Art and Culture Notes Rahul Sir

ART & CULTURE
(A COMPREHENSIVE YET CRISP COVERAGE)
RAHUL SENGAR SIR

FACULTY, NEXT IAS
ART AND CULTURE
COURSE MODULE
MODULE 1: VISUAL ARTS
1. Architecture Ancient India Indus Valley (Harappa)
Mauryan (Pillars, Palaces, Caves)
Post Mauryan
Gupta period (Caves, Temple)
 Temple Architecture
o Nagara style
 Odisha Style
 Chandela Style/Khajurao Style
 Maru-Gurjara Style
South India
 Dravidian Architecture
 Vesara Architecture
 Vijayanagar Architecture
 Hoysala Architecture
 Nayaka School
 Pala Sena School
Medieval India  Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
 Provincial Style (Jaunpur, Malwa, Bengal)
 Mughal Architecture
 Deccan Style (Bijapur, Hyderabad)
 Kashmir Architecture style
 Rajput Architecture Style
 Sikh Architecture Style
 Jain Architecture
 Sun temples
Modern Architecture Style  Indo Gothic Style
 Neo Roman Style
2. Sculpture Indus Valley Sculpture  Seal
 Terracotta
 Bronze sculpture
 Ornaments
 Bearded Priest
 Red Sand stone sculpture
Mauryan Sculpture  Didarganj Yakshini
Post Mauryan  Gandhara School
 Mathura School
 Amaravati School
Gupta Age  Sultanganj Buddha
Chola Sculpture (Natraja)
Important Indian Bronze  North India and South India
Sculptures
Types of Bodhisattvas and Form of Shiva
3. Pottery  Neolithic Age
 Chalcolithic Age
 Harappa Civilisation
 Late Harappa
 Vedic Age
 Iron Age
 Megalithic
 Important regional Potteries
4. Painting  Pre Historic Paintings
 Chalcolithic Period
2
Mural paintings  Ajanta Cave

 Ellora Cave
 Bagh Cave
 Aramalai Cave
 Sittanvasal Cave
 Ravan Chaya Rock Shelter
 Lepakshi Paintings
 Jogimara Cave Paintings
Miniature Paintings  Pala School of Art
 Apbhransha School of art
 Delhi sultanate
 Mughal Paintings
 Rajasthan Paintings
 Pahari Paintings
 Deccan Paintings
Modern Paining  Company Paintings
 Bazar Paintings
 Bengal School of Art
 Cubist School of Art
 Progressive Group
Folk Paintings  Madhubani
 Pattachitra
 Patua
 Kalighat
 Paitkar
 Kalamkari
 Warli
 Thangka
 Majusha
 Phad
 Cheriyal scroll Paintings
 Pithora
 Saura
MODULE 2: PERFORMING ARTS
5. Indian Music Classic Music  Hindustani Music (Dhrupad, Khayal) etc.
 Carnatic Music
Folk Music  Baul, Pandavanis, Alha, Ovi Lavani etc
Classical+Folk  Sugam Sangeet
 Rabinder Sangeet
 Haveli sangeet
 Gana Sangeet
Musical Instruments  Awanada Vadya
 Ghana Vadya
 Sushira Vadya
 Tata vadya
Community related to Music  Magniar, Langha, Bazigar etc
6. Dances of India Classical  Bharatanatyam
 Kathak
 Kuchipudi
 Kathakali
 Sattriya
 Odishi
 Manipuri
 Mohiniattam
Folk  North India
 Central India
 East India
 North East India
3
 West India
 South India
 South West India
7. Indian Theatre Classical Sanskrit Theatre  Features and reasons of decline
Folk Theatre  Ritual Theatre
 Entertainment theatre
 South Indian Theatre
8. Indian Puppetry  String Puppet
 Shadow Puppet
 Glove Puppet
 Rod Puppet
MODULE 3: MISCELLANEOUS
9. Indian Orthodox School  Samkhya
Philosophy  Yoga
 Nyaya
 Vaisheshika
 Mimansa
 Vedanta
 Shankaracharya
 Ramanuja
 Madhwacharya
 Nibarkacharya
 Vallabhacharya
Unorthodox School  Chrvaka/Lokayata
 Ajivika
10. Indian Language Classical languages
& Scripts Scripts: Indus, Brhami, Kharoshthi, Gupta, Sharda, Modi etc.
11. Coinage of India  Iron Age
 Greek Coins
 Kushan Coins
 Satvahana
 Western khtrapas
 Gupta Period
 Post Gupta Period
 Akbar
 South India
12. Indian Calendar  Vikrm Samvat
 Shaka Samvat
 Hijri Calendar
 Gregorian
13. Ancient Ports
14. Traditional Sarees
15. Handicrafts
16. Marital Arts
17. Bronze Crafts
18. Metal Embroidery
19. Important Books and Foreign Travelers
20. Literature
All Modules will be followed by discussion of Previous Year Prelims and Mains Questions.
Current Affairs to be uploaded in the month of April

Art & Culture Indian Architecture
INDIAN ART AND CULTURE

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
CULTURE Art is influenced heavily The evolved human capacity to
• Culture’ is derived from Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning by culture and is born as act creatively and imaginatively
cultivating or refining and worship. a by-product of culture, and represent and classify
• The term ‘Sanskriti’ has been derived from the root ‘Kri reflecting some of its experiences with symbols.
(todo). customs, beliefs and
values.
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
• Etymology: Latin word ‘tekton’ → Builder.
• Earlier Example: Bhimbetka Caves.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

• Learned and acquired
• Shared by a group of people
• Cumulative INDIAN ARCHITECTURE
• Dynamic → Changes with time
• Gives us a range of permissible behaviour patterns
• Diverse
CIVILIZATION
‘Civilization’ means having better ways of living and
sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. HARAPPAN ARCHITECTURE
• Time Period: 2nd half of 3rd
Difference between Art and Culture
millennium BCE.
Art Culture
• Main Place: Harappa and
Art is one aspect of Culture is the ensemble of social
Mohenjo-Daro.
culture. forms, material traits, customary
beliefs, and other human • Characteristics:
phenomena that cannot be • Rectangular grid
directly attributed to a genetic pattern → roads ran
inheritance of a religious, racial, in N- S and E-W direction and cut each other at right
or social group. angles.
Art is the creative The unique manners in which • Big roads → divided the city into a number of blocks.
expression of one’s different people live and the • Smaller lanes → connect the individual houses and
experiences, emotions manner in which they represent, apartments to the main roads.
and other qualities. classify their experiences
• 3 Types of buildings: Dwelling houses, public buildings
creatively.
and public baths.
Art & Culture 1

• Cesspits were placed at regular intervals.

• The importance placed on hygiene – both personal and
public, is quite impressive.
Lothal
• Only Indus site with an artificial
brick dockyard.
• Situated on Bhogwa river (tributary
• Material: Burnt/Unburnt mud bricks. of Sabarmati river).
• City was divided into two parts: • It was surrounded by a massive
1. An upraised citadel (Western brick wall, probably for flood protection.
part): It was used for • Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of fire cult,
constructing buildings of large have been found.
dimensions, such as granaries,
administrative buildings, Dholtavira
pillared halls and courtyard. • Fortified citadel, a middle town and a lower town with
Do not have large monumental walls made of sandstone or limestone instead of mud
structures such as temples or palaces for rulers unlike bricks in many other Harappan sites.
Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilization. • Located in Khadir island of the Rann of Kutchch
Granaries • Belonged to matured Harappan phase.
Intelligently designed with Beads Workshops
strategic air ducts and raised • 2 seasonal streams: Mansar in the north, and Manhar in the
platforms which helped in south
storage of grains and protecting • A cascading series of water reservoirs ,Signboard(Might
them from pests. be world’s First )
Public Baths • 2 multi-purpose grounds — one of which was used for
• Highlights the importance of ritualistic cleansing in festivities and as a marketplace — nine gates with unique
their culture. designs, and funerary architecture featuring tumulus —
• An array of galleries and rooms surrounding it. hemispherical structures like the Buddhist Stupas
• Example: ‘Great Bath’ in the excavated remains of • Unlike graves at other IVC sites, no mortal remains of
Mohenjo-daro → still functioning (No cracks or humans have been discovered at Dholavira
leakage).
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
2. Lower-Part of the City (Eastern Part)
Conditions
• Small one-roomed houses
• Advent of the Buddhism and Jainism (Shramana tradition).
→ might have been used as
quarters by the working class • 4th century BCE, the religious and social scenario of gangetic
people valley began to undergo changes → against brahmanical
supremacy → patronage of the kshatriya rulers.
• Some of the houses have
stairs → might have been
double storied. Most buildings
have private wells and bathrooms and are properly
ventilated
Advanced Drainage System
• Small drains ran from each house Shraman Tradition
and were connected to larger • 6th century BC marked the beginning of new socio-religious
drains running alongside the main movements in Gangetic valley in the form of Buddhism
roads. The drains were covered and Jainism which were part of Shraman tradition. By 4th
loosely to allow regular cleaning century BC, Mauryas established their power and by 3rd
and maintenance. century BC Ashoka patronized Shraman tradition.
Art & Culture 2

• Srama means “one who strives” or “Laborer” in Sanskrit and • Lion: The Lion shows the attainment of enlightenment.
Pali. • Satyameva Jayate (Mundaka Upanishad).
• Applied to those who whole heartedly practiced • Wheel of the Law (Dharma Chakra) → first sermon by
enlightenment (Monks). Buddha or the Dhamma chakra parivartana.
• Shraman tradition is best kept in term parivrajaka,
meaning a homeless wanderer.
• Shraman tradition gave rise to Unorthodox school like
Jainism and Buddhism and some of Hinduism such as
Carvaka and Ajivika.
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
Court Art
• Palaces: The capital at Pataliputra
and the palaces at Kumrahar
were created to reflect the Difference between Ashokan Pillars and Achaemenian
splendour of the Mauryan Pillars
Empire. Chandragupta Maurya Basis Ashokan Pillars Achaemenian
was inspired by the Achaemenes Pillars
palaces at Persepolis in Iran. Composition Shaft: monolithic, Shaft: Various
Chunar sandstones. pieces of sandstone
• Building material: Wood cemented together.
• Megasthenes described the palace as one of the greatest Location Independently Generally attached
creations of mankind erected by royal to state buildings
diction
Pillars
IMPORTANT ANCIENT INSCRIPTIONS AND EDICTS
• Inscription of pillars – as a symbol of
• Sohgaura Copper Plate: The earliest known copper-
the state or to commemorate battle
plate, known as the Sohgaura copper-plate, is a Mauryan
victories – assumed a great significance.
record that mentions famine relief efforts. It is one of the
• He also used pillars to propagate very few preAshoka Brahmi inscriptions in India.
imperial sermons as well.
• Ashokan Edicts: 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka
• Material: Chunar sandstone as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor
• Composition: Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign from 269
• A long Shaft formed the base and was made up of a BCE to 232 BCE. → inscriptions were dispersed throughout
single piece of stone or monolith. the country and it represents the first tangible evidence of
Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the Ashoka’s view
• Capital: lotus shaped or bell shaped (bell shaped
about dharma+social and moral precepts rather than
capitals were influenced by the Iranian pillars).
specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension
• Abacus: Circular or rectangular base known as the of Buddhism .Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved servant
abacus on which an animal figure was placed. of the God” (Devanampiyadasi).
• Ex: Lauria Nandangarh pillar in Champaran, Sarnath • Rummindei Pillar Edicts (Lumbini): These inscriptions
pillar near Varanasi, etc. come under the Minor Pillar Inscriptions. These contain
National Emblem inscriptions recording their dedication. The inscriptions
mentions Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini (Rummindei),
• 4 animals
Rupandehi district, Nepal, the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
• Horse: Kanthaka, which Buddha is said to
Ashoka exempted Lumbini from paying tax, and fixed its
have used for going away from princely
contribution of grain at one – eighth. The inscriptions are
life.
written in Brahmi script.
• Bull: Zodiac sign of Taurus, the month in
• Prayag-Prashasti: The Allahabad Prasasti was originally
which Buddha was born.
engraved on the Ashokan Pillar in Kausambhi near
• Elephant: Dream of Queen Maya a white elephant
Allahabad. Later it was moved to the Allahabad fort. 4
entering her womb.
different inscriptions I.
Art & Culture 3

• The usual Ashokan inscriptions in Brahmi script as in all • Nanaghat inscription was issued by Naganika.
pillars. (satvahana).
• The Queen’s edict regaling the charitable deeds of • Uttarmerur Inscription (TN): Parnatuk Chola Local Self
Ashoka’s wife Kaurwaki. Government.
• Samudragupta’s (335AD – 375 AD) inscriptions written • Mand Saur Inscription (MP)/Dashapur  silk weiver
by Harisena in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script. Reign of Kumargupta .
• Jahangir’s inscriptions in Persian. • Bhatihari Inscription (Skandagupta).
• Mehrauli Inscription: by Chandragupta-II of Gupta
STUPAS
dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu
• Kalsi Inscription(between Chakrata and Dehradun ): Triratna
• on the banks of Yamuna river. only place in North India Buddha: Enlightenment
→ the set of the fourteen rock edicts. Dham: Doctrine

Sangha: Order
• Language: Prakrit and the script is Brahmi.
commitment to nonviolence and restriction of war.
The inscription also tells about his life when he took
the path of spirituality.
• Maski Inscription(Karnataka): on the bank of the Maski
river which is a tributary of the Tungabhadra. It was the first
edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Ashoka
in it instead of ‘Devanampriya’ or ‘Piyadassi’. Moreover the
inscription also suggests the spread of Mauryan rule up to
the Krishna valley of north-eastern Karnataka.
• Kalinga Edicts: language of the edicts is Magadhi Prakrita • The stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap) originated as
and the script being the early Brahmi. a simple semi-circular mound of earth, later called Anda.
• Aihole Inscription(Karnataka): 1st capitalof Chalukya. The • Harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the
inscription is written in Sanskrit and it is in Kannada script. abode of the gods.
There is a mention about the defeat of Harshavardhana by • Around the mound was a railing, separating the sacred
Pulakeshin II and the victory of Chalukyas over Pallavas. It space from the secular world
also mentions about the shifting of the capital from Aihole • Vedic Period: Burial mounds prevalent in India (Relics and
to Badami. They were written by Ravikirti, the court poet ashes).
of Pulakeshin II who reigned from 610 to 642 CE. • Period of Ashoka : The art of stupas reached its climax.
• Hathigumpha Inscription: Inscribed by King Kharavela Almost 84000 stupas were erected during his period.
during 2nd century BCE. consists of seventeen lines in • Core of the Stupa (unburnt brick) + Outer surface (burnt
Prakrit language and in Brahmi script. The Hathigumpha bricks).
Inscription is like the history of Kharavela as a king, a • Medhi and Toran → decorated by wooden sculptures.
conqueror, a patron of culture and a champion of Jainism.
• Example: Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most
• Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: It was originally located at famous of the Ashokan stupas. Piprahwa stupa in Uttar
Kapilvastu. It mentions that Asoka increased the height of Pradesh is the one of the oldest one.
stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.
Piprahwa Stupa
• Kanganhalli Inscription: Rayo Ashoka (sculpture) near
sannati.
• Nasik Inscription: The achievements of Gutamiputra
Satkarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that were
composed by his mother Gautami Balasri. defeated
the Saka King Nahapana and restored the prestige of
his dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former
dominions of the Satavahanas.
Art & Culture 4

EARLY EVOLUTION OF STUPAS • Elephants : signify strength and wisdom.

