of a second stage of cooling reduces the aerodynamic work by 5.7% and a
third stage of cooling reduces the aerodynamic work by another 2.8%
POWER

However the total power required to drive a compressor must include the mechanical losses
expended in the drive gear and pinions and supporting journal and thrust bearings:

POWER
AERODYNAMIC WORK + MECHANICAL LOSSES

Therefore, to determine the relative efficiency of various compressor configurations, one

must consider the number of bearings and pinions in each configuration and determine the
mechanical losses.

Assuming that each pinion, set of two journal bearings and thrust bearing consumes an
additional 2% of the power:

a) A compressor of two stages and one intercooler can have two configurations:

1) Both stages are mounted on one pinion, thus power is:

100% x (1+.02 ) = 102%

2) Each stage is mounted on its own pinion, thus power is:

100% x 1+ (.02 x 2 ) = 104%

b) A compressor of three stages and two intercoolers can also have to configurations:

1. Two stages are mounted on one pinion and the remaining stage on a second pinion, thus
power is:

94.3% x 1+ (.02 x 2) = 98%

Note: A variation of this configuration would be so designed that thrust loads are
transmitted form the pinions to one large thrust bearing on the bull gear through two
tapered collars on pinions and matching collars on bull gear. For this type of machine
and additional 2% loss must be allowed for the collars, thus power is:

2. Each stage is mounted on its own pinion, thus power is:

94.3% x 1+ (.02 x 3) = 100%

c) A compressor of four stages and three intercoolers is usually designed with each stage on
its own pinion, thus power is:

91.5% x 1+ (.02 x4 ) = 98.8%

These results can be tabulated to show the effect of intercooling and compressor
configuration on power consumption (Figure 6).

Conclusions

It can therefore be demonstrated that a compressor with three stages mounted on two
pinions and with two intercoolers is always 1% more efficient than a four stage unit with
three intercoolers (figure 7). More over, the three stage compressor is mechanically
simpler with fewer parts.

The two stage compressor one intercooler configuration is used for low capacities where
efficiency may be secondary to mechanical simplicity and first cost. Interestingly, the single
pinion design with the lowest number of parts is 2% more efficient than the two pinion
design.
This analysis is valid for compressors in the range of 80-125 PSIG. For pressures of 30-50
PSIG, a similar analysis indicates that only one intercooler would be sufficient.
FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3
 FIGURE 4

POWER = AERODYNAMIC WORK + MECHANICAL LOSSES, BASED ON

AERODYNAMIC WORK FOR SINGLE INTERCOOLER COMPRESSOR = 100

No . No .of Power (at Configuration Remarks

 of intercooler compressor
stag coupling)
e
2 1 104 Two stage,
two pinion
design is the
least efficient.

2 1 102 Placing both

stages on a
single pinion
increases the
mechanical
simplicity and
efficiency.
3 2 100 Three stage,
three pinion
design is one
of the earliest
and midrange
in efficiency.
3 2 100 Simpler design
places two
stages on one
pinion.
However
efficiency
penalty is paid
for thrust
collar
arrangement.
4 3 98.8 four stage,
four pinion
design is
reasonably
efficient but
mechanically
complicated.
3 2 98 three stage, 2
pinion design
is optimum
configuration
for best
efficiency and
mechanical
simplicity.
 SYSTEM DEMANDS ON COMPRESSORS
A compressor, left to itself without any sort of control, will waste power. There are some
things that can be done to make a compressor behave in a more desirable fashion.

In addition, a compressor is not an island. It must fit into a system and respond to the
demands imposed by the system.

The characteristic performance curve of a centrifugal compressor, unlike that of a positive

displacement compressor, has a gradual slope between the operating discharge pressure
and capacity point and the point of maximum discharge pressure (Figure 1).

The centrifugal compressor operates at the discharge pressure imposed on it by the system.
The system pressure varies with the air used and the air pressure drop in the system.
Restating this operational characteristic, the compressor operates at the point where the
system resistance curve intersects the compressor operating curve.

System Resistance Curves

The load demand on any compressor can be categorized as:

 Frictional resistance such as system and piping back pressure.

 Fixed head caused by the load

 A combination of these two

In figure 2, system resistance curve AB is typical of process applications where the

resistance is due principally to friction in the piping system. For this type of application,
speed control can be used; or adjustable guide vanes can be used for a constant speed
compressor.

System resistance curve EB is typical of a system having a fixed back pressure such as
would be caused by a liquid head or pneumatic tools close to the compressor.

Compressed air systems have system resistance curves typified by DB, where most of the
load is caused by pneumatic tools and/ or instruments, but some frictional pressure loss as
well. Therefore, air compressors are operated at constant speed. and a control system, as
detailed later, is used to vary the compressor capacity while maintaining almost constant
pressure.

These, then, are the functions which we ask a compressor control system to perform:

(1) Regulate power consumption when air density exceeds design.

(2) Regulate discharge pressure.

(3) Reduce flow with demand with a corresponding reduction in power consumption.

(4) Maintain compressor operating within characteristic.

Methods of Control

Because the system resistance curve that an air compressor must match is essentially flat
some traditional methods of control are not suitable to air compressors.
Speed control is not suited, because reduction of speed of X amount unfortunately causes a
reduced of discharge pressure of X2. This precipitous reduction in pressure makes it difficult
to maintain system pressure. As a result, most air compressors are constant speed
machines driven by electric motors or steam turbines with constant speed governors.

Adjustable inlet guide vanes are another method of control which is unsuited. This complex
throttle valve is an excellent match for system resistance curves, due primarily to friction
where pressure varies as the square of the flow (Curve AB, figure 2). Since most air
systems require constant or nearly constant pressure with varying flow (Curve EB and DB,
Figure 2), guide vanes are superfluous for this purpose.

The basic devices used to control a compressor are:

♣ An inlet throttle valve

♣ By pass or unloading valve
♣ A discharge check valve
And the necessary controllers to operate these valves.

Inlet Air Density Control

First, let’s review how compressor power can be limited when ambient air temperatures
drop.

An inlet density control provides automatic power savings – energy conservation during cold
weather operation. The inlet air density is automatically controlled by sensing the inlet air
temperature and pressure downstream of the inlet valve and positioning the inlet valve to
maintain the rated air density at the compressor inlet.

