INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE
- The Ancient Period -

Dr Satya Srivastava
Beauty, symmetry, magnificence are words which
can best describe Ancient Indian Architecture.

Dear Friends… today I am going to talk about this

topic. In this lecture first I am going to touch upon
the evolution and various schools of Ancient Indian
Architecture.

Thereafter I will discuss the various ancient

architectural expressions under different rulers of
Ancient India and also their chief features.

We will round up this session by discussing the

international influence of Ancient Indian
architecture.
 Indian Architecture
Indian architecture encompasses a
multitude of expressions over space
and time, constantly absorbing new
ideas. The result is an evolving range
of architectural production that
nonetheless retains a certain amount
of continuity and its own individuality,
across history.
 Evolution of Indian Architecture
1. The Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC).
2. Maurya & Gupta empires - Buddhist architecture in
Ajanta-Ellora caves, Sanchi Stupa etc.
3. South India - Hindu temples viz. Hoysaleswara -
Halebid, Sun Temple - Konark etc. Angkor Wat,
Borobudur, other Buddhist and Hindu temples
influenced by South East Asian architecture.
4. Islamic influence - Fatehpur Sikri, Taj Mahal, Gol
Gumbaz, Qutub Minar etc.
5. British Indo-Saracenic style and European Gothic. e.g.
The Victoria Memorial & the Victoria Terminus.
6. Recent creations, Lotus Temple and Birla Temples
across country.
 Gandhara
School of Art
Mathura
School of Art
THE
SCHOOLS
OF ART
Amravati
School of Art
The Gandhara School of Art (50 B.C. to 500 A.D.)

• Gandhara region (Punjab to Afghanistan) was an

important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the
5th century A.D.

• Imbibed foreign influences - Persian, Greek,

Roman, Saka and Kushan. Kanishka gave the art,
greatest patronage.

• The school evolved beautiful images of Buddha

in standing or seated positions, Bodhisattavas in
black stone, modeled on identical characters of
Greco-Roman pantheon.
The Gandhara School of Art (50 BC - 500 AD)
(contd..)

• Gandhara Art has rich carving, elaborate

ornamentation and complex symbolism.

• The best specimens are - Jaulian and

Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila and from Hadda near
Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan.

• The tallest rock-cut statue of Buddha is located

at Bamiyan in modern Afghanistan. (3-4 A.D.)
The Mathura School of Art (1-3 A.D.)
1. Flourished in the holy city of Mathura.
2. It established the tradition of transforming
Buddhist symbols into human form.
Buddha’s first image can be traced to
Kanishka’s reign (about 78 A.D.).
3. The earliest sculptures of Buddha were
made keeping the yaksha prototype in mind.
4. Also produced beautiful images of the Jain
Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the
Hindu pantheon.
5. The Guptas adopted the Mathura School of
Art and further improvised and perfected it.
Yaksha Prototype Buddha - Dhauli
The Amravati School of Art (200 BC - 200 AD)

1. This school of art developed at

Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna
River in modern Andhra Pradesh.
2. It is the site for the largest Buddhist
stupa of South India.
3. Its ruins are preserved in the London
Museum.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

• The Indus civilization or the Harappan

civilization - flourished during the Bronze
Age i.e. 2500-2000 BC.

• More than 100 sites belonging to this

civilization have been identified.

– Prominent are Dholavira (Gujarat),

Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat) etc.
 Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization

1. Extensive town planning - evident from the

gridiron pattern for the layout of cities, some
with fortifications.

2. Elaborate drainage and water management

systems - rare in contemporary civilizations
at Mesopotamia and Egypt.

3. The houses were built of baked bricks, of

fixed sizes, as well as stone and wood. Many
houses were two storied.
 Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization
(contd..)