• Gajalakshmi/Maya: Another motif is that of a woman
surrounded by lotuses and elephants , which seem to be
sprinkling water on her as if performing an abhisheka or
consecration. While some historians identify the figure as
Maya, the mother of the Buddha, others identify her with
a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi – literally, the goddess
of good fortune – who is associated with elephants. It
is also possible that devotees who saw these sculptures
identified the figure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.
• Serpent : This motif seems to be derived from popular
traditions, which were not always recorded in texts. This
motif seems to be derived from popular traditions, which
were not always recorded in texts. Interestingly, one
of the earliest modern art historians, James Fergusson,
considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree and serpent
SANCHI STUPA COMPLEX worship. He was not familiar with Buddhist literature –
• River: Betwa most of which had not yet been translated – and arrived at
• Stupa No. 2 and Stupa No. 3, built during the reign of the this conclusion by studying only the images on their own.
Sungas THE GREAT BOWL, SANCHI
• Ashoka Pillar, an excellently polished sandstone pillar • The Great Bowl was made from a
• Temple 40, one of the first free-standing temples in India massive stone block and is considered
• Sunga Pillar or Pillar 25, having a design similar to the as one of the finest examples of the
Heliodorus pillar Buddhist era.
• Four ceremonial gateways or toranas
• The Great Bowl
• Gupta Temple, an architectural beauty
Sanchi Stupa
• Monastery 51
• Main structure of the Stupa is a hemispherical dome that
has a simple design.(brick+stone)
• Scenes from Jataka stories, events of Buddha’s life, scenes
from early Buddhism period, and several auspicious
symbols are carved on these ceremonial gateways.
• Some other stupas also present  supposed to hold the
relics of Sariputta and Mahamougalayana.
• The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of POPULAR ART: INDIVIDUAL EFFORT
the Buddha, and the stupa was meant to represent the Cave Architecture:
mahaparinibbana. Another frequently used symbol was
the wheel. This stood for the first sermon of the Buddha,
delivered at Sarnath.
• Shalabhanjika : Other sculptures at Sanchi were perhaps
not directly inspired by Buddhist ideas. According to
popular belief, this was a woman whose touch caused
trees to flower and bear fruit. It is likely that this was
regarded as an auspicious symbol and integrated into the
decoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motif suggests
that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched
it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist Lomash Rishi
beliefs, practices and ideas.
Art & Culture 5

• Emergence of rock-cut cave architectures. ARCHITECTURE ROCK-CUT CAVES

• Generally used as viharas (living quarters), by the Jain and Two types of rock caves:
Buddhist monks. 1. Chaitya (prayer hall)
• Early caves were used by the Ajivika sect (5th century 2. Vihar (residential halls)
BCE by Makkhali Gosala), later, they became popular as
Ex: Karle Chaitya hall,
Buddhist monasteries
Ajanta caves (29 caves
• A highly polished finish of the interior walls and decorative 25 Vihars + 4 Chaitya).
gateways.
• Udayagiri and
• Ex: The inscription in the Sudama cave informs that the Khandagiri Caves,
four caves on Barabar hill were assigned by King Ashoka Odisha (200-100BC)
to Ajivika monks in 261 BC. Another inscription on the Kalinga King Kharavela
Nagarjuni hill is of the grandson of King Ashoka, Dasaratha → both man-made and
Maurya, which tells that the Ajivikas continued to enjoy natural caves
imperial Mauryan patronage for long.
• Udayagiri caves:
Nagarjuni Caves • Hathigumpha inscription → Brahmi script → starts
Built few decades later than the Barabara caves, and out with “Jain Namokar Mantra” and highlights various
consecrated by Dashrath Maurya. military campaigns undertaken by the King Kharavela.
It is on the southern side of Barabara granite hill, and is • Ranigumpha cave in Udayagiri is double-storied and
adjacent to Sudama cave, which is on the left. has some beautiful sculptures.
Others: Karan Chaupar Cave, Visvakarma Cave STUPAS
Giant stupa, Lalitgiri

Remains of Bharhut Stupa
U – shaped Chaityagriha
• Stupas became larger and more decorative
• Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans as
beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas → Evidence
of Hellenistic influence.
POST MAURYAN ART
Examples: Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, the toran at
• Time Period: 2nd century BC
Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh, etc.
• Conditions:
Bharhut Stupa : At Bharhut, narrative panels are shown
• Political: Small dynasties sprang up in various parts of with fewer characters but as the time progresses, apart from
India. the main character in the story, others also start appearing
North: Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Shakas in the picture space. At times more than one event at one
Southern and Western India: Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, geographical place is clubbed in the picture space or only a
Abhiras and Vakatakas single main event is depicted in the pictorial space. There is
• Religious: Emergence of Brahmanical sects (Shaivites, a general stiffness in the body and arms. But gradually, such
Vaishnavites and Shaktites) visual appearance was modified by making images with
Art & Culture 6

deep carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic GANDHARA STUPA

representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures at • Sculpted base, dome and
Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta(A. P.) hemisphere
are good examples.
• Further development –
Artisans used the pictorial language very effectively to sanchi and bharhut
communicate stories. One main characteristic in all the male
• Very large stupas nagarjuna-
images of first–second centuries BCE is the knotted headgear.
konda in krishna valley
Nagarjunakonda mahachaitya base in the form of swastika
Bharhut Stupa (sun symbol).
AMARAVATHI STUPA
• 2nd or 1st century BC. NAGARJUNAKONDA (NAGARJUNA HILL)
• Later – transformed from hinayana to mahayana shrine. • Nagarjuna Sagar, Andhra
• South India – no survival of stupas. Pradesh.
• Final shape in 2nd century AD- larger than sanchi stupa. • Known in the ancient
• Sculpture – extension of amaravathi school of art. times as Sri Parvata.
• Fig of stupa-slightly rounder, taller, slimmer – delicate • Settlement of,

modeling. Nagarjunakonda was
the capital of the
• Ayaka pillars is another important feature.
Ikshvaku dynasty (225 AD - 325 AD), the successors of the
• River: Krishna
Satavahanas in the eastern Deccan.
GUPTA AGE
• 4th century A.D.
• “Golden period of Indian Architecture
• Earlier Gupta rulers → Buddhists
• Temple architecture came to the fore front under the
patronage of the Hindu rulers of the later Gupta phase.
• Temple architecture reached its climax during this period.
• Similarly, Buddhist and Jain art also reached its peak
during the Gupta Age → secularism
ABHAYAGIRI DAGOBA • Architecture: In caves mural paintings on the walls of the

caves became an added feature
Ceylon- “ABHAYAGIRI
DAGAHABA“- anuradhapura BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURAL CAVES (Post-Mauryan,
reached tremendous proportions Gupta, Post-Gupta)
in its glorious days, it is believed
to have stood around 115m tall, Rock cut caves Ajanta, Kanheri, Karle, Bhaja, Pandavleni
only slightly smaller than Jetavana Viharas Residential quarters for Monks
Dagoba, making it the fourth Chaityas Temple + Worship place + assembly halls
tallest in the ancient world after Khufru & Khafra at Gizeh, with a stupa
Egypt & Jetavana Dagoba. Sangharamas Buddhist monastery and school
Art & Culture 7

Stupas A hemispherical dome, a solid structure • Verandaha has wooden reliefs showing royal women
into which one cannot enter A glorified, driving chariots over a demon.
beautified, enlarged funerary mound. PANDAVLENI CAVES, NASIK
Resting place of the bones and ashes of a • 24 Buddhist caves belonging
holy man to Hinayana Period of
Kutagarashala Literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or Buddhist architecture.
in groves where travelling mendicants
• Dating back to the 1st Century
halted.
CE.
KARLE CAVE – LONAVALA (PUNE)– 200 BC • Called as Pandu leni meaning
• Carved from the living rock. group of caves.
• Columns are strong and bulky, surmounted by sculptured • Has nothing to do with the characters of Mahabharata
capitals. (the Pandavas).
• A stupa with a wooden umbrella on top unharmed to this • Inscriptions mention Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mother
date. Gautami Balasri had financed the construction of 3rd cave.
• Largest Chaitya-griha among all Buddhist monuments in • Contains a panel depicting Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana.
India. • River: Gomai
• Has a huge lion pillars in front of Chaitya-griha (only two
AJANTA CAVES (BETWEEN 200 B.C. TO 650 A.D.)
caves have this design- Karle and Kanheri).
• Rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri
ranges on Waghora river near
Aurangabad.
• 29 caves (25 Viharas + 4
Chaitya.
• Ajanta caves were inscribed
by the Buddhist monks,
under the patronage of the Vakataka kings – Harishena
being a prominent one.
• The outlines of the paintings were done in red colour and
then the inside was painted.
KANHERI CAVES, MUMBAI • One of the striking features is the absence of blue colour
• Second largest Chaitya griha in the paintings.
in India, after Karle caves. • Paintings are generally themed around Buddhism – the
• Lion Pillars at the Entrance. life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
(Just like Karle caves) • Hinayana Phase (5) + Mahayana Phase (24).
• Podhis: water cisterns for • Reference: Fa Hein and Heian Tsang.
rainwater harvesting
• Some prominent sculptures of Ajanta Caves are:
• Images of both Standing Buddha and sitting Buddha Mahaparinirvana of Buddha in Cave. no 26., Naga king and
flanked by Bodhisattvas his consort in Cave. no 19.
• Famous Satvahan king Gautamiputra Satakarni’s name
mentioned in the inscriptions here FRESCO PAINTINGS IN AJANTA
• Vihara for resting monks with rock cut seats and benches
BHAJA CAVES, PUNE

• Hinayana faith
• Has wooden ceiling over
Chaitya-griha.
• Stupa has a hole on top, for
inserting wooden umbrella • A technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid
lime plaster.
Art & Culture 8

• Water is used as the vehicle for the pigment Amoghsiddhi, Vajrasatva and Vajraraja.
• With the setting of the plaster; the painting becomes an • Sites in Andhra Pradesh : Jagayyapetta
integral part of the wall
Indra Sabha
ELLORA CAVES –AURANGABAD
• Patronage : Rashtrakuta,
Chalukya and Early Kalchuris
• 5th century CE onwards to
11th century CE.
• Caves: 12 Buddhist (1-12) Jagarnath
+17 Hindu (13-29) + 5 Jaina Sabha
(30-34).
ELEPHANTA CAVES –MUMBAI
• Buddhist caves having many images belonging to
Vajrayana Buddhism.
• Ajanta also has the excavated double storey caves but at
Ellora, the triple storey is a unique achievement.
• Ellora cave temples were carved out on the sloping side of
the hill. Hence most of the temples have courtyards.
• Cave no 16 is a rock cut temple, known as Kailash leni -
carved out of a single rock – built by Rashtrakutas.
Raavan Ki Khai
• Originally a Buddhist site which was later dominated by

the Shaivite faith.
• 5th century CE onwards to 11th century CE.
• 6th century Shiva temple in the Elephant a caves is one of
the most exquisitely carved temples in India.
• 20 feet Trimurti showing the three faces of Shiva.
• Aghori is the aggressive form of Shiva → destruction.
• Ardhanarishvara depicts Lord Shiva as half-man/half-
woman signifying the essential unity of the sexes.
• Mahayogi posture → meditative aspect of the God.
• Caves 1–12: Buddhist Caves 13–29: Hindu Caves 30–34:
Jain (Digambara sect). • Other sculptures in these caves depict Shiva’s cosmic
dance of primordial creation and destruction and his
• Prominent caves in Ellora are:
marriage to Parvati.
• Cave No. 10 is a Buddhist Chaitya cave known as
Vishwakarma Cave or carpenter’s cave. Buddha is UDAYAGIRI CAVES (5TH CENTURY AD)
seated in Vyakhyana Mudra here and Bodhi tree is • Different from Udayagiri- Khandagiri Caves in Odisha.
carved at his back.
• Cave No. 14 is themed “Raavan ki khai”.
• Cave No. 15 is Dashavatar temple (Vishnu).
• Dhumar Lena in Cave 29
• Rameshwar temple in Cave 21
• Two famous Jain caves are Indra Sabha (Cave 32) and
Jagannath Sabha (Cave 33).
• Cave No. 12: A triple-storey excavation
• Images of Tara, Avalokiteshwara, Manushi Buddhas,
Vairochana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha,
Art & Culture 9

• Location: Vidisha, MP. • Site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times.

• Patronage: Chandragupta II • Its entrance, in the form of an archway is a fine specimen
• It is famous for having numerous sculptures on the hill of Hindu torana.
walls.
LENYADRI CAVES:
• The sculpture of Varaha or Boar incarnation of the Vishnu
• Also known as Ganesh Lena.
is notable.
• Located to the north of Junnar, on the southern hillside of
• It also has caves dedicated to Shiva, Narasimha (half-lion,
Sulaiman Pahar, or, after the Ganesha shrine in one of the
half-man), Narayana (resting Vishnu) and Skanda.
caves– Ganesh Pahar.
MONTEPZIR/MANDAPESHWAR CAVE (MUMBAI) • Buddhists created these caves according to the canon of
time, Hinayana, in the 1st – 3rd century AD as a Buddhist
monastery.
• Later one of the Buddhist dwellings was turned into a
popular shrine of the Hindu god Ganesh.
STUPAS
• A decline in the development of stupas.
• Dhamek stupa at Sarnath (first sermon of Buddha)
near Varanasi is a fine example of stupa developed during
• Bramhanical caves → converted into a Christian shrine. this period.
• The remains of the site include sculptures of Natraja, Sada

shiva and ardhanarishwara.
• The church and its graveyard are situated above the cave
precincts.
BAGH CAVES– NEAR GWALIOR
Chaukhandi Stupa
• Chaukhandi Stupa is the place where Lord Buddha met his
5 disciples first in Sarnath.
• It was built of brick like octagonal tower during 4th to 6th
century in the Gupta period
• After Gupta’s the stupa’s architecture was altered by
Govardhan, son of Raja Todarmal, who modified stupa
• Around 6th century CE (Gupta Period).
to its present shape by building an octagonal tower in
• 9 sandstone Buddhist Caves with beautiful Frescos and commemoration of Humayun (Mughal ruler) visit.
sculptured work.
JUNAGARH CAVES (UPARKOT → CITADEL)
Art & Culture 10

Dharmarajika Stupa Third Stage

• It is considered that this place has the remains of bones • Emergence of shikharas in
of the Lord Buddha. place of a flat roof.
• Built by the King Ashoka which was destroyed in 1794 • Still quite low and almost
by the Jagat Singh (to get bricks for another construction square, i.e. curvilinear.
purpose) during which a box with bones was found. • Panchayatan style
• The box is still kept safely at the Indian Museum, Kolkata. It introduced: 4 subsidiary
is considered as the bones were disposed off in Ganga by shrines along with the temple
the Jagat Singh. of the principal deity.
• Main temple → square with an elongated mandap in front
of it, giving it a rectangular shape.
• The subsidiary shrines were placed opposite to each other
on either side of the mandap, giving the ground plan a
crucified shape.
• Example: Dashavatar temple at Deogarh (U.P.), Durga
temple at Aihole (Karnataka), etc
Fourth Stage:
• The temples of this stage were almost similar, except the
main shrine became more rectangular. Barrel-vaulted roof
above
• Example: Ter temple at Sholapur, Kapoteswara temple at
Cezarla (Andhra Pradesh)
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
First Stage
• The temples had flat roof.
• The temples were square in
shape.
• The portico was developed on shallow pillars.
• The entire structure was built on low platforms.
• Example: Temple No. 17 at Sanchi
Second Stage
• Continued most of the
features of the earlier phase.
• Platforms: Higher or
upraised.
• Two-storied temples have
also been found.
• Important Addition of this phase was a covered Fifth Stage
ambulatory passageway around the sanctum sanctorum
• In this stage, there was the
or garbhagriha.
introduction of circular temples
• The passageway was used as a pradakshinapath. with shallow rectangular
• Example: Parvati temple at Nachna kuthara in Madhya projections. Rest of the features of
Pradesh the previous stage continued.
Art & Culture 11

• Example: Maniyar Math at Rajgir.

Various Elements of Ornamentation
• Gavaksha: a Sanskrit word which means “bull’s or

cow’s eye”. In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned
as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of
the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are
described as providing a window for the deity to gaze
out into the world
• Vyala(also called sardula) : popular motif in Indian
art, consisting of a composite leonine creature with
the head of a tiger, elephant, bird, or other animal,
frequently shown in combat with humans or pouncing
upon an elephant.
MAIN ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLES • Kalpa-lata : It symbolizes the ever-growing vine of
Garbhagriha Literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave prosperity, a bounty of treasures desired by mortals. In
like sanctum Garbhagriha is made to house Hindu temples, kalpalata is found on doorways, walls
the main icon (main deity) and perforated windows.
Mandapa It is the entrance to the temple
NAGARA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
May be a portico or colonnaded (series of
columns placed at regular intervals) hall • Panchayatan style
that incorporate space for a large number • Presence of assembly halls or mandaps in front of the
of worshippers
principal shrine.
Some temples have multiple mandapas in
different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, • Outside the garbhagriha, images of the river goddesses,
Mandapa and Mahamandapa Ganga and Yamuna, were placed.
Shikhara or They are mountain like spire of a free • No water tanks.
Vimana standing temple • Temples were generally built on upraised platforms
Shikhara is found in North Indian temples
• Porticos had a pillared approach.
and Vimana is found in South Indian
temples • The vertical end of the shikhara ended in a horizontal
Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana fluted disc, known as the Amalak.
has a pyramidal like structure
• On top of that, a spherical shape was placed known as the
Amalaka A stone disc like structure at the top of the
kalash.
temple shikara
• Inside the temple, the wall was divided into three vertical
Kalasha Topmost point of the temple above
Amalaka planes called rathas. These were known as triratha temples.
Antarala A transition area between the Garbhagriha Later, pancharatha, saptaratha and even navaratha
(vestibule) and the temple’s main hall (mandapa) temples came into existence.
Jagati A raised platform for sitting and praying • the temple premises did not have elaborate boundary
Vahana Vehicle of the temple’s main deity along walls or gateways.
with a standard pillar or Dhvaj
Art & Culture 12

TYPES OF SHIKHARS • Sarvatobhadra: These types of the temples have

• Latina or rekha-prasad: They four functional doors on cardinal direction and also a
were square at the base and the Pradakshinapatha with a row of 12 pillars around the
walls curve inward to a point on santum sanctorum. These types of temples could be
the top. accessed from all sides.
• Phamsana: They had a broader
Odisha School
base and were shorter in height
• Exterior walls: lavishly decorated with intricate carvings,
than the Latina ones. They slope
but interior walls were plain.
upwards on a straight line.
• No use of pillars in the porch. Iron girders → to support
the roof.
• The shikharas → Rekhadeuls
• The mandap → jag mohan in this region
• Valabhi: They had a rectangular base with the roof rising

into vaulted chambers. They were also called wagon-
vaulted roofs.
SUB-SCHOOL OF NAGARA STYLE
Based on Pradakshina Path (circumambulatory path)

• Sandhara: These types of the temples have a square
sanctum enclosed by a gallery of pillars meant for
Pradakshina. Thus, the Sandhara temples have a
PPradakshina. Thus, the Sandhara temples have a
Pradakshinapatha.
• Nirandhara: This type of temples do not have
Pradakshinapathas
Art & Culture 13