In most plants, the air requirements are the same in winter and summer. In winter, the
inlet density control maintains the same weight flow delivery from the compressor to the
compressed air system. Energy is conserved because it is fixed at the rated value.
Therefore, the driver cannot become overloaded.

As the ambient air temperature drops, the calibrated inlet density control automatically
reduces the pressure to the compressor first stage inlet by throttling the inlet valve as
required. The pressure is that required to obtain the rated inlet air density with the
operating inlet air temperature (figure 3).

For example, if the compressor were rated at 14.2 PSIA and 90ºF, when the inlet
temperature drops to 60ºF, the inlet valve would partially close until the air pressure
downstream of it drops to 13.4 PSIA. The rated discharge pressure remains the same, as
well as the weight flow. If the inlet valve did not modulate, the driver would draw 14.2 /
13.4 = 1.06 or 6% more power then needed.

The rated capacity, CFM or m3/h, of the compressor is not reduced by this throttling of the
inlet valve. The compressor capacity is determined by the dimensions of the “eye” (inlet) of
the first stage impeller and the speed. Since the dimensions and speed are fixed
(constant), the capacity is fixed.

Control is simply achieved by taking an inlet air temperature signal through a temperature
transmitter and an inlet air pressure signal (figure 4). Both are measured downstream of
the inlet control valve but upstream of the compressor inlet. The signals are compared by
the inlet valve controller, which acts to maintain a constant ratio, causing a signal to go to
the inlet control valve through its pneumatic operator. The valve would modulate closed,
reducing the inlet pressure to the compressor and resorting the set ratio.
The throttling can be done with guide vanes, instead of a throttle valve with the same
result. However, guide vanes are usually more expensive.

The overload protection, incorporated in every motor starter, will protect the motor from
high operating electric current when the motor is overloaded due to high wintertime power
required by the compressors. But, the motor is protected by opening the starter contacts
so that the motor (and the compressor) stops. An unscheduled shutdown of the
compressor will interrupt operation of a plant or process, and in many instances be a very
expensive shutdown for the user.

Using a motor with a 1.25 service factor is a less obvious way to provide an oversized
motor. The consequences to the user are the same – increased power costs.

Overload protection for the steam turbine driven compressor can be furnished by having the
turbine furnished with excess power via an “overload” handvalve. The compressor
operation in the warmer weather will be inefficient because the operators will not open and
close the handvalve(s) as the air temperature fluctuates during a 24 hour period or from
day to day during the spring and fall months. And some turbine handvalves cannot be
opened when the turbine is operating.

Without automatic inlet density control, the inlet valve signal pressure would have to be
adjusted manually to limit the opening of valve as the temperature drops. For plants that
operate around the clock, the 30to 40ºF differential in winter air temperatures between
early afternoon and midnight might necessitate making daily adjustments (Figure 5).

Electric Utility Demand Charge

The need for inlet density control is not eliminated because the compressor has a control
system. It can be reasonably argued that with and without inlet density control, both
compressors will use the same average kWh. However, besides a charge for kWh, power
users must also pay a demand charge based on the peak kW used during the billing cycle.

Why the demand charge? The electric utility company is obliged to provide all of the power
the plant requires at any time the plant demands it. The utility, therefore, must invest in
the equipment needed to supply the plant’s peak power requirements, even though those
peak requirements might occur for only a brief interval during the billing period. The
demand charge is intended to compensate the utility company for its investments, and to
encourage the user to smooth out the peaks in his power usage so that utility company
equipment can be utilized in the most efficient manner.

If the plant load factor (the ratio of average to peak demand) is poor, demand control offers
far grater dollar savings than can be attained through “turn-off-the-lights” energy
conservation campaigns.

The utility company’s demand meter records energy usage over discrete intervals (usually
15,30 of 60 minutes) continuously throughout the billing period (Figure 6).

Although the demand meter actually reads energy usage in kilowatt hours (kilowatts
integrated with time), the element of time is cancelled by dividing by time. If, for example,
the demand meter recorded 5000 kilowatt hours of usage over a 30 minute demand
interval, then the demand would be 10,000 kilowatts (5000 kilowatt hours divided by 0.5
hour). The demand charge is based on the highest demand recorded for any demand
interval in the billing period.

With inlet air density control, the peak kilowatt demand is shaved by the amount that the
inlet density is reduced, resulting in a corresponding reduction in the power cost.
Control Based On Pressure

Once an air compressor is tied into a compressed air system, more parameters must be
controlled.

Left to itself, the compressor will run anywhere on its characteristic curve (Figure 7)
depending on the flow required by the system. This is not an acceptable method of
operating because, as we have seen, an air system requires a nearly constant pressure
under varying demand. A number of control methods are available to accomplish this. The
most common systems are based on discharge air pressure. They utilize the fact that when
demand decreases, the compressor discharge pressure increases, or conversely it decreases
when the system demands more air.

Base Mode Control

One of the simplest of these systems is called

♣ Base mode control

♣ Or constant discharge pressure control
♣ Or even antisurge control.

The compressor discharge pressure is controlled to be constant under varying load (flow)
requirements by matching the compressor output to the air flow required by the
compressed air system. The compressed air system pressure, or receiver pressure, is
compared with the compressor rated discharge pressure. As the system pressure tends to
increase due to reduced demand, the atmospheric bypass valve is modulated atmospheric
by pass valve is modulated automatically by pass valve is modulated automatically to
bypass (vent) the excess capacity to the atmosphere.

The air flow delivered to the compressed air system can vary from 100% to zero in
matching the system demand (Figure 8). The compressor, how ever, will be operating
constantly at the rated point.

Because of this, the power required of the driver remains constant at the rated value.

This control mode is recommended when:

A) Accurate control of the compressed air system pressure is desired.

B) Continuous uninterrupted air flow is necessary.

C) System requires nominal flow variations.

D) Compressor is to be operated in parallel with other compressors.

A receiver is not required in the compressed air system, because the air flow is modulated
to match the system demand by maintaining fixed discharge pressure.

This control mode provides excellent anti-surge control, because the discharge pressure is
controlled at the rated value.
The discharge pressure control is an all pneumatic system (Figure 9). The components
are:
 Atmospheric bypass valve –UCV
 Discharge pressure relay – DPR
 Discharge pressure controller – DPR
The compressed air pressure is sensed by the discharge pressure relay, and proportional
output signal is applied to the discharge pressure controller. The output signal of this
controller is applied to the actuator of the bypass valve, to modulate this valve to maintain
the compressor rated discharge pressure. The atmospheric bypass valve is normally sized
for 110% rated compressor flow and 90% rated compressor discharge pressure.