4. The most imposing of the buildings were:

a) The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro. It had

galleries and rooms on all sides

b) Granary complex comprising of blocks

with an overall area 55 x 43 metres.
The granaries were intelligently
constructed with strategic air ducts and
platforms divided into units.
A HARAPPAN STREET AND ADJOINING HOUSES
- LEFT SIDE HAS BEEN EXCAVATED.
The Great Bath
A Drain
A WELL IN A SARAI AT HARAPPA
 A
Harappan
Laterine
A Cemetry
Harappan Water Tank
Granary and A Well
THE MAURYAN PERIOD
 Chandra Gupta Maurya

Mauryan Architecture

- Finest specimen of Indian art

- It was embalmed in timber
- Rocks and stones were not used
- Chandra Gupta Maurya built many
buildings, palaces and monuments
with wood, most of which have
perished with time.
 ASHOKA
• The first Mauryan Emperor who began
to "think in stone”
• Stonework of Ashokan Period (3rd BC)
was highly diversified and comprised of
lofty free-standing pillars, railings of the
stupas, lion thrones and other colossal
figures.
• Some exotic forms show influence of
Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures.
 ASHOKA(contd..)
• This was the beginning of Buddhist School of
architecture in India. It witnessed the
construction of many rock-cut caves, pillars,
stupas and palaces.
• Cave-shrines – Barabar, Nagarjuni hills &
Sitamarhi in Bihar.
• The Ashokan rock-edict at Dhauli near
Bhubaneshwar is the earliest rock-cut
sculpture in India. It has a sculpted elephant
on top signifying the Emperor's conversion to
Buddhism after his Kalinga victory.
 ASHOKA(contd..)
• The monolithic Ashokan pillars are marvels of
architecture and sculpture. The Sarnath pillar
is one of the finest pieces of sculpture of this
period. The Ashokan pillars also throw light
on the contacts India had with Persia and
other countries.

• Ashoka constructed several stupas, which

were large halls, capped with domes and bore
symbols of Buddha. Important ones are at
Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati and
Nagarjunakonda.
 ASHOKA(contd..)
• Buddhist shrines or the monasteries were
built in irregular designs following the
Gandhara style of architecture. Built on the
patterns of a fort and defended by a stone
wall, the monastery evolved from the site of
an ancient stupa. The principle buildings were
housed within a rectangular courtyard with a
stupa in the south and the monastery in the
north.

• Ashoka had built many palaces but most of

them have perished. His palace near Patna
was a masterpiece.
 The
ASHOKAN
Pillar
 The
ASHOKA
Pillar
The Sanchi Stupa
The Sarnath Stupa
Shanti Stupa - Dhauli
THE SUNGAS, KUSHANS & SATAVAHANAS
•After Mauryans, the Sungas and Kushans came
in the north and the Satavahanas in the south.
•They contributed in stone construction, stone
carving, symbolism and beginning of temple (or
chaitya hall) and the monastery (or vihara).
•They enlarged Asokan stupas and replaced
earlier brick and wood works with stone-works.
Sanchi Stupa was enlarged to twice its size in 150
B.C.
•The Sungas also built the toranas or the
gateways to the stupas. These toranas indicate
the influence of Hellenistic and other foreign
schools in the Sunga architecture.
The Torana of Sanchi Stupa
THE SUNGAS, KUSHANS & SATAVAHANAS
(contd..)

• The Satavahanas constructed stupas at Goli,

Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala,
Nagarjunakonda and Amravati.
• During the Kushan period (1-3 AD), Buddha
was represented in human form instead of
symbols.
• Another feature of this period was that the
Emperor himself was shown as a divine
person. The Kushans were pioneers of
Gandhara School of Art and a large number
of monasteries; stupas and statues were
constructed during the reign of Kanishka.
 The Temple Architecture
Indian temple architecture is distinguished by two
chief styles, each having numerous sub-styles:

a) Northern or Indo-Aryan style is marked by a

tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline
b) Southern or Dravidian style has the tower
usually in the shape of a rectangular truncated
pyramid.