There are also sculptures of a child playing with mother,

an astrologer reading the palm lines, trading, war scenes, a
playful monkey, woman dripping with water after a bath,
a scene from war, a scene of training elephants for battle,
business, and trading; all these depicted as sculptures.
It seems like an entire city and their way of life being
depicted on the walls.
A Surasundari getting ready, applies kohl to her eyes while
her face has a demure expression and just the hint of a
smile.
A woman wearing an anklet with the help of her maid, the
• The ground plan of the main temple was square. difference in social status probably shown symbolically by
• Temples were surrounded by a boundary wall as in the difference in scale of the two figures.
Dravidian style The eloquence of the silent stones leaves one speechless
• Example: Sun Temple at Konark (Black Pagoda as the first as their songs in sandstone reverberate across the chasm
rays of the Sun entered garbhagriha through the sea- of time.
facing pagoda), Jagannath temple at Puri, Lingaraj temple • Jain Temples: Parshvnath Temple, Adinath Temple,
at Bhubaneshwar, etc Shantinath Temple, Ghantai Temple.
Khajuraho School
• Chandela rulers
• Both the interior and exterior walls were lavishly
decorated with carvings.
• Sculptures: Generally erotic (Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra).
• Material: Made of sandstone.
• Direction: Generally north or east facing.
• Panchayatan style of temple making was followed.
• Even the subsidiary shrines had rekhaprasad shikharas.
This created an impression of a mountain range.
• Relatively high platform and belong to Hindu as well as Solanki School/ Maru- Gurjara style
Jain religion+Tantricism. • Patronage: Solanki rulers (later Chalukya)
• Hindu Temples: Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Lakshman • No carvings on temple’s wall.
temple (grandest temple of Khajuraho built by Dhanga),
• Garbhagriha: Connected with the mandapa both
chaturbhuja temple (Lacks erotic sculpture, faces west),
internally as well as externally.
chausatha yogini temple etc.
• Porticos: Decorative arched gateways known as torans.
• A unique feature → presence
of step-tank, known as surya-
kund. The steps of the tank are
full of small temples → wooden
carvings present in these
temples.
• Material: Sandstone, black
basalt and soft marble.
• Direction: East-facing and designed such that every year,
during the equinoxes, the sun rays fall directly into the
central shrine.
• Example: Modhera Sun temple, Gujarat (built in 1026–27
by Bhima-I).
Dance class sculpture in Laxman Temple
Art & Culture 14

• By contrast, other eastern Chalukyan temples, like the

Mahakuta, five kilometers from Badami, and the Swarga
Brahma temple at Alampur show a greater assimilation of
northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan.
• At the same time, the Durga temple at Aihole is unique
having an even earlier style of an apsidal shrine which is
reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls and is surrounded by
a veranda of a later kind, with a shikhara that is stylistically
like a nagara one.
Somnath Temple STAGE III–RAJSIMHA GROUP

• The ancient temple’s timeline can be traced from 649 BC • 700-728CEUnder Narsimhavarman II (also Known as
but is believed to be older than that. The present form was Rajsimha)At this stage the real structural development
reconstructed in 1951 and inaugurated by Dr. Rajendra of temple’s started and it moved outside the cave,
Prasad. earlier temples were part of caves.
• River System : Confluence of Kapila, Hiran and Sarasvati • Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) (2 Shiva,
rivers Shree Somnath is first among the twelve Aadi 1 Vishnu shrineAnantashayana).
Jyotirlings of India. • Kailashnathar temple at Kanchipuram → largest single
• Positioned in such a way that not a single piece of land is work of art ever undertaken in India.
visible from the Somnath seashore until Antarctica.
• Seven storied and reaches up to a height of 155ft.
• Chalukya architectural pattern.
• A Sabha Mandap or assembly hall and a Nrityamandap.
SOUTH INDIAN ART

• Began under the Pallava ruler MahendravarmanBuilt at
Panamalai,Mandagattu and Kanchipuram.
• The inscription at Madagapattu mentioned him as
“Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chitrakarapuli (tiger
among artists) and Chaityakari (temple builder) are titles.
• Reflected the stylistic taste of the individual rulers
• 1st stage: Mahendra group the temples were known
as mandapas, unlike the Nagara style in which the
mandapas meant only the assembly hall
• 2nd Stage: Narasimha group (Mammala)
• Major development during this period was initiation of
Decoration in rock cut cave structures
• The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks
• Mandap’s now became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave,
famous for beauty. STAGE IV – NANDIVARMAN GROUP
• The biggest Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and • It is said to be the declining stage of south Indian temple
smallest one was called as draupadi Rath. (No Connection architecture and only small temples were constructed in
With Mahabharata) this period.
• Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian • Notable examples → Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli
style of temple making. and Mukteswara temple
Art & Culture 15

ARCHITECTURE AT MAHABALIPURAM/
MAMMLLAPURAM/SEVEN PAGODAS
• The ancient port city of Mamallapuram (derives from DRAVIDIAN STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Mamallan, or “great warrior”, a title by which the Pallava • Decline of Pallava dynasty → a new style under the Chola
King Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD) was known.) in Tamil kingdom
Nadu, Declared as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984
• Unlike the Nagara temples, the Dravidian temples were
by the name “Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram”. surrounded by high boundary walls
They include.
• Gopuram: high entrance gateway
• Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: Rock cut temples in
• Panchayatan style with a principal temple and 4 subsidiary
India, comprising of Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha, shrines.
Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi
• Vimana: spire is in the form of a stepped pyramid that
Ratha, dated around 7th century AD. Dharmaraja Ratha is rises up line.
the largest structure .
• Shikhara: crowning element is shaped in the form of an
• Rock-cut caves: Varaha Cave Temple, Krishna Cave Temple, octagon → similar to the kalash of the Nagara temple, but
Panchapandava Cave Temple, and the Mahishasuramardini not spherical.
Mandapa (Goddess Durga killing Mahishasura). • There is only one vimana in the Dravidian architecture on
• Open Air Rock Reliefs: Descent of the Ganges which is top of the main temple. No Vimana in subsidiary shrine,
also known as Arjuna’s Penance or Bhagiratha’s Penance unlike in Nagara architecture.
carved on two huge boulders. It narrates the story of • Antarala: Connected Assembly hall to garbhagriha by a
descent of River Ganga on earth from heaven by the vestibular tunnel.
efforts of Bhagiratha. • The entrance of the garbhagriha had sculptures of
• Shore Temple complex: Which includes which has two Dwaarpal, mithun and yakshas.
small and one large temple enclosed within a two tier • The presence of a water tank.
compound wall studded with images of Nandi, the vahana • Example: Brihadesvara temple at Tanjore
of Shiva. The temple is predominantly dedicated to Lord Gangaikondacholapuram temple.
Shiva with a sculpture of Anantashayana Vishnu in one of
DIFFERENT SHAPES OF DRAVIDA TEMPLE
the three temples within the complex.
1. Kuta / caturasra – Square
2. Shala / ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta / vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic:
Deriving from wagon vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas
with a horse-shoe shaped entrance facade usually called a
nasi.
, 4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal
Art & Culture 16

considered auspicious.
Airavatesvara temple
at Tanjavur: Built by the Airavatesvara temple
Chola king Rajaraja II
LIVING CHOLA TEMPLES (1143-1173 CE.) It is much
Brihadesvara Temple: smaller in size as compared
Known in the inscriptions to the Brihadisvara
as Dakshina Meru, the temple at Tanjavur and
construction of this temple Gangaikondacholapuram.
was inaugurated by the The temple consists of a sanctum without a circumambulatory
Chola King, Rajaraja I (985- Brihadeswara temple path and axial mandapas. The front mandapa known in the
1012 CE) possibly in the inscriptions as Rajagambhiran tirumandapam, is unique as
19th regal year (1003-1004 CE). Outside the temple enclosure it was conceptualized as a chariot with wheels. The labelled
are the fort walls of the Sivaganga Little Fort surrounded by miniature friezes extolling the events that happened to the
a moat, and the Sivaganga Tank, constructed by the Nayaks 63 nayanmars (Saiva saints) are noteworthy and reflect the
of Tanjore of the 16th century who succeeded the imperial deep roots of Saivism in this region.
Cholas.
VIJAY NAGAR LEGACY
• Combined the features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas,

Chalukyas architectural styles influenced by the Indo-
Islamic style of Bijapur
• Walls of the temples → highly decorated with carvings
and geometrical patterns.
• Gopurams → Previously present on the front side but now
built on all the sides
• A mythical creature Yali (Horse) engraved temple pillars
Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram: • Central mandap → kalyan mandap
Built for Siva by Rajendra I (1012-1044 CE). The temple has • Introduced the concept of secular buildings (Example-
sculptures of exceptional quality. The bronzes of Bhogasakti Lotus Mahal).
and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons. The • Example: Vittalsami temple, Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha
Saurapitha (Solar altar), the lotus altar with eight deities, is temple in Hampi, Raghunatha Temple in Hampi etc.
Art & Culture 17

• Vithala temple Ranga Mantapa 56 musical Pillars • Nagara style: Curvilinear Shikhara and square base of
(SAREGAMA pillars), indicating the musical notes emitted Vesara temples
by them. • Dravida style: Intricate carvings and sculptures, design of
Vimana and Step or terraced Shikara of Vesara temples.
Lotus temple
• Open ambulatory passage way

• Emphasis on vimana and mandapa
• Rock-cut idol of Narasimha on Shesha (snake) near Hampi • 2 other dynasties  Vesara style temples are:
is a marvel in itself
Rashtrakutas (750-983 AD), Hoysala Dynasty (1050-
1300 AD).
• Example: Doddabasappa temple at Dambal, Ladkhan
temple at Aihole, temples at Badami etc.
KAILASHNATH TEMPLE
NAYAKA SCHOOL/MADURAI SCHOOL

• The Nayakas rose after the fall of
Vijayanagara empire
• Have all the features of
Dravidian style with an
additional prominent feature
known as ‘Parakram’s → huge
Corridore’s along with roofed
ambulatory passageways. It
served to connect various parts
of temple while enclosing certain areas.
• Intricate carvings are seen all across the temple walls. • Dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is • Patronage: Rashtrakuta King Krishna-I
another impressive feature of the temple. • Carved out of a monolith, and even has a courtyard.
• Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was • In cave. no 16, → Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha. It is
used for ritual bathing. considered as one of the masterpieces of Indian sculpture
• EX: Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple at Madurai. → two HOYSALA ART(KARNATAKA)
shrines (Shiva as Sundareswara +his wife Meenakshi)
• Period from 1050-1300 A.D with the prominent seats
VESARA SCHOOL/KARNATAKA SCHOOL being Belur, Halebid and Sringeri.
• Patronage: Chalukya rulers (mid-7th cen A.D.) • Multiple shrines were built around a central pillared hall.
Art & Culture 18

• Shrines led out in the shape of an intricately designed star. Unique Features:
→ Stellate plan (Differs from Crucified Plan of Panchayatan 1-The roof (garbhalayam) of the temple is built with
Style) bricks which are so light that they can float on water.
• Hoysala temples are sometimes called hybrid or vesara as 2-Use of sand box technology :the earth was dug three
their unique style seems neither completely dravida nor meters deep for the foundation. It was then filled with
nagara, but somewhere in between. sand and for the sand mixture to become strong, it was
mixed with granite, jaggery and Karakkaya (Chebula)--
• Material: Soft soap stone (Chlorite schist) was the main
Earthquake proof
building.
3-the temple is known for its intricate carvings, the
• Temples Built on Jagati (an upraised platform).
most famous one being the flute at the entrance of the
• Decoration of the temple through sculptures. All the sanctum sanctorum, which when hit makes the sound of
chambers had Shikhar which were interconnected by an sa-ri-ga-ma
arrangement of horizontal lines and moulding. 4-Carved with dolomite rocks even a hair can pass
• Walls and stairs of the temple → zigzag pattern. through it.
• Example: Hoyasaleswara temple at Halebid, 5-The ‘Nagini’ and other eleven devanarthakis are
Vijayanarayana temple at Belur. arranged as supporting beams on both sides of each
Central pillared entrance.
hall The pillars have 13 significant carvings, probably
indicating the thirteenth century during which the
Subsidiary temple was built
shrines
Stellate plan
Sculpture of a lady using High Heels Sandal.
GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT PATTADAKAL, KARNATAKA

• Patronage: Chalukya dynasty, situated on the banks of
the Malaprabha River.
• Achieved a harmonious blend of architectural forms from
northern and southern India.
• Hindu temples, +Jain Temple, can be seen there.
• Style: Nagara+Dravida+Vesara.
• Virupaksha Temple (previously known as Lokesvara Temple)
built c. 740 by Queen Lokamahadevi to commemorate her
husband’s Vikramaditya II over the Pallavas.
Ramappa Temple/Ramalingeshwara • Other temple:Jain Narayana temple, Galagnath Temple,

TempleTelengana(1213AD) Sangameshwara Temple, Mallikarjuna Temple, Papanatha
Built by: General Recherla Rudra, during the period of Temple Kashiviswanatha Temple (8th century by the
the Kakatiya ruler Ganapati Deva. Rashtrakutas): temple is famous for the several female
Probably only temple in India top be named after its figurines engraved on the walls  Nagara STyl.
sculptor i.e. Ramappa
Art & Culture 19

Region: Bengal
• Period between 8th and 12th century A.D.
• Patronage of Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty.
Main Feature:
• A curved or sloping roof, as in bamboo huts. This became
popularly known as “Bangla roof” and was later adopted
by the Mughal architects.
• Material: Burnt bricks and clay.
• The temples of this region had a tall, curving shikhara
crowned by a large amalaka, similar to the Odisha School.
Virupaksha Temple • For the sculptures of this region, both stone as well as
metal was used. Stone was the major component. The
figures were unique in their highly lustrous finish.
• Pala Kings built lots of Viharas, Chaityas and Stupas.
• Monuments under Pala rulers Universities of Nalanda,
Jagaddala, Odantapuri and Vikramshila were developed
under Pala rulers. Somapura Mahavihara is a magnificent
monastery in Bangladesh developed by them.
• The Senas were Hindus and built temples of Hindu gods,
and also sustained Buddhist architectures.
• Monuments under Sena rulers are: Dhakeshwari temple
in Bangladesh.
ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
EAST INDIA TEMPLES: Assam and Adjoining Areas

Main Material: Terracotta
Assam:
• Nilachala Style of Architecture: Mixing of Nagara +
Saracenic or Mughal style
• Example: Kamakhya Temple-
• Famous Lagends Behind Kamakhya :
• Sati’s dead body dismembered by Vishnu.
Art & Culture

PALA AND SENA SCHOOL 20
• Kamakhya, also mentioned as Kubjika Pitha is the place of wooden architecture. Sometimes, the temple itself takes
where the Yoni- Mudra (the female Genitalia or the on a pagoda shape.
Vulva) of Sati fell. Here Kamadeva regained his charm • Example – Pandrethan temple (Metal Sculpture,
again. Moderate ornamentation, Tradition of Water Tank Built by
• Built in: Believed to be in Reign of King and later Naraka Meruverman in 7th Century)
A.D. 1565 by utilising ruins of a stone temple of 11th-12th
century A.D. There is role of Koch king Naranarayan (A.D.
1540-1585) and last chamber was added to the temple INDO ISLAMIC / INDO SARACENIC STYLE
complex by the Ahom king Rajeswar Singha (A.D. 1751-
69) in A.D. 1759.
• Hill : Nilachala or Blue Hill.
Architectue:
• Main temple contains a modified saracenic dome
• the antarala carries a two-roofed design similar to the
traditional thatched cottages
• the bhogmandir (also called pancharatna) with five domes
similar in appearance to the main temple
• the natmandir having a shell-roof with apsidal end similar • With the advent of Islam in the Indian sub-continent
to some of the imparmanent namghars or prayer halls around the 7th century, Indo-Islamic architecture → a
found in Assam. mixture of Indian, Persian, Arab and Turkish also made
roots in India.
Bengal : While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many
Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are • The early buildings of the Slave dynasty consisted of false
known to express the local Vanga style. The ninth century domes and false arches
Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan • Introduction of true arches and true domes started to
District, for example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned appear with construction of Alai Darwaza by the side of
by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. Qutub Minar (By Allaudin Khilji)
It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha. Most
• As human worship and its representation is not allowed
prominent of these was the shape of the curving or sloping
in Islam, the buildings and other edifices are generally
side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was
decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs
eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known
• These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on
across North India as the Bangla roof. In the Mughal period
and later, scores of terracotta brick temples were built across plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as mortar was
Bengal and Bangladesh in a unique style that had elements also a major element distinct from the traditional building
of local building techniques seen in bamboo huts which were style.
combined with older forms reminiscent of the Pala period • The tomb architecture is another striking feature of the
and with the forms of arches and domes that were taken from Islamic Architecture → Practice of the burial of the dead
Islamic architecture. These can be widely found in and around
Distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture
Vishnupur, Bankura, Burdwan and Birbhum and are dated
mostly to the seventeenth century.
HILLY REGION ARCHITECTURE

Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks frequently travelled
between Kashmir, Garhwal, Kumaon and religious centres
in the plains like Banaras, Nalanda and even as far south as • kiosks (chhatris)
Kanchipuram. As a result both Buddhist and Hindu traditions • Tall towers (minars)
began to intermingle and spread in the hills. The hills also
• Half-domed structure
had their own tradition of wooden buildings with pitched
• Jali work, calligraphy, Pietra dura
roofs. At several places in the hills, therefore, you will find
that while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in a • Voussoir: A wedge-shaped element, typically a stone,
rekha-prasada or latina style, the mandapa is of an older form which is used in building an arch or vault.
Art & Culture 21

Elements from the traditional Indian style viz.