Intermittent Control

A very early type of regulation of centrifugal compressors was borrowed from positive
displacement compressors. Because of the vary compressors, the regulation is based on
discharge pressure, and flow is varied by alternatively loading and unloading the
compressor. It was only natural that early centrifugal compressors should borrow this type
of control.

Various names are used:

 Intermittent control
 Load / unload control
 Two-step control
 Total closure control

The compressor discharge pressure is “Controlled”, if we may use this terms, by permitting
the compressor to operate on its characteristic curve when the demand for air is less than
the rated capacity of the compressor (Figure 10). At a predetermined discharge pressure,
the compressor is unloaded.

When the compressor is unloaded, the power required of the driver is approximately 15% to
25% of the rated compressor power. During the transient period between the unloaded and
loaded cycles, the compressor will be operating in overload with a power requirement that is
greater than the compressor rated power.

The discharge pressure control device is a pressure switch (figure 11). It de-energizes
solenoid valves in the signal air lines to the inlet valve and atmospheric bypass valve to
cause these valves to close and open, respectively, to unload the compressor. The pressure
switch is connected to the compressed air system.

The compressor is “loaded” when the compressed air system pressure decays to
approximately 5% below the set pressure of the pressure switch and the inlet valve opens
and the atmospheric bypass valve closes. The compressor will then operated on its
characteristic curve at a point determined by the demand for air.

The components for air:

 Intermittent mode pressure switch – IMPS

 Inlet control valve ICV
 Atmospheric bypass valve – UCV
 Solenoid valve, inlet control valve – IVS
 Solenoid valve, atmospheric bypass valve – UVS

The pressure switch causes the solenoid valve for the inlet and bypass valves to be de-
energized and energized at the high pressure and low pressure settings, respectively. The
solenoid valves cause the inlet valve close and the unloading valve to open at the high
pressure setting, and the reverse at the low pressure setting.
The anti-surge function of this control mode is providing by the pressure switch. This
control mode is applicable when the air demand is relatively constant or the air demand is
quite low for relatively long periods of time.

The atmospheric bypass valve is sized for 110% rated compressor flow and 90% rated
compressor discharge pressure. The advantage of this control mode is that it is
inexpensive, if a receiver is not required.

The disadvantages of this control mode are:

1. High power demand when the compressor is loaded.

2. Discharge pressure is not constant.

3. Air receiver is normally required.

The reduced capacity at which the compressor can furnish an uninterrupted supply of air is
determined by the magnitude and rapidity of the load changes:

1) When the air demand is relatively constant- there are no sudden changes – the
maximum pressure set point is adjusted just inside of the stable operating range of
the compressor.

2) If large variations in demand are anticipated, or experienced, the recommended

maximum pressure set point is 5 to 10 PSI below the surge point.

A receiver is normally required with this control mode. The function of the compressor is
then to operate intermittently to maintain the receiver pressure. If the actual air demand
coincides with the capacity on the compressor curve, then a receiver is not necessary.

Suction Throttle Control

The centrifugal compressor’s characteristic permits some capacity variation with only small
changes in discharge pressure. In fact, some authorities label the centrifugal compressor as
a constant pressure, variable flow machine. To take advantage of this characteristic, a
suction throttle control is used. Another name for it is modulating control.

The compressed air pressure is compared with the compressor rated discharge pressure. As
the system pressure tends to increase due to reduced demand, the inlet control valve is
modulated automatically to reduce the output of the compressor by reducing the weight
flow. When the air demand is approximately 70% of the compressor rated capacity and
less, the excess compressor capacity is vented automatically to the atmosphere by the
atmospheric bypass valve (figure 12).

The air flow delivered to the compressed air system can vary from 100% to zero in
matching the system demand. The power required of the driver is reduced proportionally to
approximately 75% of the rated value due to the reduction in weight flow as the compressor
output is decreased and remains at this value down to zero air delivery to the compressed
air system. The power consumption remain at these values because the inlet density
control maintains constant weight flow and suction throttle mode control maintains constant
discharge pressure.

This control mode is recommended when:

A. Accurate control of the compressed air system pressure is desired.

 B. Continuous uninterrupted air flow is necessary.

C. Demand for compressed air varies over a wide range.

D. Minimum operating cost is desired.

E. Compressor is to be operated in parallel with other compressors.

A receiver is not required in the compressed air system because the air flow is modulated to
match the system demand by maintaining a fixed discharge pressure. This control mode
provides excellent anti-surge control because the discharge pressure is controlled at the
rated discharge pressure.

Suction throttle control is preferred to both the base mode an intermittent mode controls
because:

A) Most variations in the demand for air can be accommodated within the throttling
capacity of the control.

B) Compressed air system pressure is constant – the compressor output does not cycle
for reduced air requirements.

C) The power demand is less down to approximately 70% rated capacity.

When compared to the base mode control, there is no wasted air (venting) down to
approximately 70% rated capacity and there are significant power savings down to zero air
delivery to the compressed air system.

This discharge pressure control is an all pneumatic system (figure 13). The components
are:

 Inlet control valve – ICV

 Atmospheric bypass valve - UCV
 Suction throttle pressure controller, computing relay with reset – STC
 Inlet valve controller - IVC
 Discharge pressure relay – DPR
 Discharge pressure controller, computing relay with reset – DPC
 Suction throttle pressure regulator – STPR mode control regulates the weight flow
through the compressor by positioning the inlet control valve ICV. The suction
throttle controller STC and suction throttle pressure regulator STPR are used to
permit the inlet control valve to regulate the weight flow for control of the discharge
pressure, in addition to controlling the inlet air density.

The inlet valve is positioned only by the inlet density control system when the compressed
air system requires the compressor to furnish.

A. Rated capacity air rated discharge pressure.

B. Excess capacity (therefore at lower than rated discharge pressure stonewall
operation).
C. Less than the minimum throttled capacity.