The construction of temples – whether in the north

or the south – essentially followed a similar pattern.
Layout Plan of a Typical Temple
External
View
a) The sanctuary or the vimana with the upper
and outer pyramidal and tapering portion i.e.
shikhara or pinnacle. Vimana is a dark place
housing the divine deity and is called garbha
griha
b) The entrance is through a doorway, normally
from the eastern side. The doorway is reached
through a mandapa or pillared hall. Earlier
temples may have had the mandapa at a little
distance from the main temple (Shore Temple
in Mamallapuram near Chennai 700 AD)
c) Later, both buildings were united, making way
for antarala or intermediate vestibule
d) A porch, ardha mandapa led to a hall
(mandapa) and further into a maha mandapa
Periya Temple – Mandap Away from Main Temple
 Garbh-
Griha

Mandapa or
Prayer hall

Ardha
Mandapa

Layout Plan of a Later Temple

e) A tower generally surmounted the shrine-room
while smaller towers rose from other parts of
the building.
f) The whole conception was set in a rectangular
courtyard, which sometimes contained lesser
shrines and was often placed on a raised
platform. The perfect examples of temples on
this structure are the Khajuraho temples.
g) In some parts of India, the ascending pyramid
roof format was not followed. The roof in such
temples was still pyramidal, but was formed of
layers that gradually narrowed as they rose.
h) The shikhara or tapering roof was specifically
based on this design, which may have evolved
from domed huts of central and eastern India.
 The Gupta Style Of Architecture
1. Gupta Period (4th-7th AD) - "Golden Age of art and
architecture in India". Sarnath emerged as a school
par excellence in Buddhist art. Best sculptures
from Sarnath depicts Buddha giving his first
sermon in the Deer Park.

2. This period witnessed a tremendous resurgence of

Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Surya and Durga.
Udaigiri caves in Madhya Pradesh house a colossal
image of Lord Vishnu.

3. Basic elements of the Indian temple consisting of a

square sanctum and pillared porch emerged.
Temple sculptures were not necessarily religious.
Many drew on secular subject matters and
decorative motifs.
 The Gupta Style Of Architecture (contd..)

4. The Parvati temple at Nachana, the temple of

Bhitaragaon, the Vishnu temple at Tigawa, the
Shiva temple at Bhumara and the Dasavatara
temple at Deogarh are among the best examples of
the Gupta style of temple architecture.
5. The cave architecture also attained a great
degree of refinement during the Gupta period. The
Chaitya and Vihara caves at Ajanta and the Ellora
caves are the best specimens of cave-architecture
of the period. The rock-cut caves at Khandagiri,
Udayagiri and Undavalli also belong to this period.
Dasavatara Temple
Deogarh
- GuptaArchitecture
Ajanta & Ellora Caves
Ellora Cave Temple
Varaha - Udaigiri Caves
 THE PALAS

1. The Pala School of Architecture (8-13

Century AD) flourished in Bengal and Bihar
under the Pala and the Sena rulers.

2. Nalanda was its most active centre, whose

influence was spread to Nepal, Myanmar
and even Indonesia.

3. Stone sculptures of this period are found at

Nalanda, Rajagriha, Bodh Gaya, Rajashahi
and other places.
Nalanda University
Nalanda (Ruins)
 Giant
Buddha
Bodhgaya
 THE CHANDELAS (10-11 A.D.)
1. The Chandelas of Jijihoti or Bundelkhand built
temples at Khajuraho famous for their graceful
contours and erotic sculptures. Only 22 temples
(out of the original 85) remain.
2. The Khajuraho Temples were built within a short
period of hundred years. Each temple is divided into
three main compartments - the cella or garbha
griha, an assembly hall or mandapa and an entrance
portico or ardha mandapa. Some temples also
contain the antarala or vestibule.
3. Kendriya Mahadev temple is the largest and
most beautiful of the Khajuraho Temples. Shiva
Temple, Visvanath & Vishnu Temple, Chaturbhanj
are important temples at Khajuraho.
Khajuraho
Temple
Sculpture
 SOLANKI STYLE OF ARCHITECTURE
1. The Solanki style flourished in Gujarat.
2. It consists of a sanctum, a closed hall and a porch that
are inter-connected internally and externally. The wall
faces are broken by numerous indentations, projected
and recessed alternately, which are continued along
the elevation, producing a pleasing contrast of light
and shade. In larger temples a detached peristylar hall
is added in the same axis, often preceded by a torana.
In rare cases the hall has more storeys than one.
3. The temple at Sunak (10th century), Sun temple at
Modhera (11th century), the Vemala Temple at Mount
Abu (11th century) and the Somnath Temple at
Kathiawar (12th century) are some of the best
examples of this style of architecture.
Somnath Temple-Kathiawar
 THE CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE
1. The Chalukyas (c.450 AD to c.650 AD)
constructed several stone-built shrines and
temples at Aihole, which are mostly Hindu but
a few are Jain.