• Decorative brackets
• Balconies
• Pendentive decorations
FEATURES OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
• Use of arch and domes gained prominence It was known as ‘arcuade’ style replaced the traditional Trabeate style of
architecture.
• Introduced the use of minars.
• Mortar was used as a cementing agent.
• Avoided the use of human and animal figures.
• Introduced spaciousness, massiveness and breadth to it.
• Previous structures used sculptures as means of decoration, the Indo-Islamic architecture used calligraphy as means of
decoration.
Art & Culture 22

• Arabesque method: Use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation and was characterised by a continuous stem which split
regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems.
• Heavily used the principles of geometry - from decorative pattern to imbibing a sense of symmetry.
• Intricate Jaali works, which signifies the importance of light in Islamic religion.

• Use of water in the premises of the constructions → Religious purpose, Cooling the premises, Decorative purpose, mirror
image.
• Charbagh style of gardening, in which a square block was divided into four adjacent identical gardens.
• Pietra-dura technique for the inlay of precious stones and gems into the stonewalls.
• Foreshortening technique in the buildings, such that the inscriptions appear to be closer than it really is.
Art & Culture 23

• Iron Pillar of Delhi, Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Alai

Darwaza, the Tomb of Iltutmish, Alai Minar, Ala-ud-din’s
Madrasa and Tomb, and the Tomb of Imam Zamin.
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE
• Sponsored by Qutb-ud-
din Aibak, founder of the
Slave dynasty.
LAL-KOT /QUILA RAI PITHORA (FIRST CITY OF DELHI) • Passing thro’ the main
gateway, you find
• Qila Rai Pithora was created by Prithviraj Chauhan.
yourself standing under
• Prithviraj’s ancestors captured Delhi from the Tomar an intricately carved
Rajputs who have been credited with founding Delhi. temple ceiling with richly
Anangpal, a Tomar ruler possibly created the first known ornamented pillars on
regular defense - work in Delhi called Lal Kot. both sides. These were
• The remains of Rai Pithora can still be seen in the present taken from 27 Hindu and
Saket, Mehrauli, Kishangarh and Vasant Kunj area. Jain temples of Qila Rai Pithora (1st of 7 historical cities of
Delhi)., a fact recorded by Qutubddin Aiabak on the main
IMPERIAL STYLE/DELHI SULTANATE
eastern entrance.
PERIOD (1206-1526)
IRON PILLAR
• Built in the Gupta Period
around 4-5th century.
• Qutb built around it when
he constructed the mosque.
• Although made of iron, this
7 meters high pillar has resisted rust for over 1,500 years,
evidence of superb knowledge of metallurgy.
QUTB MINAR
• In 1200 AD, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak,
Slave dynasty/ILBARI DYNASTY (1206 to 1290 A.D)
the founder of the Delhi Sultanate
• Remodelling of the existing Hindu structures. started construction of the Qutb
• Example: Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar Minar.
Premises, which was converted from a Jain temple, • In 1220, Aibak’s successor and
• Arhai-din-ka-Jhopra, Ajmer son-in-law Iltutmish added three
storeys to the tower.
QUTUB COMPLEX
• In 1369, lightning struck the top
storey, destroying it completely.
• So, Firoz Shah Tughlaq carried out restoration work
replacing the damaged storey with two new storeys every
year, made of red sandstone and white marble.
ALAI DARWAZA
• The northern arch is semi circular , while all other three
are shaped in the classical Islamic style like pointed
horseshoes. The gateway also displays other Muslim
architectural elements like the central knob on the dome
and lotus buds that fringe each arch.
• Material: Red sandstone + white marble; a UNESCO World • The use of red sand stone and white marble which was to
Heritage Site. become a favorite device of Mughal builders appears for
the first time in Alai Darwaja.
Art & Culture 24
• This makes the Alai Darwaza, the earliest example of first • The octagonal tomb of Imam Mohammed Ali,
true arches and true domes in India. It is considered to • A Turkish holy man who came to India in the reign of
be one of the most important buildings built in the Delhi Sikandar Lodi and was revered as Imam Zamin.
Sultanate period.
KHILJI DYNASTY (1290 A.D. TO 1320 A.D)
ALAIMINAR
• Allauddin Khilji had
planned to rival the
Qutb Minar when he
returned in triumph
from his Deccan
campaign.
• However Sultan • Allauddin Khilji also established the 3rd city of Delhi at
died before even Siri and dug a vast reservoir at Hauz Khas (Hydraulically
one storey was finished and the project was abandoned. structured) around 1311AD.
ILTUTMISH’S TOMB • The Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style.
• Prominent features:
• the true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe
• broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch
• perforated windows, inscriptional bands
• use of red sandstone relieved by marble
• Example: Alai Darwaza by Ala-ud-din Khilji, Siri fort,etc.

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 A.D-1412 A.D)
• Just to the west of the expanded mosque, Iltutmish
built his own tomb, the first to be erected for the Delhi
Sultanate.
• The tomb itself is rather plain on the outside, but the
interior is covered with inscriptions from Koran which
have been so delicately carved that they seem like lace
work in stone.
TOMB OF IMAM ZAMIN
Art & Culture 25

• Crisis period of architecture’ because focus was on strength • Ex: Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (1434 AD), Muhammad
rather than beauty. Sayyid (1444 AD) and Sikander Lodi (1517 AD) are all of
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD) built Tughlaqabad, the octagonal type.
the 4th historical city of Delhi. LODI DYNASTY (1451 A.D-1526 A.D)
• Material: red +grey sandstone, is an irregular pentagon • Enamel tile decoration tended to be richer and more
in its exterior plan is of the pointed or “Tartar” shape, lavish.
crowned by a finial.
• The tomb architecture of this period is of two types,
• Introduced the concept of slopping walls known as though both have grey granite walls.
“Battar”, combining the principles of arch and the lintel as
• One is octagonal in design having a verandah; the other is
shown in fig. square in plan, having no verandah
• Jahanpanah was built by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid- • Introduction of double domes
14th century.
• A spacious somewhat ornamental walled garden encloses
• He is also credited with founding the fortified cities of the tombs, which gives the whole ensemble elegance.
Jaunpur, Fathehbad and Hissar.
• Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made it his
FIROZABAD OR FIROZ SHAH KOTLA capital.
• 5th City. Firoz Shah Kotla ground is the only remnant of its
past glory.
• Firozshah tughlaq brought two Sandstone pillar bearing
ashokan inscription from Meerut and Ambala and placed
one at Kotla Ferozshah and One at Delhi ridge.
• Fieozshah also built Kirki Maszid, tomb and Madarasa at
Hauz Khas.
• Haunting Lodge at Ridge Forest : Bhooli bhatiyari ka
mahala,Pir Galib and Malcha mahal.
• Arch of this period is heavy, massive, rugged and simple.
• Used grey sandstone and employed minimum decoration.
SAYYID PERIOD (1414 A.D-1451 A.D) PROVINCIAL STYLE DURING ISLAMIC ERA IN INDIA
• Use of bricks and black marble mosques built during this

period.
• Use of sloping ‘Bangla roofs’, which was previously used
for temples.
• Examples: Qadam Rasul mosque in Gaur, Adina mosque
in Pandua, etc
• Period was too short to evolve elaborate buildings
• Octagonal tombs → a distinct architectural character. Bangla roofs
• The decorative features of these tombs consist of the use
of blue enameled tiles enhancing the color effect.
• The Lotus motif crowning the tomb and free use of
Guldasta’s used in this period considerably influenced the
style of subsequent period.
Art & Culture 26

MALWA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE/PATHAN SCHOOL MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

OF ARCHITECTURE (MP & RAJASTHAN) Babur
Hindola mahal
• Dhar and Mandu in the
Malwa plateau became
prominent seats of
architecture.
• Use of different coloured
stones and marbles
• Large windows → result of
European influence
• Stairs were used to enhance the aesthetics of the
• Babar, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a man of
construction.
culture and exceptional aesthetic taste.
• Minars were not used in this school of architecture.
• For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in
• One of the finest specimens of environmental adaptation war.
• The use of large windows → well-ventilated. • However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of
• The pavilions were lightly arched which made them airy gardens are ascribed to him.
and allowed the buildings to remain cool in the heat. • Ex: Mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at
• Artificial reservoirs known as ‘baulis’ were constructed in Sambhal near Delhi
the premises for storage of water.
HUMAYUN
• Locally available materials were used. The use of batter
system introduced by the Tughlaqs made the buildings • Constant power struggle with Sher Shah Suricouldn’t
strong. focus much on art and architecture. He led the foundation
of a city named Dinpanah, but couldn’t finish it. Persian
• Example: Raani Roopmati pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi
style became prominent in the architecture of this period
Mahal etc.
Persian Features
• Iwans (Vaulted space that opens on one side to courtyard)
• Extensive use of Arches
• Gardens, Fountains and Pools
• Domes (circular size represent eternity, heavens and
perfection)
• Symmetry
• Maqarans
• Calligraphy
JAUNPUR SCHOOL/SHARQI STYLE
• Mashrasbiya
• Patronised by the Sharqi rulers.
• Avoided the use of minars, as the
Pathan style.
• A unique feature of the
buildings here is the use of bold
and forceful characters painted
on huge screens in the centre Atala Mosque
and side bays of the prayer hall.
Example: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur etc
Art & Culture 27

SHERSHAH Humayun tomb strike new note. As per Unesco, it was

• His period is a transition from Lodhi style to Mughal style the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent.
of architecture • Main features:
• He also undertook the re- • Synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions.
construction and extension • Garden squares (chaharbagh) with pathways water
of an old Mauryan route channels.
and renamed it as Sadak-e- • Centrally located well proportional mausoleum topped
Azam (Great Road) → Grand by double dome.
Trunk Road • kiosks (chhatris) which give it a pyramidal shape from
• Constructions under Sher a distance.
Shah continued the traditions of the Delhi Sultanate • Material: Red sandstone + White and black marble
period borders
• Presence of Sarais and trees for travelers. Sher Shah Suri’s
HUMAYUN TOMB (KNOWN AS PRECURSOR OF TAJ
tomb was built at his birthplace Sasaram. It is made up of
MAHAL, AGRA)
red sandstone and is situated inside a lake.
• There are several graves of Mughal rulers located inside
• Rohtas Fort in Pakistan
the walled enclosure (dormitory of Mughals) and from
• Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna here in 1857 A.D; Lieutenant Hudson had captured the last
• The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna masjid Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah II.
• Completed 6th historical city of Delhi called the Shergarh • The mausoleum is a, in the arched alcoves, corridors and a
or Dilli Sher Shai around the Purana Qila area in1540s high double dome.
• Other Buildings in Enclosure:
• (Pre dated): Barber’s Tomb,,Arab Sarai and g Isa Khan
garden tomb.
• Contemporary: Bu Halima’s garden,Afsarwala Garden.
• Nila Gumbadby adul Rahim khan khana for his
servant Miyan Faheem).
Rohtas fort
HUMAYUN TOMB (KNOWN AS PRECURSOR OF TAJ

MAHAL, AGRA)
• The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture
is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow,
Begha Begum in 1570.
• Provided the prototype for Mausoleum of Jahangir at
Shahdara, Lahore
• Although some historians considered Sikander Lodi’s
tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is
Art & Culture 28

AKBAR FATEHPUR SIKRI

• Built between 1571 and 1585 by the Mughal Emperor
Jalal-ud-din Mohammad Akbar, in honor of the great Sufi
Saint Sheikh Salim Chisti;
• First planned city of the Mughals;
• Originally rectangular in plan, with a grid pattern of roads
and by-lanes that cut at right angles;
• Featured an efficient drainage and water management
system.;
• Predominantly in red sand-stone;
• Blend of Islamic and Hindu elements in their style and
design.
Buildings:
• Imperial Palace Complex, the intricately built marble tomb
of the great Sufi saint, Sheikh Salim Chisti;
• Diwan-I-Am- Hall of Public Audience
• Diwan-khana-I-khaas- Hall of Private Audience
• Turkish Sultana’s House
• Treasury or Ankh Michauli- once believed to have been
used for playing the game
• Daulat khana-I-Khas- emperor’s private chamber
• Akbar made Agra his seat of power. His architecture • Palace of Jodha Bai- blend of styles with Hindu columns
reflects a blend of the Hindu and Islamic creation and Muslim cupolas.
• Use of red sandstone. He also introduced the use of ‘Tudor • Panch Mahal and Nagina Masjid- laid out in the Char Bagh
arch’ (four centred arch) style with straight walls intersecting at right angles and
divided by shallow channels.
AGRA FORT • Jami Masjid- built in 1571 AD.
• Made of red sand-stone • Buland Darwaza- erected in 1602 AD to commemorate
• Other Structure: Akbar’s victory over Deccan
• Jahangiri Mahal by Akbar Buland Darwaja:
• Built by Shahjahan Constructed in red sandstone after Gujarat victory which
• Moti Masjid now regarded as the tallest gateway of Asia.
• Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public audience)
• Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private audience)
• Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath)
• Khas Mahal (built by Shah Jahan for his daughters
Roshnara and Jahanara)
• Charbagh style.
Art & Culture 29

• A town planned as an administrative unit consisting • Pachisi Court in the courtyard where Akbar is said to have
of public buildings as well as private residence in close played chess.
proximity.
Pachisi Court
• Almost all the structures are based on trabeate
construction
• Prominent Structures → Buland Darwaza (red sandstone
+ white marble), Panch Mahal , Dargah of Saleem Chisti,
Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Jodha Bai Palace, Jama Masjid,
Ibadat Khana
PANCH MAHAL
• The highest and the most • Hiran Minar was built in memory of Akbar’s favourite
impressive structure, elephant, named Hiran. It also served as lighthouse for
called the palace of five travelers. It is uniquely designed and its exterior wall
stories with open terraces contains tusk like spikes.
on each story
Hiran Minar
• Based on the Hindu
system of trabeate
structure, consisting of pillared verandas, architrave, and
brackets
• Build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara is the topmost
domed pavilion, purposefully thrown out of the centre
that crowns the entire building.
• The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor
and members of the royal household.
JAHANGIR
Ibadat Khana:
• Religious leaders used to have discussion over various Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra
issues on Akbar’s invitation.
• Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri → gather spiritual leaders of
different religious grounds so as to conduct a discussion
on the teachings of the respective religious leaders
Ibadat Khana • Architecture took a back seat as he focused more on

paintings and other forms of art
Art & Culture 30

• Akbar’s tomb in Sikandra. RED FORT (LAL QUILA)

• Further, he developed a number of gardens during his
reign, e.g. the Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir.
• He also built the Moti Masjid at Lahore.
• Hiran Minar in a hunting reserve used by the Mughal
royals. The reserve was built in a scrub forest, and
allowed Mughal emperors to experience a sense of semi-
wilderness near the imperial city of Lahore. The game-
reserve was used as a park where visitors could enjoy the
sport of hunting
TOMB OF ITMAD-UD-DAULAH
• Father of Noor Jahan
• White marble became main building material + partial use
of red sandstone.
• First Mughal work made completely of white marble.
• It also has some of the finest pietra-dura works
• In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi
and laid the foundation of Shahjanabad, the Seventh
City of Delhi, containing his famous citadel, the Red-Fort,
which was begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years.
• Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates, and
a few other structures constructed in red sandstone, and
marble used for the palaces.
• It consists of a Diwan-i-Aam, containing the marble
SHAH JAHAN: MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE REACHED ITS
canopy ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura
CLIMAX
work showing a few paintings.
Bibi Ka Maqbara
Aurangzeb: Mughal architecture declined

• Taj Mahal memory of Arzuman Bano Begum or Mumtaz
• Built in 1668 the Tomb of Rabia Durani (Aurangabad) or
Mahal.
Bibi Ka Maqbara was erected by Azam Shah, the son of
• Red Fort in Delhi
Aurangzeb to commemorate his mother Dilras Begum
• Jama Masjid in Delhi who was titled Rabia Durani post her death. → Taj of
• Shalimar Bagh Deccan
in Lahore City of
• A poor replica of the Taj Mahal
Shahjahanabad.
• He also built Zinat Mahal in Delhi in memory of his wife.
• Peacock Throne that
is one of the finest
examples of metal
work in this period.
Art & Culture 31
DECCAN STYLE MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES (OTHER THAN

Bijapur School INDO-ISLAMIC)
• Patronage: Adil Shah • Rajput Architecture

Style
• He constructed a number of
mosques, tombs and palaces • Influenced by the
which were unique in the Mughal style, but
were unique in the
use of 3-arched facade and
size and scope of their
bulbous dome, which were
constructions
almost spherical and with a narrow neck.
• Introduced the
• Introduced the use of cornices.
concept of hanging
• A special feature of the Bijapur school was the treatment balcony, which were constructed in all shapes and sizes.
of its ceilings, which were without any apparent support. • The cornices were built in the shape of an arch such that
• Iron clamps and a strong plaster of mortar were used to the shadow took the shape of a bow
give strength to the buildings. • Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota Palaces →
• The walls were decorated by rich carvings. Example: Built approx. 17th to early 18thcentury
Gol Gumbaj, the mausoleum of Adil Shah, in Bijapur SIKH ARCHITECTURE STYLE
HYDERABAD SCHOOL • Influenced by the Mughal Style
• Qutub Shahi and Nizam Shahi dynasties contributed • Features →

multiplicity of Chattris
greatly towards the development of the Deccan style of
/kiosks, fluted dome
architecture.
generally covered with
• Charminar (1591) – Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah copper or brass gilt and
• Mecca Masjid-started in1614 by Abdullah Qutub Shah and enrichment of arches
completed in 1687 by by numerous foliation
• Notable example
• Golconda Fort (1525) – Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah, was
→ Golden Temple at Amritsar As advised by Sri Guru
an impregnable fort of great strategic importance to most
Amar Das Ji (3rd Sikh Guru), Sri Guru Ram Dass Ji (4th
of the rulers. Sikh Guru) started the digging of Amrit Sarovar (Holy
• Falaknuma Palace (1870) by Nawab Vikar-Ul-Ulmara, is a Tank) of Sri Harmandir Sahib in 1574 A.D., which was later
rare blend of Italian and Tudor architecture on brick-lined by Sri Guru Arjan Dev Ji (5th Sikh Guru) on
December 15, 1588 and He also started the construction
of Sri Harmandir Sahib.
• The Gurudwara was completed in 1604.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the one who covered it in gold
in 1830.
KASHMIR STYLE
• The main features of Kashmir style of architecture are:
• Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence) Cellular layout and
Enclosed courtyard
• Straight-edged Pyramidal roof
• Column walls (Greek influence)
• Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
• Relatively more number of steps.
• Typified by use of wood work.
• Wooden bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines
called ziarats
Art & Culture 32

• Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami • Most spectacular of all Jain temples are found at Ranakpur
Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar Butshikan (1400AD) and Mount Abu in Rajasthan
• Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the • Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and Aihole also
Akhun Mulla Shah’s mosque (1649) are illustrations of have some of the important specimens of Jain Art
art of stone building in Kashmir.
TEMPLES OF PARSI COMMUNITY IN INDIA
• Martand Sun Temple: Under the aegis of Karkota Dynasty
ruler Lalitaditya Muktapida • 3 major types of fire
temples of the Parsi faith
• First → Atash Behram,
(“Fire of Victory”),
• Second → Adarian
• Third → Atash Dadgah or
Dar-e-Mehr
• Mostly located in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Gujrat: Iranshah Atash Behram, Udvada. Desai Atash
Behram in Navsari, Modi and Vakil Atash Behram
• Dadiseth, Wadia, Banaji and Anjuman Atash Behram in
Mumbai
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
JAIN ARCHITECTURE STYLE
• Portuguese, French, Dutch, Danish and the British

Portugese Influence
• Iberian style of architecture.
• Initially built trading posts and ware houses, which were
later remodelled into fortified town along the coastlines.
• They also introduced the concept of ‘patio houses’ and
‘Baroque style’ developed in late-16th century in Europe to
express the strength of the Church
• Elaborate, detailed and theatrical design to create a
• Prominent Feature → Chamukhs or four-faced temples. dramatic effect. It involved use of contrasting colours
• Four Tirthankars placed back to • Example: Sé Cathedral in Goa It has a large bell called
back to face four cardinal points. “Golden Bell”.
• Entry into these temples is also • Basilica of Bom Jesus (Holy Jesus), Goa. It is a World
from four doors Heritage Site built in Baroque style and was completed in
• Notable example includes 1604 AD
Chamukh temple of Adinath • Castella de Aguanda in Mumbai. St Paul’s Church, Diu
(Ranakpur) (1618AD
Art & Culture 33

FRENCH INFLUENCE Changes in Continued with their Adopted Indian

• Brought concept of urban city planning with them. structure western traditions. motifs and styles
The French towns of Pondicherry and Chandernagore No structural → rise to the Indo
(now Chandannagar, West Bengal) were built using the variations Gothic style of
Cartesian grid plans and scientific architectural designs architecture.
• Concept of anonymous architecture which involves simple
facade without much ornamentation or design, much like Neo-Roman Style/ Neo-classical style/ Rome of
modern buildings Hindustan (Post-1911)
• French also developed coastal towns of Mahe (Kerala), • Anonymous and without any interesting features.
Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and Yanam (Andhra Pradesh). • Confluence of all styles of
• Example: Church architecture → style congested
of Sacred Heart of and cramped the space of
Jesusin Puducherry, artistic expression → Simplicity,
the Sacred modernity and utility were
Heart Church of highly compromised
Chandannagar • Focus on circular buildings.
• Overuse of oriental motifs
BRITISH INFLUENCE:
• Concept of upturned dome, as can be seen in the top of
• Gothic style of architecture.
Supreme Court and Rashtrapati Bhavan, was introduced
• It merged with the Indian architecture and resulted in the during this phase.
Indo-Gothic style of architecture.
• Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
• Post-1911, a new style of architecture known as the Neo-
Roman architecture emerged.
INDO-GOTHIC STYLE/VICTORIAN STYLE

• Unique blend of Indian, Persian and Gothic styles
• The constructions were
extremely large and elaborate
in their execution.
• The walls were thinner
than in the Indo-Islamic
constructions. The arches
were pointed, unlike the
curving arches of Indo-Islamic era.
• One of the unique features of the Victorian style was the
use of large windows. → Ventilation
• The churches had a crucified ground plan.
• It adhered to advanced structural engineering standards
of Britain.
POST-INDEPENDENCE ARCHITECTURE
• Steel, iron and poured concrete started being used.
• Example: Victoria Memorial in Kolkata,
• Gateway of India in Mumbai, etc.
Difference between Iberian and Gothic Architecture

Basis Iberian Architecture Gothic Architecture
Material Brick + Wood was Red sandstone +
used used for roofs and coarse limestone
stairs.
Art & Culture 34

• After 1947, two schools of architecture emerged – the BUDDHIST PILGRIMAGE SITES IN INDIA
Revivalist and the Modernist → Colonial Hangover • The Mahaviharas of Nalanda, Vikramshila, Sompura,
continued → decline in architectural standard Odantapuri, Pushpagiri and Jagaddala Sirpur in
• Le Corbusier, a French architect of poor → Mass housing Chhattisgarh.
concept in Kerala • Lalitagiri, Udaygiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha (Diamond
Features Triangle).
• Environment-friendly buildings → locally available • Sarnath, near Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh). Site of first sermon
material. of Buddha. Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Piprahwa, (UP) on
the Nepal border.
• Introduced the concept of filler slab construction →
reduce the consumption of steel and cement. • Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh
• Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu
• Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort
arrangements. • Bhaja & Karla caves, Pune(Maharashtra) Ajanta, Ellora and
Pithalkora caves, Aurangabad (Maharashtra)
CHARLES CORREA • Kanheri caves, Mumbai
• He is known for his work in urban architecture and spatial • Pandavleni caves, Nashik in Maharashtra.
planning. He adopted modern architectural principles to
• West Bengal
local sensibilities and need. He has designed buildings
• Ghum monastery,
like Madhya Pradesh Assembly building, Mahatma
Gandhi Memorial Museum in Ahmedabad, LIC building, in • Sikkim
Delhi, etc. • Rumtek, Pemayangtse and Enchay Monastery
• Ladakh
SUN TEMPLES IN INDIA
• Alchi Monastery, Spituk Monastery, Shey Monastery,
1. Modhera Sun Temple, Gujarat. It was built in 11th century Rangdum Monastery
2. Konark Sun temple, Odisha: made by Narasimhadeva I, • Himachal Pardesh
the Eastern Ganga king in 13th century. It is in a shape of
• Dhankar Monastery, Nako Monastery(Kinnaur, HP)
“Rath” (Chariot) with mandapa on a raised platform.
• Kye Monastery, Tabo Monastery(Spiti valley)
3. Brahmanya Dev Temple, Unao (Madhya Pradesh)
• Arunachal Pardesh
4. Suryanaar Kovil, Kumbakonam (Tamil Nadu) was built
• Tawang Monastery (largest monastery in India,second
in 11th century in Dravidian style. It also has shrines of in world ), Potala Palace in Tibet is lasrgest in world
eight celestial bodies, together called ‘Navagraha’. It has
• Bomdila Monastery Arunachal Pradesh
beautiful five layered Gopuram.
• Karnataka
5. Suryanarayana Swamy temple, Arasavalli (Andhra
• Namdroling Monastery,
Pradesh). It is said to be made by a Kalinga king in 7th
century. The idol is made of granite and holds alotus. • Kashmir
6. Dakshinaarka Temple, Gaya (Bihar) is said to be built by • Harwan Monastery, Kashmir

King Prataparuda of Warangal in 13th century AD. The deity Rangdum Monastery (National Importance by ASI)
is made in granite and the idol wears Persian attire like
• It is the 18th century built monastery that is situated at
waist girdle, boots and a jacket. It has a Surya Kund (water
an altitude of 4,031 m. at the head of the Suru Valley, in
reservoir) nearby. Ladakh.
7. Navalakha Temple, Ghumli (Gujarat) was made in 11th • Suru Valley is drained by the Suru River which is a
century. It is built in Solanki and Maru-Gurjara style. It tributary of the Indus River.
faces east and is built on a large platform. • Rangdum Monastery is a Tibetan Buddhist monastery
8. Surya Pahar Temple, Goalpara (Assam) belonging to the Gelugpa sect.
9. Martand Sun temple, Kashmir-Karkota Dynasty ruler • Rock-cut elephant and Ashokan edicts at Dhauli, Odisha
Lalitaditya Muktapida. (oldest rock cut sculpture in India)
Art & Culture 35

• Bawangaja, Barwani district in Madhya Pradesh. It has a

84 feet tall statue of Lord Adinath carved out of a single
rock.
• Ranakpur temples, Pali district in Rajasthan. It was built
in 15th century and has got some similarities with Hoysala
architecture and not Nagara. There are over 1400 pillars
and are carved in great detail and are unique to each
other.
• Discovery of Jain bronze statues in Chausa (Bihar) and
Hansi (Hissar, Haryana), Akota (Vadodara, Gujarat).
• Kankali Tila, near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh: Discovery
of a type of votive tablets known as Ayagapata used for
donation and worship in Jainism in early centuries. The
practice of donating these tablets is documented from 1st
century BCE to 3rd century CE.
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Odisha: They
date back to the 2nd–1st century BCE and are dedicated
JAIN PILGRIMAGE SITES IN INDIA to Jainism and carved out during the reign of King
Kharavela. The number of existing caves at Udayagiri is
• Palitana temples, Shatrunjay hills in Kathiawar, Gujarat. It is
18, while Khandagiri has 15. Famous caves here include
regarded as the holiest site, especially by Svetambara sect.
Hathi Gumpha, Rani Gumpha and Ganesh Gumpha. They
It is mainly dedicated to Rishabha, the first tirthankara. It
are rich with carvings of Jain tirthankaras and deities
has more than 800 marble temples.
with inscriptions including the Hathigumpha inscription.
• Shikarji, Parasnath in Jharkhand. One of the holiest site The Hathigumpha inscription, written by Raja Kharavela,
and it is believed that 20 tirthankars attained Moksha consists of seventeen lines incised in deep cut Brahmi
here. letters and mainly mentions the various conquests of this
• Girnar temples, Junagadh district (Gujarat). Among king.
the 16 temples, the largest temple is of Neminath(22nd • Nasiyan Temple in Ajmer, also known as Soniji Ki
Tirthankar) Nasiyan: It was constructed in 19th century and dedicated
• Pawapuri, Nalanda district in Bihar. The last tirthankar to Lord Rishabhdev, the first Jain tirthankara.
Mahavira was cremated here after attaining Moksha. • Hathee Singh Jain Temple, Ahmedabad.
• Dilwara temples, Mount Abu in Rajasthan has five • Sittanavasal Caves in Tamil Nadu.
marvellous temples built of marble with intricate carvings.
• Mangi-Tungi, Maharashtra: (Sahyadri Hill). It is a twin
The oldest of which Vimal Vasahi temple was built by
pinnacled peak with plateau in between and dedicated
Vimal Shah in 11th century AD. The other temples are Luna
to Jainism and considered as a gateway to the state of
Vasahi, Pittalhar, Parshvanath and Mahavir Swami, built
enlightenment. It enshrines images of Tirthankaras in
through 13th-17th century.
several postures including Padmasana and kayotsarga
• Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. The Gomateswara and were made around 6th century AD. Recently, in 2016,
statute is of Lord Bahubali, the son of the first Jain The Statue of Ahimsa, an 108 ft idol carved in monolithic
Tirthankar. It was built in 10th century AD by a minister stone was consecrated here. It is recorded in the Guinness
in Ganga dynasty empire, Chamundaraya. It has several Book of World Records as the tallest Jain idol in the world.
‘Basadis’or Jain temples. The oldest Hindu Rig-veda praise Rishabhadev as
• Shantinath temple complex in Deogarh, Lalitpur district
in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh. It has 31 temples
with beautiful iconography. nnnn
Art & Culture 36

PRELIMS QUESTIONS
1. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider Select the correct answer using the code given below.
the following pairs : (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
1. Parivrajaka - Renunciant and Wanderer (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
2. Shramana - Priest with a high status 8. With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and culture
3. Upasaka - Lay follower of Buddhism in India, which of the following pairs is/are correctly
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched ? matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only Famous Shrine Location
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (i) Tabo monastery and Spiti valley
temple complex
2. Which one of the following is not a Harappan Site?
(ii) Lhotsava Lakhang Zanskar valley
(a) Chanhudaro (b) Kot Diji
temple, Nako
(c) Sohagaura (d) Desalpur
(iii) Alchi temple complex Ladakh
3. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the
stone portrait of Ashoka? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(a) Kanganahalli (b) Sanchi (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura 9. With reference to the cultural history of India, the term
Panchayatan refers to?
4. Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in
(a) An assembly of village elders
the temple construction in the kingdom of:
(b) A religious sect
(a) Chalukya (b) Chandela
(c) A style of temple construction
(c) Rashtrakuta (d) Vijayanagara
(d) An administrative functionary
5. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider
the following statements : 10. With reference to the Indian history of art and culture,
which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched?)
1. White marble was used in making Buland Darwaza
and Khankah at Fatehpur Sikri. Famous Work of Sculpture Site
1. A grand image of Buddha’s Ajanta
2. Red sandstone and marble were used in making Ilara
Mahapariniravana with numerous
Imambara and Rumi Darwaza at Lucknow.
celestial musicians above and the
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ? sorrowful figures of his followers
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only below
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 2. A huge of Varaha avatar (Boar Mt. Abu
incarnation) of Vishnu as he
6. Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples?
rescues goddess earth from the
1. Arasavalli deep and chaotic waters, sculpted
2. Amarakantak on rock
3. Omkareshwar 3. Arjuna’s penance/Descent of Mamallapuram
Ganga sculpted on the surface of
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
huge boulders
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
7. What is/are common to the two historical places known (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
as:
11. Ibadat Khana of Fatehpur Sikri was:
1. Ajanta and Mahabalipuram?
(a) The mosque for the use of royal family
2. Both were built in the same period.
(b) Akbar’s private chamber for prayer
3. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
(c) The hall in which Akbar held discussions with
4. Both have rock-cut monuments.
scholars of various religions
Art & Culture 37

(d) The room in which the nobles belonging to different Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
religions gathered to discuss religious affairs. (a) Only1 (b) Only 2
12. With reference to history of Indian rock-cut architecture, (c) Both1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
consider the following statements:
17. There are only 2 known examples of cave painting of the
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock- Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings
cut caves in India. of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example?
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for (a) Bagh caves (b) Ellora caves
Ajivikas by the emperor Chandragupta Maury a. (c) Lomash rishi caves (d) Nasik caves
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.
18. Where is the famous Virupaksha temple located?
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Bhadrachalam
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (b) Chidambaram
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Hampi
13. Which of the following characterise(s) the people of (d) Shrikalahasti
Indus civilisation? 19. Where is the famous Vijaya-Vittala temple having its 56
1. They possessed great palaces and temples. carved pillars emitting musical notes located?
2. They worshipped both male and female deities. (a) Belur
3. They employed horse-drawn chariot for warfares. (b) Bhadrachalam
Select The correct answer using the code given below (c) Hampi
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 Only (d) Srirangam
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 only 20. The Allahabad pillar inscription is associated with which
one of the following?
14. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas while
(a) Mahapadmananda
the others are called Viharas. What is the difference
between the two? (b) Chandragupta Maurya
(c) Dashrath
(a) Vihar is a place of worship while Chaitya is the
dwelling place of the monks. (c) Samudragupta
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship while Vihara is the 21. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched?
dwelling place of monks. (a) Vikramshila University - Uttar Pradesh
(c) Chaitya is a stupa at the far end of the cave while (b) Hemkund Gurudwara - Himachal Pradesh
Vihar is the hall axial to it. (c) Udaigiri Caves - Maharashtra
(d) There is no material difference between the two. (d) Amaravati Buddhist Stupa - Andhra Pradesh
15. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara are the: 22. Which one the following pairs is not correctly matched?
(a) Three main racial groups of the Indian sub-continent Monastery State
(b) Three main linguistic divisions into which the (a) Dhankar monastery Himachal Pradesh
languages of India can be classified (b) Rumtek monastery Sikkim
(c) Three main styles of Indian temple architecture (c) Tabo monastery Himachal Pradesh
(d) Three main musical gharanas prevalent in India (d) Kye Monastry Arunachala Pradesh
16. Regarding the Indus Valley civilisation, consider the 23. Which of the following statements is not correct?
following statements: (a) The statute of Gomateswara at Shravana-Belagola
represents the last tirthankar of the Jains.
1. It was predominantly a secular civilisation and the
religious element, though present, did not dominate (b) India’s largest Buddhist monastery is in Arunachal
Pradesh.
the scene.
(c) Khajuraho temples were built under Chandela kings.
2. During this period cotton was used for manufacturing
textiles in India. (d) Hoysaleswara temple is dedicated to Shiva
Art & Culture 38