The compressed air system pressure is sensed by the discharge pressure relay DRP and a
proportional output signal is applied to both the discharge pressure controller DPC and the
suction throttle controller STC. When the demand for compressed air is within the suction
throttling range, the output signal from STC is applied to both the discharge pressure
controller and the inlet valve controller IVC to keep the atmospheric bypass valve closed
and to modulate the inlet control valve.

When the demand is less than the minimum suction throttle capacity, the output signal from
STC is zero, permitting DPC to modulate the bypass valve in response to the output signal
from DPR and IVC to modulate the inlet control valve to maintain the rated inlet air density.

The suction throttle range is determined by the adjustment of the suction throttle pressure
controller STPC and the suction throttle controller STC.

While suction throttle mode control is modulating IVC to maintain the compressed air
system pressure, it is also indirectly controlling the inlet air density. DPR senses changes in
the system pressure, whether caused by changes in air demand or weight flow into the
system.

Dual Control

The two previous controls, intermittent and suction throttle can be combined into a dual
control system that merges the best of both. This control mode superimposes the basic
intermittent mode on the suction throttle mode so that the compressor is unloaded instead
of being vented, and permits alternate operation with the suction throttle mode control
(Figure 14).

The compressor discharge pressure is controlled to be constant under varying load (flow)
requirements by matching the compressor output to the air flow required by the
compressed air system down to approximately 75% of the compressor rated capacity. The
compressed air pressure is compared with the compressor rated discharge pressure. As the
system pressure tends to increase due to decreased demand, the inlet valve is modulated
automatically to reduce the output of the compressor.

For low load (flow) requirements, the discharge pressure is “controlled” by a pressure
switch, causing the compressor to operate unloaded by the closing of the inlet control valve
and the opening of the atmospheric bypass valve. Low receiver pressure causes the
pressure switch to permit the inlet control valve and the atmospheric bypass valve to open
and close, respectively, and therefore the suction throttle mode to control the discharge
pressure.

The air flow delivered to the compressed air system can vary from 100% to zero in
matching the system demand.

The power required of the driver is reduced continuously from 100% to approximately 80%.
Below this point, the compressor unloads from 15% to 25% of rated power.
This control mode is recommended when:

 The demand to compressed air is normally greater than approximately 75% of the
compressor rated capacity and accurate control of the compressed air system
pressure, and efficient operation and required in this flow range.
 The demand for lower air flows and unloaded operation of the compressor are
infrequent.
 The compressor is to be operated in parallel with other compressors.

An air receiver is normally required in the compressed air system. The anti-surge function
of this control mode is provided for the full capacity operating range by the controlling of
discharge pressure at the rated value and by the pressure switch for the lower capacity
operation.
Automatic Start /Stop

One more option for controlling air compressors on the basis of discharge air pressure is
automatic start/stop control. Automatic start/stop control permits complete unattended
operation of the compressor. The control automatically starts and stops the compressor
based on the demand for compressed air, being actuated by a pressure switch sensing the
compressed air system pressure. After the compressor has started, it is controlled by the
discharge pressure control system until the demand for compressed air is less than the
compressor can furnish efficiently.

This control system saves energy (power) by completely de-energizing the compressor
including the main driver, auxiliary oil pump and control panel during periods of no demand
for air from the compressor.

In contrast, the intermittent control mode does not stop the compressor driver when no air
is required from the compressor, and therefore the compressor continues require power.

Automatic start/stop control should be considered when:

 Compressor is a standby unit for emergency use.

 Compressor is used during peak air demand periods only.

 Air demand alternates between periods of no air demand and high demand.

AUTOMATIC START SEQUENCE.

1. Increased demand for compressed air causes the air system pressure to decrease
until it is at the low pressure set point of the pressure switch.

2. The control panel is energized and the auxiliary lubrication oil pump starts.

3. The compressor driver is energized and the compressor operates with the
atmospheric bypass valve open.

4. The discharge pressure control closes the atmospheric bypass valve and the
compressor delivers air to the compressed air system.

5. The compressor continues to deliver air to the system for as long as air is required.

AUTOMATIC STOP SEQUENCE.

1) Decreased demand for compressed air causes the air system pressure to increases
until it is at the high pressure set point of the pressure switch.

2) The discharge pressure control opens the atmospheric bypass valve and no air is
delivered to the compressed air system. The compressor operates (idles) for a preset
time interval to cool the driver.

3) If the demand for compressed air increases while the compressor is idling, the
compressor returns to step 4 of the automatic start sequence.

4) If the demand for compressed air does not increase during the idling period, the
compressor driver is de-energized and the auxiliary lubrication oil pump starts.
 5) After a present time period, the auxiliary lubrication oil pump stops and the control
panel is de-energized.

6) The compressor is now ready for the next automatic start sequence.

Usually a switch is provided on the face of the control panel to permit the operator to select
one of the following modes of operation:

Flow Control

A centrifugal air compressor can be controlled through a flow signal instead of a discharge
pressure signal. This is used when either a required mass flow has to be maintained or
discharge pressure can vary with system demand such as in air separation plants. In this
case, a flow measuring device is placed in the inlet or the discharge line of the compressor.
The conditioned signal of this device is combined with the discharge air pressure signal to
modulate both the inlet control valve and the unloading valve. Because of the specialized
use of this type of control to only a few applications, we will not discuss it in detail.
Figure 1 and 2

Figure 3
Figure 6
Figure 8

Figure 9
Figure 10

Figure 11
 Figure 14

THE EXTENT OF A PACKAGE

A compressor package should include the compressor itself, the driver, the intercoolers, a
lubrication system, a control panel, a base plate, control valves, inlet filter and unloading
silencer (figure 1).

There is no established rule or understanding that a package must include or understanding

that a package must include all these items. A would- be purchaser would do well to inquire
closely not only as to what is included in a package, but as to the design and quality of the
major components. For example, while several different packages may include a “Check
valve”, three are a variety of check valves, each of varying performance and cost.

The word “package” also infers to most people that some degree of assembly of the major
components is performed by the manufacturer. Again, let the buyer inquire closely into
what is assembled and piped and wired at the factory and what is shipped loose for the
buyer to install.

It is desirable that the manufacturer should do as much assembly as possible at his works.
This places total performance responsibility with the manufacturer. It also reduces
manpower and the degree of skill required to install the compressor. Additional savings in
engineering and drawing fees can accrue to the buyer.