2. Aihole was the town of temples consisting of

nearly seventy buildings.

3. The Chalukyan Architecture is a juxtaposition

of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian styles in the
temple architecture, and is sometimes
referred as the Vesara style of architecture.
 Aihole -
Narasimha
 THE CHALUKYAN ARCHITECTURE
(contd..)

4. It is evident that during the Chalukyan

period the rock-cut method was slowly
superseded by the use of stone masonry.

5. The Chalukyas also constructed four

rock-cut pillared halls at Badami in the
later half of the 6th century AD, three of
which are Brahmanical and one is Jain.
The final phase of the Chalukyan Art is
represented by the temples of Pattadakal
(7th century AD).
Rock Cut Pillared Hall - Badami
Mallikarjuna & Kasiviswanath-Pattadakal
 THE ORISSAN ARCHITECTURE
1. The temples at Orissa (ancient Kalinga) - the finest
examples of the Indo-Aryan style of temple
architecture.
2. The generic name of the Orissa temples is deul, which
has in its front a square building or assembly hall
called jagamohan, which corresponds to the mandapa.
3. Later other structures like the Nat-Mandir or Dancing
Hall and Bhog Mandir or Hall of Offerings were added
to the temple structure.
4. The lower and the upright portion of the deul is called
the bada, the tall middle portion is called chhapra, the
flat fluted disc at the summit is called amla and its
finial is called kalasa.
5. The Orissan temples as a whole are of the astylar
order, pillars being notable by their absence.
 THE ORISSAN ARCHITECTURE
6. The Orissan temples are divided into three
groups:

(a) Early Period (750-900 A.D.) e.g.

Parashurameshwar and Lakshmanesvara
temples at Bhubaneshwar.
(b) Middle Period (c.900-1100 A.D.) e.g.
Mukteshwara and Lingaraja temple at
Bhubaneshwar and Jagannath temple at
Puri.
(c) Later Period (c.1100-1250 A.D.) e.g.
Raja Rani Temple at Bhubaneshwar and
the Sun Temple at Konark.
Parasurameswara
Temple

Bhubaneshwar
Jagannath
Temple -
Puri
Raja Rani Temple - Bhubaneshwar
Jagannath
Temple

Puri
Sun Temple - Konark
Sun Chariot - Konark
 Jain Architecture
* Every phase of Indian art is represented
by a Jain version.
* Jain architecture has no style of its own
– it is an offshoot of Hindu and Budhist
styles.
* Initially Jain temples were carved out of
rock faces and use of bricks was
negligible. Later Jains started building
temple cities on hills on the concept of
‘Mountains of immortality’.
 Jain Architecture (contd..)
 Temples were sorrounded by embattled
walls, were divided into wards, guarded by
massive bastions at its ends with fortified
gateways at the main entrance.
 No specific plan was followed – they were
results of sporadic constructions.
 Only variations in these temples was in the
form of frequent Chaumukhs or four faced
temples and in these the image of tirthankara
faces the four sides. E.g. Chaumukh temple of
Adinath (1618 AD).
 Jain Architecture (contd..)

 The most spectacular jain temple

are found at Ranakpur and Mount
Abu in Rajasthan.