24. Hoysala monuments are found in 2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
(a) Hampi and Hospet 3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the
(b) Halebid and Belur region.
(c) Mysore and Bangalore 4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it
was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament
(d) Sringeri and Dharwar
building.
25. In which of the following cities is the Lingaraja temple
Which of the statements given above are correct?
located?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) Bhubaneswar (b) Bijapur
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
(c) Kolkata (d) Shravana-Belgola
29. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-
26. Consider the following pairs:
known for its elaborate system of water harvesting
Site of Ashoka’s Location in the and management by building a series of dams and
major rock edicts state of channelizing water into connected reservoirs?
1. Dhauli Odisha (a) Dholavira (b) Kalibangan
2. Erragudi Andhra Pradesh (c) Rakhigarhi (d) Ropar
3. Jaugada Madhya Pradesh
30. Consider the following pairs:
4. Kalsi Karnataka
(Historical Place) : (Well-known for)
How many pairs are given above are correctly matched?
1. Burzahom : Rock-cut shrines
(a) Only one pair (b) Only two pair
2. Chandraketugarh : Terracotta art
(c) Only three pair (d) All four pairs
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
27. The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
following statements are correct regarding Somnath
(c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3
Temple?
1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines. 31. With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti,
Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous
2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-
Biruni. (a) Jain monks (b) playwrights
3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of (c) temple architects (d) philosophers
the present day temple) was done by President S. 32. Which one of the following statements is correct?
Radhakrishnan.
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 river.
28. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near (d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.
Morena, consider the following statements:
1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of
Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
Art & Culture 39

MAINS QUESTIONS
1. Write about Nagara style of architecture. 1989 12. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the
evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. 2013
2. Write about Chandela school of architecture. 1991
13. Gandhara sculpture owed as much to the Romans as to
3. Write about Mathura school of art. 1993
the Greeks. Explain. 2014
4. Write about Mughal architecture at Fatehpur Sikri.1993
14. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the
5. Write about Dravidian architecture. 1995 Indus Valley civilisation provided inputs to the present
6. Write about the chief features of the town planning in day urbanisation? 2014
Indus Valley Civilisation 1996 15. The ancient civilization in Indian sub-continent differed
7. Write about Chola architecture. 1999 from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in that
its culture and traditions have been preserved without a
8. Write about Gandhara school of art. 2000 breakdown to the present day. Comment 2015
9. Write about Sarnath pillar. 2003 16. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most
10. Write about Gandhara art. 2007 important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art
and history. Discuss. 2020
11. What are the major different styles of unglazed pottery
making in India? 2011 17. Pala period is the most significant phase in the history
of Buddhism in India. Enumerate. (Answer in 150 words).
2020
nnnn
Art & Culture 40

Art & Culture Indian Sculpture

INDIAN SCULPTURE
INDIAN SCULPTURE but agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta seals + copper,
gold and ivory seals have also been found (No iron)
Script: Pictographic script that is yet to be deciphered. The
script was written mostly from right to left but some stances
are of bi-directional writing style
The style of script of Indus Valley people was called as
Boustrophedon.
Animals Impression: Unicorn, humped bull, rhinoceros,
tiger, elephant, buffalo, bison, goat, markhor, ibex, crocodile
(NO COW)
Some seals have imagined animals as well such as half-man
and half animal.
Purpose
• Commercial (Trade → various seals in Mesopotamia and
Etymology: ‘kel’ which means ‘to cut or cleave’. Sculptures are various sites such as Lothal).
smaller works of art, either handmade or with tools. • Some seals with a hole on them have been found on dead
bodies. This indicates they might have used as amulets.
Difference between Architecture and Sculpture
Dimensions Architecture Sculpture • Mathematical images on some seals → used for
educational purposes. Seals with symbol similar to
Refers to the design Relatively smaller
Size and ‘Swastika’ design have also been found.
and construction of 3-dimensional
scope
buildings works of art. Example: Pashupati seal, Unicorn seal.
Mixture of various Single piece of
PASHUPATI SEAL
type of materials like sculpture is usually
Material used • A steatite seal discovered
stone, wood, glass, made of a single
metal, sand, etc. type of material. at Mohenjo-daro depicts
a human figure or a deity
Involves study Involves creativity
seating cross-legged.
of engineering and imagination
and engineering and may not • The figure, referred to as
Principle mathematics. It depend as heavily Pashupati wears a three-
requires detailed on accurate horned headgear and is
and accurate measurements surrounded by animals.
measurements. • Left Side: Elephant and
Example Humanyun Tomb Dancing Girl a tiger are there on the left side of the figure while a
rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen on the right side.
SCULPTURES OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
• Two antelopes are shown below the seat of the figure
Seals
Size: Mainly square but triangular, rectangular and circular BRONZE FIGURES
seals were also used • Harappan civilisation saw a wide scale practice of bronze
Material: Mainly Steatite, a soft stone found in the river beds casting.
Art & Culture 41

• Made using “lost wax technique” or “Cire Perdue” → Wax necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings.
Figure → Clay Coating → Tiny hole → Melted Wax out → • Girdles, earrings and anklets were worn only by women.
Liquid Metal In → cooled down → Clay is removed. • Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, quartz, steatite, →
• Even now, the same technique is practiced in many parts quite popular +produced on a large scale → evident from
of the country. the factories discovered in Chanhu- daro and Lothal.
• Example: • Fabric: Cotton and Wool → Both poor and rich.
Bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro, bronze bull of • Conscious of fashion → inferred from the different styles
Kalibangan, etc. of hair and beard.
Metal cast figures were found at Daimabad.
BUST OF THE BEARDED PRIEST
BRONZE DANCING GIRL • Excellent examples of stone figures
• World’s oldest bronze sculpture. found in the Indus Valley civilization.
• Found in Mohenjo-daro. • Bearded man, draped in a shawl with

trefoil patterns.
• Depicts a naked girl wearing only
• Eyes are elongated, and half closed as
ornaments.
in meditation.
• Left arm: Bangles.
• The figure has an armlet on the right
• Right arm: Amulet and bracelet.
hand and a plain woven fillet across
• Posture: ‘Tribhanga’ dancing posture with the right hand the head.
on her hip.
FIGURE OF A MALE TORSO
TERRACOTTA • Another specimen of rock sculpture.
• Use of fire baked clay for making sculptures. • Red sandstone.
• Lesser in number in comparison to bronze figure and • Frontal posture with well baked
crude in shape and form. shoulders and a prominent abdomen.
• Pinching method. • Socket holes in the neck and shoulders, probably for the
• Main sites of Gujarat and Kalibangan. attachment of head and arms.
• Terracotta was generally used to make toys, animal figures,
SCULPTURES
miniature carts and wheels, etc.
• Used primarily for the decoration of stupas, in the torana
• Example: Mother Goddess, mask of horned deity, etc.
and medhi and as the form of religious expression.
MOTHER GODDESS • Famous sculptures: Yaksha and Yakshini (related to all
• Found in many Indus sites → Shows its three religions – Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism).
importance. • 1st mention of yakshi → Silppadikaram, a Tamil text
• A crude figure of a standing female (silambu + athikaaram = silappathikaaram means ‘(the
adorned with necklaces. story) that grew from (an incident based on) an anklet’ of
• She Wears: A loincloth, girdle, a fan- Kannagi).
shaped headgear.
• Facial features: Crude, Lacks finesse.
• Probably worshiped for prosperity.
• She might also have been a goddess of fertility cults.
ORNAMENTS
• Material: Precious
metals and gemstones
POST MAURYAN ART
to bones and even
baked clay. Sculpture Three prominent schools of sculpture developed
in this period at three different regions of India – centred at
• Both men and women
Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati.
wore ornaments like
Art & Culture 42

Difference between Greek Art and Roman Art

Dimensions Greek Style Roman Style
Nature Idealistic Realism
Representation Muscular representation of Gods and Projects realism and depicts real people and major historical
other man → Strength and beauty events for ornamentation and decoration
Material Sculpted using Marbles Used concrete in their sculptures + famous for their mural
paintings
Differences between Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati Schools

Dimensions Gandhara Mathura Amaravati
Patronage Kushana Kushana Satvahana
External influence Greek / Hellenistic sculpture → Indo Indigenously + Not Indigenously + not
Greek art influenced by external influenced by external
cultures cultures
Material Early: bluish-grey sandstone Spotted red sandstone White marbles
Later: mud and stucco
Religious influence Mainly Buddhist Hinduism, Jainism and Mainly Buddhist influence
Buddhism
Area of North West Frontier, in the modern day Mathura, Sonkh and Krishna Godavari
development area of Kandahar Kankalitila. Kankalitila was lower valley, in and
famous for Jain sculptures around Amaravati and
Nagarjunakonda
Features of Buddha Spiritual state + wavy hair Delighted mood with a Generally depict life stories
sculpture Fewer ornaments + seated in the smiling face of Buddha and the Jataka
position of a yogi Body symbolises mascularity, tales, (previous lives of
The eyes are half closed as in wearing tight dress Buddha in both human and
meditation Face shaven animal form)
A protuberance is shown on the head Buddha is seated in
signifying the omniscience of Buddha padmasana with different
mudras and his face reflects
grace
A similar protuberance is
shown on the head
Art & Culture 43

VARIOUS MUDRAS RELATED TO BUDDHA setting into motion the wheel of Dharma This Mudra
involves both hands.
1. Bhumisparsha Mudra
• This gesture was exhibited by Lord Buddha while he
• One of the most common
preached the first sermon to a companion after his
Mudras found in statues
enlightenment in the Deer Park of Sarnath.
of Buddha.
• This mudra is commonly 6. Anjali Mudra
associated with the • Greetings, devotion, and
blue Buddha known as adoration. Both hands close to
Akshobya. the chest, palms and fingers
• Significance: ‘Calling the Earth to Witness the Truth’ joined against each other
Mudra, and it represents the moment of Buddha’s attaining vertically.
enlightenment. • Common gesture used in India to greet people (Namaste).
It signifies adoration of the superior and considered a sign
2. Dhyana Mudra
of regards with deep respect
• Indicates Meditation and
• It is believed that true Buddhas (those who are enlightened)
is also called ‘Samadhi’ or
do not make this hand gesture and this gesture should
‘Yoga’ Mudra.
not be shown in Buddha statues. This is for Bodhisattvas
• In many statues the
(who aim and prepare to attain perfect knowledge).
thumbs of both hands
are shown touching at 7. Uttarabodhi Mudra
the tips, thus forming a mystic triangle. •
It means supreme
• It signifies attainment of spiritual perfection. This Mudra enlightenment.
was used by Buddha during the final meditation under the • This Mudra is known for
bodhi tree. charging one with energy. It
symbolises perfection.
3. Vitarka Mudra
• Shakyamuni Buddha, the liberator of Nagas, presents this
• It indicates teaching and
Mudra.
discussion or intellectual
debate. 8. Varada Mudra
• It signifies the teaching • It indicates charity, compassion
phase of preaching in or granting wishes.
Buddhism. The circle • Can be a left-hand gesture as
formed by the thumb and index finger maintains the well.
constant flow of energy, as there is no beginning or end,
•
Mudra signifies five
only perfection.
perfections: Generosity, Morality, Patience, Effort and
4. Abhaya Mudra Meditative Concentration, through the five extended
fingers.
• It indicates fearlessness.
• This gesture was shown 9. Karana Mudra
by Buddha immediately • It indicates warding off
after attaining evil. Hand is stretched
enlightenment bent. out, either horizontally
• It symbolizes strength or vertically, with the
and inner security. It is a gesture which instills a sense of palm forward.
fearlessness to others as well. • It signifies expelling
demons and negative energy.
5. Dharmachakra Mudra
• The energy created by this Mudra helps remove obstacles
• It means ‘Turning the Wheel
such as sickness or negative thoughts.
of the Dharma or Law’, i.e.,
Art & Culture 44

10. Vajra Mudra immaculately dressed and lacked any form of nakedness.
The halo around the head of Buddha was intricately decorated.
Example: Sultanganj Buddha.
CHOLA SCULPTURE
Nataraja
• The earliest known Nataraja sculpture, which has been
excavated at Ravana phadi cave at Aihole, was made
• It indicates knowledge. This mudra is better known in during the early Chalukya rule, the sculpture reached its
Korea and Japan. peak under the Cholas.
• In this mudra, the erect forefinger of the left hand is held Features of the Nataraja sculpture
in the fist of the right hand. It is seen in the mirror- inverted • Upper right hand holds the drum → the sound of creation.
form also. All creations spring from the great sound of the damru.
• This mudra signifies the importance of knowledge or • Upper left hand holds the eternal fire→ destruction.
supreme wisdom. Knowledge is represented by the Destruction is the precursor and inevitable counterpart of
forefinger and the fist of the right hand protects it. creation
• Lower right hand → abhay mudra → devotee to not be
GUPTA AGE
afraid.
Sculpture: • Lower left hand points towards the upraised foot → path
A new school of sculpture developed of salvation.
around Sarnath. • A small dwarf → ignorance and the ego of an individual.
It was characterised by the use of cream • Matted and flowing locks of Shiva→ flow of river Ganges→
coloured sandstone and the use of metal. Ignorance
The sculptures of this school were
Art & Culture 45

• In ornamentation, one ear of Shiva has a male earring from place to place → style spread to different parts of India
while the other has female → ardhanarishwar. and to Asian countries overseas.
• A snake is twisted around the arm of Shiva → kundalini Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir
power, which resides in the human spine in dormant regions (8th, 9th, 10th century)
stage. If aroused, one can attain true consciousness. → Famous Examples: Four-
• The Nataraja is surrounded by a nimbus of glowing headed Vishnu ( also known as
lights→ Past ,present and Future→ vast unending cycles Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu)
of time. was worshipped in these regions.
While the central face represents
UNAKOTI BAS-RELIEFS, TRIPURA
Vasudeva the other two faces are
• Bas-relief or low relief → type of sculpture in which an that of Narasimha and Varaha.
image is projected at a shallow depth. This technique
The Narasimha avatar and
is often used in the art of ancient Egypt and other Near
Mahishasuramardini Durga images of Himachal Pradesh .
Eastern cultures.
• 11th and 12th centuries A.D Kurkihar near Nalanda (9th Century) → the rule of the Pala
Dynasty → able to revive the classical style of the Gupta
• Unakoti means ‘one less than a crore.
period.
• Artist not known, → Debatable.
Notable Example: A four-armed Avalokitesvara (a male
• Related to Hindu Deities.
figure in graceful tribhanga posture). Worship of female
• Most famous → a figure of the face of Shiva known as the
goddesses was adopted which is part of the growth of the
‘Unokotiswara Kal Bhairava’.
Vajrayana phase (Buddhism).
• Stories Linked: Shiva, Ramayana.
Nalanda Sculpture: Mahayana pantheon such as
standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas such as Manjusri Kumara,
Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus and Naga-Nagarjuna. During
the late eleventh and twelveth centuries, when Nalanda
emerged as an important tantric centre, the repertoire came
to be dominated by Vajrayana deities such as Vajrasharada
(a form of Saraswati) Khasarpana, Avalokiteshvara, etc.
Depictions of crowned Buddhas occur commonly only after
the tenth century. Interestingly, various brahmanical images
not conforming to the Sarnath style have also been found at
Nalanda, many of which are still worshipped in small temples
in villages around the site
Images of Tara
OTHER IMPORTANT INDIAN BRONZE SCULPTURE

Akota near Vadodara A new format was invented in which
tirthankaras are seated on a throne (single or combined in
a group 3or 24 tirthankaras). Female images were also cast
representing yakshinis or Shasanadevis of some prominent
tirthankaras. Chakreshvari is the Shasanadevi of Adinath and
Ambika is of Neminath.
Gupta and Post-Gupta periodsè → Sanghati or the monk’s
robe is wrapped to cover the shoulders which turns over the
right arm, while the other end of the drapery is wrapped over
the left arm.
Vakataka bronze images of the Buddha (Phophnar,
Maharashtra) → contemporary with the Gupta period
bronzes. The additional importance of the Gupta and Vakataka South India
bronzes is that they were portable and monks carried them
Art & Culture 46