As a minimum, most manufacturers will assemble the compressor, the intercoolers, the
lubrication system, and the driver into a single baseplate with all the interconnecting pipe
work (Figure 2).

Baseplates

Regarding baseplates, there are three types. In the type shown in Figure 3, the cooler
vessels form part of the structural support of the compressor along with the box beams.
This usually permits a strong structure and a generous oil reservoir.

A skid type baseplates (Figure 4) is sometimes used, and cooler and compressor are
mounted on top. The baseplate must necessarily be shallow in relation to its length and
width and requires careful grouting and bolting to a foundation. The oil reservoir housed in
this baseplate is of awkward dimensions and hard to clean.

For some compressors, the baseplate houses the cooler vessels but is designed in such a
fashion as to be extremely rigid (figure 5). This permits mounting on leveling pads,
eliminating the cost of grouting and bolting altogether.

Intercoolers

The location of the intercoolers in relation to the compressor and baseplate is what lends
compressor packages the distinctive look of one manufacturer compared to another.

No inherent advantage accrues to one arrangement over another, as long as this cardinal
rule is followed:

The intercoolers must be readily accessible for cleaning without interfering with other major
components. As a corollary, intercoolers must not obstruct access to the major
components.
This rule applies regardless of whether the compressor is screw, reciprocating or centrifugal.

To Mount or Not to Mount

Most packages will include pressure and temperature switches, instruments and gages for
operating and monitoring the compressor. The lubrication system including main and
auxiliary oil pumps, filter, cooler, and regulating valves are typically piped somewhere in the
baseplate (Figure 10). Preferably, components such as oil filters should be at a convenient
location for normal maintenance.

Other package components may or may not be mounted, and the purchaser either has to
bear the cost of assembly at site or get the manufacturer to provide the service at the
factory.

Inlet Air Filter

Inlet air filters are typically mounted by the purchaser. This is because most are mounted
outdoors and therefore can be located at a good clean source or air.

There are several types of filters used. Viscous impingement filters, as pictured in Figure
11, are the most commonly used. The filtering elements must be cleaned regularly. The
filter medium can also be arranged in blanket from and placed on rollers stretched across an
opening in the housing. This allows automatic periodic replacement by rolling up the dirty
medium and exposing a clean section.

The oil bath type passes air through oil coated elements and is not recommended for a
centrifugal compressor which is supposed to make oil-free compressed air anyway.

Filters can consist of several stages, the simplest being a single stage. This type of filter
can be mounted on the package. Manufactures that do this, recommend that in most
instances a prefilter also be installed.

The filter in figure 12 is a two stage filter and is commonly used on centrifugal compressors.
This particular construction permits replacement of the filter elements without shutting
down the compressor.

In dusty and sandy environments a third stage is sometimes added in front of the other
two. This consists of vortex or cyclone separators that collect and eject the heavier sand
and dirt particles.

Control Panel

Control panels may be mounted on the compressor base (Figure 13). Quite a number of
electrical and pneumatic sensing line interconnections must be made between the
compressor and control cabinet. Purchasers would do well to insist that the manufacturer
mount are wire the control panel.

Control panels are made in a variety of options, depending on the site environment (figure
14). The more commonly used standards with their NEMA designations are:

 NEMA-1 General purpose. For indoor use just to keep your fingers off the wires.

 NEMA3R – Rainproof, rain tight and sleet proof for outdoor location. The panel
includes driplip, gasketing and stainless steel hardware.
  NEMA4 –Watertight and dust-tight, can resist the action of water hose directed at a
prescribed angle and pressure.

For most applications indoors or out, NEMA3R will provide suitable protection. Hazardous
locations require panel enclosures which not only protect the equipment inside them but
personnel outside them as well.

Explosion –proof, although a term commonly heard, cannot be used to specify such
enclosures. NEMA, as well as other code authorities, specify different levels of equipment
protection depending on the type and extent of the hazardous substance.

The solution can be as simple as purging a rain tight panel with inert nitrogen, to the more
complicated enclosure mounted on the package (Figure 15). It can even go as far as
remotely mounting the electrical devices in a separate enclosure out of the hazardous area.

Inlet Control Valve

Inlet control valve also may or may not be mounted (Figure 16). Most manufacturers will
have recommended length and size of pipe for proper performance, as well as
recommendations for minimizing flange loadings. The purchaser should insist that the
manufacturer install the inlet control valve.

Aftercooler

The aftercooler may or may not be mounted on the compressor package (Figure 17). If it
is incorporated into the compressor design, the purchaser saves the cost of installation. A
disadvantage is that the compressor would have to be dismantled to do any maintenance on
the aftercooler. A second disadvantage is that a built-in aftercoller has a built-in approach
temperature of typically 20ºF. a lower approach temperature can result in the purchase of a
smaller air dryer. Both disadvantages are overcome by the use of pipeline aftercooler
installed by the purchaser.

Customizing

While a manufacturer’s standard package may represent a cost effective solution to many
applications, it must be flexible enough to be modified for particular needs.

The modifications can be quite simple. For example, two oil filters with transfer valve to
permit element replacement without shutting off the compressor (Figure 18). They might
include twin oil coolers for dirty water conditions or stainless steel oil piping for corrosive
atmospheres.

In summary, it takes a given amount of effort to install a compressor. The cost can be
expected partly at the factory and partly at the site of installation. How this division is
made depends on factors such as the cost and availability of site skilled labor, erection
schedule, floor space and shipment size limitations. It is for the buyer to wisely and
consciously decide.
FIGURE 1

FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4
 FIGURE 5

COOLER ARRANGEMENTS

FIGURE 6
External outriggers when coolers are side mounted, used by Joy on all models and
by Elliott on some models.
 FIGURE 7
Submounted coolers, where coolers are in the base. This permits independent
access to coolers and compressor. Coolers shells help support the compressor.
Cooler shells help support the compressor. These include Elliott, Clark and the
defunct Worthington compressor.

FIGURE 8
Baseplate mounted coolers are located in front of the compressor, on top of the
baseplate. This arrangement limits access to the compressor. Lngersoll – Read
and the earliest Elliot model, now out of production, use this arrangement.
 FIGURE 9

Submounted coolers are used on very large compressor where the size of the
coolers dictates that separate shells be used. The compressor is then mezzanine
mounted, as in the case of Demag.