 Karnataka, Maharashtra and U.P.

also have important Jain temples.
Jain Temple
- Ranakpur
Palitana
Temple
Dilwara Temple
Jain Temple
 Rajput Architecture
• Finest examples of Rajput Architecture are their
Forts and Palaces.
• Palaces were inner citadels sorrounded by
cities, enclosed by a fortified wall – Cittorgarh and
Jaiselmer palaces.
• Some forts were protected by wide moats.
(Bharatpur and Deeg)
• Man-mandir – largest palace in Gwalior – built
by Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516). This palace
overhangs a stone cliff which is punctuated by five
massive round towers, crowned by domed cuppolas,
linked by delicately carved parapets. Whole facade
enriched by brilliant blue tiles.
Chittorgarh Fort
& Victory Tower
Jaiselmer Fort
Deeg Fort
>

<
Bharatpur Fort
Man Mandir Palace - Gwalior
 Rajput Architecture
Palaces of Jaiselmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur,
Udaipur and Kota, built predominantly in the
17th and 18th centuries, represent the maturity
of the Rajput style. Fortified city of Jaiselmer in
Thar desert is constructed by local yellow-
brown stone and is known as the Golden City.
City of Bikaner is enriched by a 5.63 km.
Long stone wall in rich pink sandstone.
In Jodhpur, the Jodhpur Fort dominates
the city which is sorrounded by a 9.5 km. Long
wall with 101 bastions.
Jodhpur Fort >
Inside view

< Jodhpur Fort

Outside view
 Rajput Architecture
· The Pink city of Jaipur, built by Raja
Jai Singh in 1727 AD, represents the final
phase of the Rajput Architecture.
· There is fusion of eastern and western
ideas in town planning.
· The palace is at the centre of the city
and is the synthesis of Rajput and Mughal
architectural styles.
· Other famous buildings are Hawa Mahal
and Jantar Mantar which were built by Jai
Singh II which is an astronomical delight.
 < Hawa Mahal
Jaipur

Lake Palace
Udaipur >
 South Indian Architecture
1. The South Indian style of temple architecture
is very distinct from that of the rest of India.

2. Four types of architecture correspond to the

four kingdoms of southern India - the
Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and the
Vijayanagara rulers.

3. According to the plan – four sided, polygonal

or curvilinear – the southern Vimanas are
classified in the southern Silpa and Agama
texts as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
Angkorwat Temple -South India
 THE PALLAVAS (600-900 AD)
1. Temple architecture of Pallavas is divided in
two groups: rock-cut (610-690 AD) &
structural (690-900 AD)
2. The greatest Pallava architecture are the rock-
cut temples at Mahabalipuram.
3. Kailasanatha and Vanikunthaperumal temples
at Kanchipuram are the best specimens of the
structural temples of the Pallavas
4. Transition of wood to stone was effected in
northern India during the reign of Ashoka in
the 3rd Century BC. However, it took one
thousand years in southern India, under the
Pallavas.
 The
PALLAV
Architecture
Mahabalipuram - Pallavas
Rock Cut Caves - Mahabalipuram
Rock Cut Sculptures - Mahabalipuram
 THE CHOLAS (900-1150 AD)
1. The Chola art is a continuation of that of
Pallava times.
2. Earlier Chola temples were modest in
size. Later ones had Vimanas or gopuras
dominating the landscape.
3. Chola architecture achieved its peak at
Thanjavur, the capital established by the
Chola ruler Rajaraja-I. The
Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur,
erected around 1000 AD, has been
described as “the most beautiful
specimen of Tamil architecture”.
 THE CHOLAS (900-1150 AD)(contd..)
4. Temples at Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Sri
Rangam, Gangaikonda - Cholapuram,
Darasuram and Tribhuvanam amply
illustrate the style of architecture in
southern India between the 11th-13th
centuries.