Pallava Period bronzes (8th century): Forms of Shiva

Seated Shiva in ardhaparyanka asana • Panchanana Shiva, with five faces, each face representing
(one leg kept dangling). The right hand Isana, Tatpurusha, Aghora, Vamadeva & Sadyojata.
is in the achamana mudra gesture → he
• Anugrahamurthy is His most peaceful aspect when he is
is about to drink poison.
surrounded by his ardent devotees and family members .
9th Century → Thanjavur (Tanjore) (Tamil • Ugramurthy in the most ferocious state of anger when
Nadu). Kalyanasundara murti is highly he ventures out to destroy all the evil forces that come to
remarkable for the manner in which exist .
Panigrahana (ceremony of marriage) is
• Thandavamurthy, known as Nataraja, he performs the
represented by two separate statuettes.
tandava which is a dance form characterised by dynamic
16th century (Vijayanagar Period in rhythmic movement. He performs his various dance forms
Andhra Pradesh) At Tirupati, life-size to reduce the sufferings of his devotees, as well as to
standing portrait statues were cast in defuse the negative forces in the universe.
bronze, depicting Krishnadevaraya • Bhikshathana murthy in the form of an ascetic, wandering
with his two queens, Tirumalamba from place to place, with a human skull, begging bowl in
and Chinnadevi. The sculptor has hand, lost in meditation and in his own thoughts.
combined the likeness of the facial
• Hridaya murthy in a state of friendliness with Lord Vishnu,
features with certain elements of idealisation. The idealisation
with the images depicting of Shiva on the righthand side
is further observed in the manner the physical body is
and Vishnu on the lefthand side.
modelled to appear imposing as well as graceful. The standing
• Dakshinamurthy this form represents him as a teacher
king and queens are depicted in praying posture, that is, both
of all the mystic secrets of the various art forms, such as
hands held in the namaskara mudra.
alchemy, yantras, tantras, etc.
• Lingodbhavamurthy signifying the infinite form of Shiva
with no beginning and no end, and the Lord in this form of
Linga depicts the Supreme Self.
In another form Lord Shiva is depicted as Ardhanariswara.
Krishnadevaraya with his two

queens, Tirumalamba and
Chinnadevi.
nnnn
Art & Culture 47

Art & Culture Pottery

POTTERY
EVOLUTION OF POTTERY • Pottery is devoid of any painting
Potters’ craft is believed to be one of the oldest and most • In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into
important traditional crafts of India. It has come down to our wet clay for decoration
times from pre-historic age. Indian pottery is said to be “the • Found throughout India including the South. Burzahom –
truest to nature, in the directness and simplicity of its forms, coarse grey pottery
their adoption to use, and purest in art, of all its homely and
• Included black-burnished ware, grey ware and mat-
sumptuary handicrafts”. Indeed, no feature of Indian art has
pressed ware
such a long tradition of artistic achievements as the pottery.
It is a marked fact that through a continuous process of II. CHALCOLITHIC AGE
development in techniques and artistic expressions, the Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the
pottery craft in India achieved an appreciable degree of occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our country
perfection e.g. pottery industry in different periods brought namely – Ahar culture in South Eastern Rajasthan, Malwa
about some improvements in innovative techniques and culture in Western MP, Jorwe culture in Western Maharashtra,
creative quality of the fine output upon the previous period. etc.
I. NEOLITHIC AGE People of this age used different kinds of pottery.
We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is 1. Black-and-red-ware Pottery
hand-made pottery but during the later period foot wheel is
Black and red ware seems to have been widely used. Cultures
also used.
like Ahar-Banas showed the presence of Black and Red ware
pottery with white linear designs.
2. Black-on-red ware
Jorwe ware is painted black-on-red and has a matt surface
treated with a wash.
3. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)

OCP people are regarded as the junior contemporaries of
Harappa.
This pottery is identified with
the Copper Hoard Culture that
was found in upper Ganga
Valley and Ganga Yamuna
doab area.
• The colour of the pottery
ranges from orange to red.
Features • The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed
• Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface between 2000 BC and 1500 BC.
• Handmade coarse grey pottery • Major sites are – Jodhpura (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (UP)
• Material – clay mixed with mica and sand • Ganeshwar, located near Khetri copper mines, was initially
believed to have OCP but researches have confuted this.
Art & Culture 48

III. HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION cultures (1900BC – 1200BC) were primarily chalcolithic. Some
• Polished Ware Pottery specific chalcolithic sites show the elements of late Harappan
with rough surface (like use of burnt bricks, etc). These sites have OCP.
• Both polished and Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel – Found
unpolished type of in Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from north Iranian
pottery existed plateau.
• Red surface and is
wheel thrown although
handmade ones too
exist
• Polished wares were well
fired.
• Polychrome → (rare)
more than two colours are Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery – Also found
used to colour the pottery. in Swat Valley. This shows a connection that Swat Valley was
• Purpose: Utilitarian. associated with Harappa.
Such potteries usually Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated with
have flat bases Vedic people have been found in conjunction with some late
• Geometrical design +flora and fauna are observed Harappan pottery. It has less intricate designs as compared
• Perforated pottery was also found → used for straining to the early and mature periods suggesting a dilution of the
liquor. rich culture.
• Pottery throughout IV. VEDIC ERA – PGW

the civilization was The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware(PGW)
uniform (mass thrown) Culture.
→ revealing some form
The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals
of control and leaving
are absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of PGW.
less space of individual
On the other hand, the Later Vedic sites are considered iron-
creativity
phase of PGW.
• Presence of luxurious
This pottery is an Iron Age pottery found in Gangetic plain
pottery → Economic stratification
and Ghaggar – Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BC –
1. MATURE HARAPPA 600 BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site.
Burial Pottery of Harappa
• Burnished and painted pottery.
• Burial pottery was specially and distinctly made.
• Reveals the Harappan belief in life after death.

• Presence or absence of this pottery in the grave goods
reflected social stratification.
2. LATE HARAPPA
Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late Harappan
Art & Culture 49

• Characterized by a style of and bluish black and 10% have colours like pink, golden,
fine, grey pottery painted with brown among others.
geometric patterns in black. • Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features
• Are confined to few geographical of monochrome except that it shows combination of two
locations, namely – Punjab, colours.
Haryana and upper Ganga A Bichrome pottery with two colours
Valley. This culture is associated with village and town
settlements (but without large cities) VI. MEGALITHIC ERA
This culture is placed
V. LATER VEDIC ERA – NBPW
between- 3rd Century BC to
The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of 1st Century AD. Megaliths
pottery – Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted refers to monuments
grey ware and red ware. constructed of big (mega)
stones (lith). This culture is
VI. END OF LATER VEDIC ERA – NBPW
particularly known for its large stone graves. In the South this
age is characterized by the use of iron.
Megalithic Pottery found in Kerala
• Well baked and durable
• Wheel thrown
• Bulk of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa
reveals black painting on the surface.
• It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from
the South. Mostly in Vindhyas.
• They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after
death
ROULETTE POTTERY
Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th century • Characteristics: The clay is fine and well levitated and the
BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of urbanization (1st dishes are made on the wheel.
being Indus Valley Civilization). This era marked the beginning
• Shapes Found: The dish with a curved-in and beaked rim,
of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
usually with a faceted edge.
Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found
• Glossy, shining type pottery.
• Made of fine fabric and served
as tableware for richer class.
Considered deluxe pottery
only found with the elites
revealing societal stratification
which was a result of Brahmanical hegemony.
• This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada
era.
• Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli
(Madhya Pradesh)
• Classified into two groups –
bichrome and monochrome
• Monochrome pottery has a
fine and thin fabric. Potted on
fast wheel and have a strikingly BEGINNING OF GUPTA PERIOD
lustrous surface. 90% of this • Newer decorative techniques like embellishments,
type is jet black, brownish black painting, stamping and molding. With the coming of,
Art & Culture 50

INDO-ISLAMIC TRADITIONS
Name of Pottery Place of Origin Features
• Evidences of glazed pottery.
Pokhran Pottery Pokhran Used for
Currently, every part of India specialises
household items
in a particular type of clay work.
Dalgate Pottery J&K Special glaze used
Karigari Pottery Tamil Nadu Special centres in
Name of Pottery Place of Origin Features South Arcot
Khurja Pottery UP Colourful and Surai West Bengal Common Jugware
sturdy, used to Black Pottery Ukhrul/ Manipur Special black tint in
make household the glaze
items Gopichandan Saurashtra Art objects made
Black Pottery Azamgarh (UP) Special dark tint of clay
Blue Pottery Jaipur Made of Multani Glazed Tiles Chunar and Special techniques
Mitti Chinhat of glazing
Kagzi Pottery Alwar thin and slightly
brittle nnnn
Art & Culture 51

Art & Culture Indian Paintings

INDIAN PAINTINGS
PRINCIPLES OF PAINTING PRE-HISTORIC PAINTINGS
• Around 100 BC → the Sadanga or Six Limbs of Indian • Generally executed on rocks→ engravings called as
Painting, were evolved, a series of canons laying down the Petroglyphs
main principles of the art. • first set of prehistoric paintings was discovered in
• 300AD: Vatsyayana enumerates Sadanga in his Kamasutra Bhimbetaka caves in Madhya Pradesh,Lakhudiyar
caves(Uttarakhand)
Six Limbs
• Theme: Animals like bison, beers and tigers etc. → ‘Zoo
• Rupabheda → knowledge of
Rock Shelter’ because it depicts elephant, rhinoceros,
appearances.
cattle, snake, spotted deer, barasingha, etc.
• Pramanam → Correct
perception, measure and Major phases of pre-historic paintings
structure.
Upper Paleolithic Period (40000–10000 BC)
• Bhava → Action of feelings on • Most common mineral : Ochre or geru + lime and water.
forms. They used different minerals to make colours like red,
• Lavanya Yojanam → Infusion of white, yellow and green.
grace, artistic representation. • Large animals (Bison, Elephant, Rhino, Tigers) →
• Sadrisyam → the quality or white, dark red and green.
state of being similar to something. • Human figurines: Red → hunters; Green mostly for
• Varnikabhanga → Artistic manner of using the brush and dancers (Humans are presented in stick-like forms).
colours. (Tagore)
Mesolithic Period (10000–4000 BC)
Subsequent development of painting by the Buddhists → ‘
Six Limbs ‘ were put into practice by Indian artists, and are the • Colour: Red mainly
basic principles on which their art was founded. • Size: Smaller
• Lepya Chitra: representation of the myths and lore on • Theme: Group hunting, grazing activity and riding scenes.
textiles
• Lekhya Chitra: line drawings and sketches.
• Dhuli Chitra: floor decoration
• Pata Chitra : on cloth or paper
• Bhiti Chitra: On murals
• Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadutta → facilitated the reader
by mentioning the name of various paintings or patas →
important to understand the different style of paintings
and to observe all the principles of paintings.
Styles of Paintings Major features

• Cauka Pitaka: Isolated framed drawings
• Dighala Pitaka :Long scrolls of paintings
• Yama Pitaka :Isolated paintings
Art & Culture 52

• Time Periods: Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic,

early historic and medieval period but mainly Mesolithic
age.
Theme:
• Generally portray every-day life of pre-historic men often
in stick-like human figures.
• Animals like elephant, bison, deer, peacock and snake are
depicted.
• Hunting scenes +war scenes with men carrying weapons
like bows, arrows, spears, shields and swords.
Lakhudiyar Cave,Uttarkhand
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
• Colour : More use of green and yellow.
• Theme: Battle scenes,men riding horses and elephants.
Some of them even carry bow and arrow. • Simple geometric designs and symbols.
• Paintings to show skins of spotted deer left for drying • Other themes :dancing, playing music, animal fighting,
→ the art of tanning skins was perfected by man for honey collection, etc.
providing shelter and clothing.
• Children playing, women making food, community
• Paintings have complex geometrical shapes like the spiral, dancing → Social Life.
rhomboid and circle.
• Colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and
green are used.
• Example: Jogimara caves in the Ramgarh hills in Surguja

district of Chhattisgarh.
• Shelters depict the human figurines, animals, palm prints,
bullock carts, etc. → higher and sedentary type of living.
• Similar paintings can be seen in the Ghodsar and Kohabaur
rock art sites in the district of Koriya (Chhattisgarh)
• Another interesting site is in Chitwa Dongri (Durg district)
where we find a chinese figure riding a donkey, pictures of
dragons and agricultural sceneries.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN PAINTINGS

MURAL PAINTINGS MINITURE PAINTINGS
Works on the walls or a Derived → latin word ‘minium’
solid structure → red lead paint.
10th century bc and 10th Small and detailed paintings.
century ad
Either in natural caves or in Size: max 25 square inch.
BHIMBETKA ROCK PAINTINGS (BHOPAL,MP)
rock-cut chambers Subject: max1/6th of the
• Vidhyan ranges of MP
actual size.
• 2003: UNESCO World Heritage Site
Art & Culture 53

Unique because of their Human figurine mostly

sheer size side profile. + Bulging eyes,
pointed nose and slim waist.
Mughals paintings → fairer
than rajasthan (brown)
Follow a theme, the most Lord krishna → blue.
common being hindu, Women figurines :black long
buddhist and jain hair = balckeyes
Ex: Ajanta, armamalai cave, Often painted for either books
ravan chhaya rock shelter, or albums, on perishable
bagh caves, sittanavasal material including paper,
caves and kailasanatha palm leaves and cloth.
temple in ellora. • Jataka stories
• The Dying Princess in Cave. no 16.
• Scene of Shibi Jataka → King Shibi offered his own flesh to
save the pigeon.
• Scene of Matri-Poshaka Jataka → ungrateful person saved
by an elephant, gives out his whereabouts to the king.
AJANTA CAVE PAINTING
• Both murals
• Unique feature → each female figure has a unique hairstyle.
Even animals and birds are shown with emotions.
• Common themes: Jataka stories to life of Buddha to
elaborate decorative patterns of flora and fauna
DYING PRINCESS
• Medium of painting: Vegetable and mineral dyes. The
outline of the figures is red ochre, with contours of brown,
black or deep red.
Matri-Poshaka Jataka
JATAKA STORIES
Previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and
animal form:
• The Ass in the Lion’s Skin (Sihacamma Jātaka)
• The Cock and the Cat (Kukkuta Jataka)
• The Foolish, Timid Rabbit (Daddabha Jataka)
IMPORTANT PAINTINGS OF AJANTA
• The Jackal the Crow (Jambu-Khadaka Jataka)
• Vajrapani (protector and guide, a symbol of Buddha’s • The Lion and the Woodpecker (Javasakuta Jataka)
power)
• The Ox Who Envied the Pig (Munika-Jataka)
• Manjusri (manifestation of Buddha’s wisdom) and
• The Swan with Golden Feathers (Suvannahamsa Jataka)
• Padmapani (Avalokitesvara → symbol of Buddha’s • King Shibi (Shibi-Jataka)
compassion).
• The Turtle Who Couldn’t Stop Talking (Kacchapa Jataka)
Art & Culture 54

MAJOR BODHISATTVAS ELLORA CAVE PAINTINGS

• Avalokiteśvara encompasses all Buddhas. In China he is • Found in five caves, mostly limited to Kailasa temple
known as Guānshìyīn Púsà, in tibetan as Chenrezig, in Thai • The paintings are related to all three religoins (Buddhism,
as Avalokitesuarn. He is said to incarnate in Dalai Lama. Jainism and Hinduism)
He is depicted as holding a lotus flower. He is depicted Prominent Paintings:
as female also. A cave wall painting of Avalokiteśvara is
• Images of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu
devoted in Ajanta Caves as Padmapani.
• Images of Lord Shiva with his followers.
• Manjusri He is known as Wenshu in Chinse, Jampelyang
• Beautiful and gracious Apsaras.
in Tibetan and is a manifestation of great wisdom and
meditation. Mañjuśrī is depicted as a male bodhisattva BAGH CAVE PAINTINGS
wielding a flaming sword in his right hand. • Extension to the Ajanta school (quite similar)
• Samantabhadra means Universal Worthy and he is • Difference → figures are more tightly modeled, have
associated with meditation. Known as Fugen Bosatsu stronger outline, and are more earthly and human
in Japanese and very popular in Japan among the Tendai
• Cave no. 4 → Rang Mahal(beautiful murals on the walls
and Shingon sects. His manifestation is Action and he is
depicting Buddhist and Jataka tales)
key figure in Flower Garland Sutra.
• Paintings depict religious themes in the light of
• Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in contemporary lifestyle of people → more secular in nature
the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb.
he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings
or Mortals. He is regarded as guardian of children and
patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses
in Japanese culture. he carries a staff.
Maitreya will be successor of Gautama Buddha. He is also
known as Ajita Boddhisattva. He holds a “water phial” in
his left hand. Earliest mention of Metteyya is in the Digha
Nikaya 26 of the Pali Canon. It is said that he will arrive
when oceans will decrease in size(that is why keeps a
Kumbha or philial in his hand) and will rule the Ketumati ARMAMALAI CAVE PAINTINGS
Pure Land (Varanasi). • Situated in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu natural caves
We note here that popular Budai or laughing Buddha is were converted into Jain temple in 8th century.
claimed to be an incarnation of Maitreya. Budai was a • The beautiful colourful paintings on the walls and roof
ChineseZen monk who lived during the Later Liang Dynasty depict the tales of Astathik Palakas (deities protecting
(907–923 CE) in China. In Japanese, he is called Hotei and is eight corners) and Jainism.
one of the 7 Lucky Gods of Japan.
Vajrapani is depicted as one of the 3 protective deities
around Buddha, other are Manjusri and Avlokiteshwara.
Vajrapani manifests Buddha’s power, Manjusri manifests
Buddha’s wisdom and Avlokiteshwara manifests Buddha’s
compassion. In Japan a dharma protector called Nio is also
Vajrapani.
Sadaparibhuta is a Bodhisattva which manifests “never
disparaging” spirit.
Akasagarbha is boundless as space. He is known as twin SITTANAVASAL CAVE (ARIVAR KOIL) PAINTINGS
brother of Ksitigarbha. He is menifestation of wisdom.
• Pudukkottai town in Tamil Nadu
Mahāsthāmaprāpta is a mahasattva representing the power
• Known for the paintings in the Jain temples
of wisdom, often depicted in a trinity with Amitabha and
• Close resemblance to Bagh and Ajanta
Avalokiteśvara, especially in pure land buddhism. His name
literally means “arrival of the great strength” • Paintings: walls +ceiling + pillars
Art & Culture 55

• Theme of Jain Samavasarana (Preaching hall) → special, JOGIMARA CAVE PAINTINGS

beautiful audience hall where Tirthankaras delivered • An artificially carved out cave located in Surguja district of
sermons after they reached realisation (kevala-gnana). Chattisgarh.
• Central element of the paintings in Sittanavasal is a pond • Theme: Dancing couples, animals like elephant and fish.
with lotuses
• The paintings have a distinct red outline. Other colours
like white, yellow and black are also used.
• Rock-cut theatre of Sitabenga is also located nearby.
RAVAN CHHAYA ROCK SHELTER