FIGURE 10
FIGURE 11

FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13

FIGURE 14
FIGURE 15

FIGURE 16
 FIGURE 17

FIGURE 18

FIGURE 19

The package may also be quite complex. Like this air compressor for use in the
north sea oil platforms, which is cooled by seawater.
 FIGURE 20
These packages are for hazardous area location and are mounted on drag sleds for
transportation over desert sands.

FIGURE
21

A Package may also grow in complexity in the way of quality assurance and
documentation, as well as construction, such as this compressors designed to the
API-672 Standard.
 FIGURE 22
The ultimate in complexity is a complete air plant including compressor,
compressed air dryer, receiver, and air to air coolers, all factory assembled skids.
 MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

A compressor designer is faced with a variety of choices in selecting the major components
of a compressor because of the different ways in which the same functions can be
performed. The number of arrangements that can be designed with the same components
complicate the task.

Impeller

The first area considered are the impellers. The impeller has gone through quite an
evolvement over a short period of time. Early days saw cast aluminum wheels. But it didn’t
take industry long to demand a stronger, wear resistant material such as 17-4 stainless.

Impellers are usually semienclosed and are of two types: radial or backward leaning. A
third type is radial with a modified tip, but its performance is essentially radial.

Diffuser

Diffuser are the second area of choice. Two types of diffusers are in common use today,
vaned and vaneless.

A vaneless diffuser is made up of two parallel plates (Figure 5). The air spirals out
between the plates, and slows down as the areas through which it flows becomes larger
(Figure 6). A vaneless diffuser has a wide operating range but a low pressure rise to
surge. It is relatively insensitive to performance deterioration due to dirt build-up. Because
of this, vaneless diffusers are sometimes used in second and third compressor stages,
where the moist conditions are more likely to cause dirt-build-up.

Vaned diffusers use aerodynamically shaped vanes to reduce the path that an air molecule
has to travel to reach a given velocity (Figure 7, 8). Vaned diffusers have a smaller
operating or capacity range than vaneless diffusers, but a higher pressure rise to surge.
They are more sensitive to performance deterioration than vaneless diffusers and are
sometimes used only on the first stage of a compressor.

Compressor Case

Compressor casings or scrolls of integrally geared air compressors are, for the most part,
vertically split. They serve the function of housing the impeller and diffuser as well as
routing diffuser exhaust to succeeding stages.

Gear Case

One of the more important construction features of the packaged compressor is the gear
case or gear box. It houses most of the mechanical components such as gear, shafts seals,
and bearings.

Gear cases are either vertically or horizontally split.

Vertically split gear cases have a vertical parting line and are the older style construction
(Figure 9). Their one great advantage is that they are inexpensive to manufacture. The
gearcase is assembled in a horizontal position at the factory and then is installed in its
proper vertical position. This means that inspection of bearings, seals, or gears inside the
case is difficult and time consuming.
Horizontally –split gearcases have a horizontal parting plane through the axis of the gear
and pinions. This means that by unbolting the cover, access is gained to all the seals,
gears, bearings and shafts of the compressor (Figure 10). When the seals are bearings
are also horizontally split, inspection of these components is a simple and inexpensive job
(Figure 11). The one disadvantage of a horizontally split gearcase is the high cost to
manufacture.

Journal Bearings

Bearings come in all shapes and sizes journal bearings can be of the tilting pad type, sleeve
or rolling element (Figure 12).

The tilting pad bearings demonstrate such desirable features as quiet operation, good load
carrying capacity, low frictional losses and extremely stable self-centering operation
(Figure 13). In addition, their life is in essence unlimited while exhibiting minimum, if any,
injury if foreign particles are introduced.

Lobe or sleeve bearings are in many ways similar to the desirable attributes of the tilt pad
bearing, but they have important undesirable traits such as misalignment sensitivity and
only a modest operating stability.

The rolling element or ball bearings have proven least desirable in the areas of noise,
operating life and frictional loss.

In addition, titling pad and plain journal bearings can be horizontally split to facilitate
inspection. Lobe, ball and roller bearings cannot be split.

Thrust Bearings

Thrust bearings can be of the tapered land variety of ball bearing variety. Also, the method
of absorbing thrust forces can take many forms (Figure 14).

Rotor thrust forces imposed by air pressure on the impellers are, for the most part,
cancelled by the opposing force of the helical gear. The residual thrust can be absorbed
where it is created, or it can be transmitted through the drive train to a single large bearing.

In the first two cases, bearings are lightly loaded with Babbitt to metal construction. The
third configuration places all the load in one bearing, plus we have a sensitive steel-to-steel
contact point which must be kept clean.

During operation the gear thrust remains nearly constant, while pressure forces vary with
the inlet pressure. Under some operating conditions, the resulting thrust force may be in
the opposite direction. In these situations a full thrust bearings may be used or a simple
bumper bearing.

Intercoolers

Intercoolers have a very important function in compressor operation. Several construction

features differentiate the types of coolers available. The optimum number of intercoolers,
as well as their rodding or wire brushing the tubes restores original cleanliness (Figure
16). This configuration is frequently referred to as “mechanically cleanable”.

A second arrangement (Figure 17) Places the air in the tubes and the water in the shell
around the tubes. This makes cleaning a more difficult task and the choice is either acid
bath or outright replacement. The title “Chemically cleanable” is usually attached to this
configuration.
A third type of cooler (Figure 18) consists of hairpin or “U” bends in the tubes to circulate
the water through several passes. This configuration also makes cleaning difficult.

To enhance the heat exchange effectiveness, most coolers use extended surfaces on the air
side. Fins are often plate type expanded onto the tube (Figure 19). This design packs a
great deal of surface area in a given space and is very efficient.

Some cooler designs use fins that are wrapped, rolled or brazed into place. They work
equally well, but less surface area can be designed into the same place.

Basic cooler construction is a very important consideration. Some coolers are

conventionally built with fins expanded onto the tubes & tubes rolled into tube sheets
(Figure 20). This construction is suitable for any type of atmosphere and application.

Another method of construction is to solder all the components together (Figure 21).
While increased contact between components is likely, this configuration must be applied
carefully, as it is subject to chemical attack in atmospheres containing sulfur components as
found in steel mills, refineries, paper mills and other industrial plants.