5. Chola style had a great influence on the

architecture of Hindu temples of Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) and Southeast Asian
kingdoms like Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) and
Chavakam (Java).
The Chola Architecture

< Thanjavur

Thiru
v
The Chola
Sculpture
The Pandya
Territory
(1100-1350 AD)
 THE PANDYAS (1100-1350 AD)
1. Pandyas built many gopurams or
monumental entrances to the existing
temples.
2. The Sundara Pandya gopuram, added to
the temple of Jambukesvara around
1250 AD, and gopuram of Kumbakoman
(1350 AD) temple are best examples
3. Pandyas are also credited with the
construction of Airyavatesvara temple
at Darsuram in Tanjore district during
the first half of the 14th century AD.
 THE HOYSALAS (1100-1350)
1. Hoysala temples have complicated plans, may
be polygonal/star-shaped, angled projections.
2. The carved surfaces are executed with
remarkable precision, usually in chlorite.
3. Columns are multi-faceted. Each temple is
supported by a low-pyramidal tower, which is
often surmounted by a vase-shaped ornament.
On many occasions such pyramidal towers are
used, giving a look of a double or triple temple.
4. Hoysala period temples are at Belur, Halebid and
Sringeri in Karnataka. Channakeshava temple at
Belur. Hoysaleshvara at Halebid are famous.
The Hoysala
Architecture
The Belur - Halebid
The Vijayanagar Architecture(1336-1565 AD)
1. Vijayanagar style inherited aspects from three main
regional styles of the art of South India, viz. Dravidian
style of Cholas and Pandyas, style of Chalukya-Hoysala
tradition and the Indo-Islamic art of the Bijapur region.

2. Vijayanagar temple architecture has special features :

a) The development of the temple complex :

concentric series of rectangular enclosure walls with
gopuras (towered gateways) in the middle of each side
b) Construction of many mandapas, Kalyana mandapa
being most conspicuous among them.
c) Temples also had Devi Shrine to keep the replicas of
consort of the deity.
d) Absence of mortar in their construction.
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 AD)
The Vijayanagar Architecture (1336-1565)
(contd..)
3. Vijayanagar tradition shows a distinct scheme of
decoration in terms of architectural space. Decorative
friezes - horizontally on the plinth moulding, caves and
pillars of the temple, interiors and vertically on the
composite pillars, plasters of the walls and doorways of
the gopuras as well as the inner part. Pillars in the
mandapas have figural motifs in low relief.
4. Vijayanagar city had so many temples that it was called
Kovilapura. Of the numerous Vijayanagar complexes the
most magnificent are those at Kanchipuram,
Thiruvannamalai and Vellore.
5. This period also witnessed the construction of several
secular structures like the Lotus Mahal and Elephant
stables, which show strong Islamic influence.
 THE NAYAKA PERIOD
1. The Dravidian style of architecture assumed
its final form under the Nayakas (16th century
AD) and lasted almost until the modern times.
2. Tirumalai Nayak (1623-1659 AD) was the
greatest of the Nayaka rulers.
3. The style developed by these rulers is
described as the ‘Madura style’ and is most
evident in the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai
(17th century). It is a double temple having two
separate sanctuaries, one dedicated to
Sundareshwara (Shiva) and the other to
Meenakshi (Parvati). It has the tallest Gopuram
(temple tower) in the world.
 Meenakshi
Temple
(tallest Gopuram
in the world)
 Influence of Indian Architecture
1. The traditional system of Vaastu Shastra
serves as India's version of Feng Shui,
influencing town planning, architecture and
ergonomics.

2. Though Vastu is conceptually similar to

Feng Shui in that it also tries to harmonize
the flow of energy (also called life-force or
Prana in Sanskrit and Chi / Ki in Chinese/
Japanese) through the house, it differs in
the details such as the exact directions in
which various objects, rooms, materials,
etc. are to be placed.
 Influence of Indian Architecture (contd..)

3. Indian Architecture has influenced Eastern

and South-Eastern Asia, due to the spread
of Buddhism. A number of Indian
Architectural features such as the temple
mound or, temple spire or sikhara, temple
tower or and temple gate or, have become
famous symbols of Asian culture, used
extensively in East Asia and South-East
Asia. The central spire is also sometimes
called a. The southern temple gate, or is
noted for its intricacy and majesty.
Thank
You