Condensate Removal

Removal of condensate from the cooled compressed air presents a challenge to the
designer. The condensate must be removed from the air stream, otherwise it will impinge
on the following stage impeller and erode it.

Moisture separation (demister) pads may be used immediately downstream of the

intercoolers. Water droplets will attach themselves to the mesh fibers and drain to the
bottom of the vessel (Figure 22). Demister pads must operate within prescribed air
velocity limits. Special care must be taken in designing the air passages to and from the
pad to permit the air to expand over the entire pad surface. If these passages are made
too short, the air will channel through a small portion of the demister pad and re-entrain the
condensate droplets.

Impingement separators can be used if sufficient space is available. In this type (Figure
23), the air and condensate mixture is directed through a series of velocity changes causing
the heavier condensate to impinge on the shell wall and drain to the bottom. The lighter air
molecules make the turn with greater ease. As a last step, air is directed upward at low
velocity, using the force of gravity to attract the heavy condensate droplets.

Once the condensate is collected at the bottom of the vessel, it must be evacuated before a
level is reached sufficient for re-entrainment and carryover to the following stage.

Level traps have been use with little success due to the fact that sooner or later they fail to
open and evacuate the condensate.

An alternative is to use continuous blowdown valves, which are gate valves with a special
notch machined in the bottom of the gate (Figure 24). There valves evacuate condensate
continuously out of the compressor with no moving parts.

We have only covered a few of the many design features unique to the packaged centrifugal
compressor. We can readily see that advantages and disadvantages exist in almost all
areas.

It is a tribute to the purchaser who intelligently weighs the mechanical versus commercial
tradeoffs when selecting a package best suited for his application.
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 1
Radial impellers have a discharge vane angle of 0º degrees, that is tangent to a
radial line through the center of the impeller.

FIGURE 2
Backward leaning impellers have a negative discharge vane angle. In other
words, the vanes bend away from a radial line in a direction opposite that of
rotation.
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 3
Backward leaning impellers produce a higher pressure rise to surge, whereas
radial impellers have a lower rise to surge. This mean that a compressor with
backward leaning impellers can be throttled to a lower capacity and power
consumption.

FIGURE 4
Another advantage of backward leaning impellers is their lower sensitivity to high
interstage and ambient air temperature. Because their performance characteristic is
steeper, high temperatures will result in a lower capacity reduction when compared to
radial impellers.
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 5

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS
 FIGURE 8

FIGURE 9

FIGURE 10
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

Tilting –pad
Quiet operation
Least sensitive to injury
foreign matter.
Virtually unlimited life
Good load-carrying capacity
Low frictional losses
Self –centering
Best stability.
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS
FIGURE 11
Lobe or “tilted pad” or Rolling Element
sleeve
Quiet operation Noisy operation
by Moderately sensitive to injury by Sensitive to injury by foreign
foreign matter matter
Intermediate life Limited life
Good load-carrying capacity Unsuited to overload
Low frictional losses Intermediate losses modest
Sensitive to misalignment tolerance to misalignment
Modest stability. Modest stability.
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
Thrust absorbed at Thrust absorbed at Thrust transmitted through
Each rotor Each rotor drive train.

Bearing are double acting Rotor bearing is single acting Bearings is double acting

Sufficient load-carrying Load-carrying capacity in one Load- carrying capacity in

Capacity in both directions. direction. both directions.

Lightly loaded Lightly loaded Heavily loaded

Babbitt to metal construction Babbitt to metal in one Steel contact sensitive to

bearing. injury by foreign matter.

Can operate safety under all Rotor must be loaded in one Must operate under clean
conditions. direction only. conditions.
FIGURE 14

FIGURE 15

MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

 FIGURE 16

FIGURE 17

MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 18

FIGURE 19

MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

 FIGURE 20

FIGURE 21

MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 22

FIGURE 23
MECHANICAL DESIGN TRADEOFFS

FIGURE 24
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Q: What are the pitfalls in comparing power consumption of compressors stated by
different manufacturers?

A: Power consumption of an air compressor is the sum of the aerodynamic power required
to compressor a given amount of air including that required to overcome interstage
pressure losses and mechanical power losses.

Aerodynamic power is related to several parameters:

Aerodynamic power is proportional to weight flow, inlet air pressure, humidity, inlet air
density and discharge air pressure.

Aerodynamic power is inversely proportional to inlet air temperature and cooling water
temperature.

To make a comparison of power consumption of different compressors, one must compare

apples and apples. The power consumption must be stated to the same ambient and
cooling water conditions.

The weight flow must be stated to the same conditions, and it must consider the effect of
humidity.

Since different manufacturers of compressors may provide slightly different flows for
different powers, it may be useful to compare specific power consumption, which is flow per
unit power. For example horsepower /Ibs./Min. or horsepower/CFM.

Power quoted must be at the compressor shaft and include not only the aerodynamic power (the power
measured by the temperature rise method), but the mechanical power losses of the bearings and gears.

Since ambient conditions vary from site to site, most manufacturers have selected a set of “standard”
conditions to calculate power for their convenience. These “standard” conditions may not match a
particular site, therefore one should insist that power and flow be stated at the particular site conditions.

Tolerances on guarantees is also a watchpoint. One should ask the manufacturer to state the rated flow
and pressure with no negative tolerance. Power, including all losses, should be guaranteed within a
tolerance, typically ± 4%. Some types of compressors, such as screw, sometimes have a tolerance not
only on power but on flow as well. (For example, flow ± 3 power ±3). Since power is proportional to flow,
this amounts to a ± 6 tolerance on the power if the flow is held constant.

Q: What is the effect of humidity on compressor performance?

A: Humidity effects discharge pressure slightly and weight flow to a greater extent.
Because atmospheric air always contains water vapor, humidity must be considered. For a
constant geometry and constant speed, the head developed by a compressor is constant.
RTZ
H= Constant = n-1 P2 n
n P1 n-1

-1

where R = gas constant = 1545

MW

Where MW = molecular weight

Dry air has a molecular weight of 28.96 and R= 53.35. As humidity is added to the air, the
molecular weight of the mixture drops, as water has a molecular weight of only 18. For
example, air at 90ºF and 70% relative humidity and 14.0 PSIA has a molecular weight of
28,54 and R= 54.13.

Since head is constant, if we assume that we hold inlet air temperature and pressure
constant when humidity increases, the discharge pressure. P2 must necessarily decrease to
maintain the equality. Under most conditions the effect is no more than 1%.

Now, regarding the effect on weight flow. The amount of moisture that air can hold is
inversely proportional to the air pressure. As air is compressed, it can hold less moisture.
The remaining is condensed and evacuated from the compressor and aftercooler. Nearly at
the moisture that is taken into a compressor is removed from the air before it reaches the
plant air system. Thus the compressor has to be slightly oversized to account for this
humidity. The amount of oversizing depends on ambient air temperature, pressure and
relative humidity and is typically 2 – 4%, but can be as high as 8% in a hot, very humid
location.

The amount of oversizing can be quickly calculated by the following formula:

E= PB

PB –RH(Pv)

Where E is the increase in volume necessary to account for moisture, P B = barometric

pressure in PSIA, RH= relative humidity in percent and Pv is the vapor pressure at the
ambient temperature of the steam tables.

For example, if the barometer is 14.5 PSIA, ambient temperature is 90ºF with 70% relative
humidity, the compressor intake volume will have to be increased 4.1% to account for
humidity.

E= 14.5
= 1.041
14.5-70 (.8153)

Q: What is SCFM?

A: SCFM is an abbreviation for standard cubic feet per minute. In the metric system the
equivalent is Nm3/h or normal cubic meter per hour or some other unit of time.

Since the amount of air contained in a given volume (cubic foot) is dependent on its
temperature, pressure and relative humidity, several industries try to define a “standard”
set of conditions to measure gas or air flow. Unfortunately, there is no one universally used
standard. The more common are 14.7 PSIA and 60ºF and dry, 14.7 and 70ºF and dry.
“Normal” conditions are 0ºC 1 bar and dry.

Instrument and pneumatic tool manufacturers state the compressed air requirements of
their products in SCFM. However, compressors, whether centrifugal, reciprocating or screw,
suck air from ambient conditions which are different than standard. Therefore, to obtain the
specified number of SCFM, a compressor whose performance is stated in inlet or actual CFM,
the following formula can be used:

SCFM = ICFM P1 TSTD 1

PSTD T1 E
Where T1 and P1 are the inlet temperature and pressure and TSTD and PSTD are the standard
inlet temperature and pressure, and E is the volume increase due to humidity as calculated
above.

For example, how many SCFM (Measured at 14.7 PSIA, 60ºF and 70% relative humidity?

If we assume that the pressure drop through the inlet filter, piping and throttle valve is 0.2
PSI, then P1 = 14.3 PSIA.

SCFM =1000 14.3 460 + 60 1 = 884

14.7 460+90 1.041

Q: Where is the inlet density control set? What is the reference density?

A: The inlet density control is set at the factory before shipment. It can just as easily be
adjusted or reset in the field.

The reference density usually set is the one corresponding to the purchaser’s rated site
conditions. For example, if a particular compressor is to be installed at a site where rated
ambient conditions are 14.0 PSIA and 90ºF, the inlet density control is set to maintain the
ratio 14.0
460 + 90

The inlet valve will throttle to save power whenever the temperature drops below 90ºF.

If one can use the extra air available during cold weather operation, the density control can
be reset to any other density. Care must be taken not to overload the motor, as the
additional air will require additional power.

For example, if extra air is required from a compressor during cold weather, let’s say the
compressor is rated at 475 BHP at 90ºF and uses a 500 BHP motor with a 1.0 SF. To use
the available extra motor capacity of 25 BHP, we can let the density increase

500 -475 25
= = .053
475 475

or 5.3% before throttling, this is equivalent to a temperature of

1.053 = 460 + 90
T = 62ºF
460 + T

The reference density ratio could then be set at

140
460 + 62

Above 62ºF, the inlet valve would be wide open and permit delivery of all the air possible.
But note that the flow and power will drop as the temperature increases. At 62ºF, the
compressor would draw 500 BHP and deliver 5.3% more air. Below 62ºF, the inlet valve
would throttle to save power.

Q: Do you need compressed air for the pneumatic panel?

A: Although the pneumatic panels of air compressors can be bootstrapped into working
conditions without an external source of air, it is safer and easier to provide a dry, clean
source of control air to the panel.

Q: How do you get a flow turndown to 60% of rated at constant discharge

pressure?

A: Flow turndown of a centrifugal compressor is a function of pressure rise to surge. This,

in turn is a function of the degree of backward lean of the impeller and impeller diameter.
The more the lean, the more the turndown.

Pressure rise can also be controlled by selecting larger diameter impellers which produce a
higher discharge pressure. The drawback is that the compressor will require more power.

If we fix the degree of backward lean, this is the only way to get more turndown range.

In effect, to get more turndown, one must take a 125 PSIG rated compressor and operate it
at 110 PSIG with the accompanying higher power.

When specifying a flow turndown lower than the normal 80-70% of rated, one should be
sure that the compressor will operate at this part load for extended periods of tome to offset
the higher power consumption at full load.

In making comparisons, one would expect that two compressors both having 20º backward
leaning impellers would have about the same turndown range and full load efficiency. One
cannot have more turndown than the other unless there is a corresponding increase in full
load power consumption.

Q: Do adjustable inlet guide vanes really save power?

A: To answer this question, one must ask what service the compressor must satisfy.

Adjustable inlet guide vanes retard surge in a compressor by guiding air into the inducer of
a compressor impeller. Concurrently, they throttle the air flow and reduce pressure at the
inlet of the compressor, therefore discharge pressure is also reduced.

In process application where the system resistance curve is frictional and therefore
parabolic, this reduction in pressure is desirable. Therefore, guide vanes are used to reduce
pressure as well as flow. In this case, guide vanes save power, particularly in the very low
capacities of 0-50% of rated flow. Guide vanes are used in process compressors
(particularly single stage compressors because their effect is on the stage immediately
downstream of them) that are expected to run at greatly reduced flow and pressure for
extended periods.

Plant air systems, on the other hand, require constant discharge pressure under variable
flow demand. In this case, guide vanes are no more effective in reducing power than
throttle valves, which do so with more simplicity and reliability.

So the answer is that in plant air application, inlet guide vanes save just as much power as
a throttle valve during part load operation.

When guide vanes are used, care should be taken to assure that the turbulence caused at
the compressor inlet does not cause an induced vibration in the impeller leading to blade
failure.