• Located in the Keonjhar district of Odisha.
• Ancient fresco paintings on a rock shelter are in a shape of BADAMI CAVE TEMPLES, KARNATAKA.
half-opened umbrella. • One of the earliest surviving Hindu paintings.
• Shelter acted like the royal hunting lodge. • Themes: Chalukyan kings, Jain saints giving up worldly
• Noticeable painting is that of a royal procession that dates life, Shiva and Parvati, Puranic events and deities are
back to 7th century. depicted.
• Cave 3 still is adorned with beautiful ancient mural
showing four-armed Brahma on his swan.
LEPAKSHI PAINTINGS
• Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. MINIATURE PAINTINGS
• Paintings were executed on Veerabhadra temple walls at

Lepakshi in 16th Century → Vijayanagara period.
• Theme: Ramayana, Mahabharata and incarnations of
Vishnu.
• A complete absence of primary colours, especially blue.
• forms, figures and details of their costumes are outlined
with black colour.
• Early Miniature (8th and 12th centuries,Eastern and

Western Region).
• Pala School of Art (750-1150 AD).
• Generally found as a part of manuscripts and were
generally executed on palm leaf or vellum paper.
• Buddhist monks mostly used them and as their religion
practiced non-violence against all living beings, there was
a stipulation to only banana or coconut tree leaves
Art & Culture 56
• Mostly lonely single figures and one rarely finds group • Colours : a flat manner and the dress and human outlines
paintings. are demarcated in black.
• Vajrayana school of Buddhism also used and patronised • The view of the faces is from a three quarter angle and
these paintings. gives a detached appearance.
• Prominent painters: Dhimman and Vitapala. • The landscapes are full of trees, rocks and other designs
Features of Indian Miniature

APABHRAMSA SCHOOL OF ART
• Most human Character are seen with side profile.
• Gujarat and Mewar region in Rajasthan → 11th to 15th
century. • Bulging eyes, pointed nose, slim waist.
• Themes: Jain + later period Vaishanava School. • Skin colour: Brown.
• brought in the concept of Gita Govinda and secular love • Skin colour of rishna is blue.
into these paintings that were otherwise dominated by • Women: Long hair (Black).
the Jain iconography. • Traditional indian dress us painted.
• Early Jain phase, the paintings were made on Palm leaf → • Man have turban on their head.
Later Paper.
MINIATURE ART DURING DELHI SULTANATE
• Did not develop a different style but were mural paintings
in a reduced dimension. • Persian elements(bright and pure colouring, more
important figures may be somewhat larger than those
• Human figures → fish-shaped bulging eyes; a pointed
around them, and battle scenes can be very crowded
nose and a double chin.
indeed) of their origins + the Indian traditional elements
• The animal and bird figurines in the paintings are
• Preference to illustrated manuscripts
represented as toys.
• Examples: Nimatnama (a book on cookery) during the
• Most famous example is of Kalpasutra (jain text for Mahavir
reign of Nasir Shah who ruled over Mandu. (synthesis of
and Parsvanath) and the Kalakacharya Katha (Jain) from
the indigenous and Persian styles).
15th century.
• Another style called the Lodi Khuladar was also prevalent
in this period that was followed in many of the Sultanate
dominated regions between Delhi and Jaunpur.
• Later, three major styles emerged that dominated the
medieval landscape – Mughal, Rajput and Deccan.
MUGHAL ERA MINIATURE PAINTING

• A change in colour palette, themes and forms.
• Focus shifted: Depicting the god → glorifying the ruler
and showing his life(hunting scenes, historical events and
other court related paintings).
• Persian naturalistic style + opulence of a great dynasty →
created some beautifully illustrated folios.
• Unique → use of brilliant colours.
• Made only miniature paintings but illustration in paintings
are considered amongst the most unique paintings in the
TRANSITION PERIOD MINIATURE world.
• Coming of the Muslims on the Indian subcontinent a • Technique of foreshortening to the Indian painter’s
cultural synthesis took place. repertoire.
Art & Culture 57

BABUR elaborate as the paintings themselves.

• Did not have much time. • Jahangir had his own private workshop although no major
• Patronised the Persian artist called Bihzad → illustrations work by him survives.
of the Mughal family tree • Most famous amongst them were the naturalistic
paintings of the Zebra
Humayun a great patron of arts
(portrait painting started),
• At Shah Abbas’s court in Persia → acquired the services the turkey and the cock.
of two main painters called Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid
• Famous artist: Ustad
Ali → came back to India → Persian influence in the
Mansoor → an expert in
Mughal paintings and created many successful illustrated
drawing the features of the
albums. During Akbar’s reign, they created an illustrated
most complex faces. An animal fable called Ayar-i-Danish
manuscript called Tutinama (Tale of a parrot).
(Touchstone of Knowledge) was illustrated during his
• Humayun has invented Taj-i-Izzat which is a headgear reign.
composed of a cap and wrapping cloth.
SHAH JAHAN
AKBAR
• Tenor of the Mughal paintings changed rapidly.
• Establishment of an entire department and a formal
• Inspired by the European influence → liked to create
artistic studio called Tasvir Khana → artists were hired
artificial elements in the paintings → reduction in the
on salary and they developed their own styles → Indian
liveliness of the paintings and bring in unnatural stillness.
influence.
• Eschewed the use of charcoal to draw and encouraged
• Use of 3D figures and the continued use of foreshortening
the artists to draw and sketch using a pencil.
• Transformation of popular art to the court art, → more
• Increase the use of gold and silver in the paintings.
focused at depicting the scenes of court life than the life
• Liked brighter colour palettes.
of the masses.
• Mughal atelier was enlarged during his reign but changed
• Awards to those who created lifelike images.
a lot in style and technique.
• Encouraged the use of calligraphy.
• Famous painters: Daswant, Basawan and Kesu.
• Prominent illustrated manuscripts: Tutinama,
Hamzanama, Anvar-i-Suhaili and Gulistan of Sadi.
AURANGZEB
Did not encourage painting and as a result, large number
of mughal court painters started migrating to the provincial
courts in Rajasthan.
REGIONAL SCHOOLS OF ART

Sub-imperial Schools developed a space for them by
JAHANGIR developing their own styles. They remembered their Indian
• Mughal paintings reached its roots and a penchant for colourful paintings as opposed to
zenith. the more naturalistic Mughal style.
• Theme: Naturalist → paintings of
RAJASTHANI SCHOOLS OF PAINTING
flora and fauna.
• Synonymous to the Rajput school of paintings
• Decorated margins → around the
paintings that were sometimes as Different Views:
• Migration from Mughal Court → Arrival in Bikaner,
Art & Culture 58

Jodhpur, or Kishangarh of artists from the Mughal atelier

that sowed the seeds of local Rajput schools.
• Influx of artists and artworks from the Deccan sultanates
played a decisive role.
• local and indigenous artistic traditions pre-dated the
arrival of Mughal influence in these centres.
• Point to the ‘ganga-jamuni’ confluence of cultures in
Sultanate courts.
SUB- GENRES OF RAJASTHANI PAINTINGS

• Mewar School of Painting.
• Mewar resisted Mughal suzerainty for the longest
timeeventually acceding to Mughal power in the reign of
Shah Jahan.
• kingdom’s capital moved from Ranthambhore and BUNDI SCHOOL OF PAINTING
Chittorgarh.
• Twin kingdoms → Bundi + Kota =Hadoti.
• Later, in more peaceful times, the city of Udaipur was
• Devout devotees of Krishna18th century, → mere regents(
established.
ruling on behalf of the god )who was the true king (similar
• Early Mewar painting → dominated by the extraordinary patterns of worship in Udaipur and Jaipur).
figure of Sahibdin. This period of Mewari painting focuses
• Bundi school, paintings of local vegetation were in detail.
on Sahibdin’s depiction of literary texts – the Rasikapriya,
• Human faces were round with pointed nose in the
the Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana.
paintings. Colour of sky is painted in different colours and
• After Sahibdin’s death → Painting’s style changed. Mostly
mostly a red ribbon is visible in the sky.
→ life at court in Mewar.
• The unique point of this period is the extraordinary
‘tamasha’ paintings → court ceremonial and city views in
unprecedented detail.
AMBER-JAIPUR SCHOOL OF PAINTING

• Also called the ‘Dhundar’ school and their earliest
evidences come form the wall paintings at Bairat in
KISHANGARH SCHOOL OF PAINTING
Rajasthan.
• Associated with the most romantic legends – Sawant
• Can also be seen from the palace walls and mausoleum of
Singh and his beloved Bani Thani.
Amer palace in Rajasthan.
• Interplay between Sawant Singh the prince and lover,
• menfolk are shown wearing mughal style clothing and
Nagari Das the poet, and Nihal Chand the painter.
headgear, the overall finish of the paintings is folk-styled.
• sometimes argued that the women in ‘Bani-Thani’ →
• school reached its zenith in the period of Sawai Pratap
resemble the character of Radha.
Singh in the 18th century.
• They also made many paintings on the devotional and
• Suratkhana or the department of painting made miniatures
amorous relations between Radha and Krishna.
to illustrate Bhagwata Purana, Ramayana, Ragamala.
Art & Culture 59

MARWAR SCHOOL OF PAINTING Two groups:

• Most extensive schools → Jodhpur and Bikaner, both • Jammu or Dogra School: Northern Series Basholi (17th
ruled by the Rathods and Jaisalmer that was ruled by the Century).
Bhatis.
• 15th and 16th century, the men wore colourful clothing and
so did the women.
• After the 18th century, the Rajput element became
predominant, for example, there was an influx of paintings
that contained linear rhythm coupled with bright colours.
• Man Singh (1803-1843) and after. He commissioned
extensive series of paintings including the Shiva Purana,
Natacharitra, Durgacharitra, Panchtantra, etc. • Kangra School: Southern Series.
• Themes :mythology to literature.
• Bring several figures into the canvas and they would all be
full of movement.
• Each figure is different in composition, colour and
pigmentation.
• Famous painters: Nainsukh and Manaku.
BASHOLI SCHOOL
• 17th century Painting in Pahari.
• Early phase: Expressive faces + receding hairline + big
eyes (shaped like lotus petals characterise it).
Points of • Use a lot of primary colours (red, yellow and green).
Rajput Style Mughal Style
Difference
• Used the Mughal technique of painting on clothing but
Type Initially based on It is based on the
developed their own styles and techniques.
mural and fresco Persian miniature
forms. In the painting style. • Contrast of colours is associated with this school and they
later period, the are borrowed from the Malwa paintings.
miniature painting • 1st patron: Raja Kirpal Singh who ordered the illustration of
form became Bhanudatta’s Rasamajari, Gita Govinda and the Ramayana
dominant. drawing.
Themes Usually devotional Mughal emperor and • Famous painter: Devi Das who was famous for his
or religious in his household(royal depiction of Radha Krishna and the portrait of kings in
nature. pomp and show, their livery and in white garments.
the battles and the
hunting scenes are
also very popular).
Peculiarity Uses Hindu They focus either
symbols (lotus, on the person in the
peacock and swan). picture or on trees,
camels and falcons.
Time period 17-18th century 16th to 18th century.
was the major
period.
PAHARI STYLES OF PAINTING KANGRA SCHOOL
• Developed in the sub-himalayan states that were also • Decline of the Mughal empire, Trained artists migrated
under the umbrella of Mughal over lordship. to the Kangra region as they got patronage by Raja
Govardhan Singh in 1774.
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• Led to the birth of Guler- Kangra School of paintings. It

first evolved in Guler then came to Kangra.
• Reached its zenith under the patronage of Raja Sansar
Chand → paintings were marked with a sensuality and
intelligence that the other schools lack.
• Theme: Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai of Biharilal DECCAN PAINTING
and Nal Damyanti. Love scenes of Krishna. • During the reign of Aurangzeb, Many Mughals Painter
• Famous group of paintings: ‘Twelvemonths’ soght refuse in the Deccan. Three distinct schools of art
developed viz. Deccani Paintings, Mysore paintings and
• The Kangra school became the parent school to the other
Tanjore Paintings. Deccani school developed independent
ateliers which developed in the region of Kullu, Chamba
of the Mughal style in the beginning, but later, as the
and Mandi.
mughal artists started migrating to down south, the
RAGAMALA PAINTINGS school.
• ‘Garland of Ragas’. • Tradition of the early Deccani painting continued long after
• Classical example of the amalgamation of art, poetry the extinction of the Deccan Sultanates of Ahmednagar,
and classical music in medieval India. Bijapur and Golconda.The types of Deccani paintings are
given below.
AHMEDNAGAR SCHOOL OF PAINTING

• Patronized: Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar.
• Significant illustrated manuscript is ‘Tarif-i-Hussain
Shahi’.
• Choli, long pigtails, braids with tassel in ending were seen
in the northern costume.
• These paintings exhibited Persian influences like the
• Pahari Ragamala, Rajasthan or Rajput Ragamala, Deccan landscape, gold sky, and high horizon.
Ragamala, and Mughal Ragamala.
• Each raga is personified by a colour describing the story
of a hero and heroine (nayaka and nayika) in a particular
mood.
• Elucidates the season and the time of day and night in
which a particular raga is to be sung.
• Also demarcate the specific Hindu deities attached with
the raga, like Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi etc.
• The six principal ragas present in the Ragamala are
Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush, Megha and Hindola.
MINIATURES IN SOUTH INDIA

• Different from the north Indian schools owing to the
heavy use of gold in these paintings.
BIJAPUR SCHOOL OF PAINTING
• Furthermore, they concentrated on painting divine
• Patronage: Ali Adil Shah I and his successor Ibrahim II.
creatures much more than painting the rulers who
patronized them. • Notable work: Najum-al-ulum (Stars of Sciences).
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• The painting exhibit a rich colour scheme, animals, palm glasses for embellishments to create larger than life
trees, men and women belong to the Deccan tradition. images
• The paintings showcase a generous use of gold colour. • Theme: Smiling Krishna in various poses and various
major events in his life.
• Reached their zenith under the patronage of Sarfoji
Maharaj
• Currently, this school is still operational but they have
moved towards experimenting with diverse subjects like
birds, animals, buildings etc.
MYSORE PAINTINGS
• Theme: Hindu gods and goddesses.
• Two or more figures in each painting and one figure
predominates all the others in size and colour.
GOLCONDA SCHOOL OF PAINTING • They use the ‘gesso paste’, (mixture of zinc oxide and
• Patrons: Qutb Shahi rulers. Arabic gum) → shining. → to counter it → use of muted
• These paintings show dancing. colours that are not so bright.
• Two more notable paintings: ‘Lady with the Myna bird’
and the ‘Lady smoking Hooka’.
MODERN PAINTINGS
Company Paintings
• Colonial period → British Company officers employed
HYDERABAD SCHOOL OF PAINTING painters (trained in Indian styles) → Hybrid style of
• It was developed in 1724 after the foundation of Asaf Jahi painting (elements of Rajput, Mughal and other Indian
dynasty by Nizam-ul-Mulk Chin Qilij Khan. styles of painting with European elements paintings).
• Notable Work : “Princes in the company of maids”.

• These paintings used Deccan facial types, rich colours, and
costumes.
TANJORE PAINTINGS (IN NEWS)

• Famous for the special
style of decorative
paintings.
• Material: Glass and
board.
• Use of brilliant colour
• European tastes with their Indian training. This was called
patterns and the liberal
the ‘Company Paintings’.
use of gold leaf
• Distinguished: Use of water colour and in technique by
• Used many types of
the appearance of linear perspective and shading.
gemstones and cut
Art & Culture 62

• Originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and • Idea of the Bengal school came up with the works of
Thanjavur. Abhanindranath Tagore in early 20th century.
• Sewak Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan. • Arabian night series made a mark on a global scale as it
broke away from the previous schools of Indian painting
BAZAAR PAINTINGS and brought in something new.
• Influenced by the European encounter → No Indian • Incorporate Swadeshi values in India art and tried to
influence but took the Roman and Greek influence. reduce the influence of Western art style among artists.
• School was prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region. • Important Painting: Bharat Mata and various Mughal
themed paintings.
Theme:
• Other notable painter of this school is Nandlal Bose.
• Greco-roman heritage.
• He was also associated with Santiniketan.
• Everyday bazaar (Indian bazaars with European
background). • He is known for his white-on-black Gandhi sketch, which
become iconic during 1930s. He was also entrusted with
• Religious themes but the figures of Indian Gods and
the task of illuminating the original document of the
Goddesses with more than two axes and elephant faces
Constitution of India.
like that of Lord Ganesha were prohibited → why? →
• Rabindranath Tagore: His paintings are unique as they
deviated from the European notion of natural human
used dominant black lines → made the subject look very
figurine.
prominent.
• Other famous painters of Bengal school are Asit Kumar
Haldar, Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Hemen Majumdar
Sunayani Devi etc.
• Bharat Mata painting: Sister Nivedita called Bharat mata
painting as 1st Indian Masterpiece in Arts.
• 4 hands of Bharat mata are symbolism of Diksha
(Education), Anna (Food), Bastra (Clothing) and devotion,
RAJA RAVI VERMA (KERALA) the four gifts of the Motherland to her children.
• One of India’s greatest painters. • The painting is also considered significant because of its
• Considered to be the originator of the school of modern historical value and since it had helped in conceptualizing
painting. the idea of Bharat Mata (Mother India).
• ‘Modern’ → Heavy influence of western techniques and • Abanindranath Tagore reinvented Rajput and Mughal
themes. (elements of South Indian painting with the miniature painting from the influence of western models
western techniques of colour and style). of art.
• ‘Raphael of the East’ → Brush strokes and almost lifelike CUBIST STYLE OF PAINTING
paintings.
• Inspiration from the European Cubist movement.
• Famous works: Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India,
• Objects were broken, analysed and then reassembled. The
Ravana Kidnapping Sita.
artist reconstructed this process on the canvas through
BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART the use of abstract art forms.
• Supposed to have a reactionary approach to the existing • Tried to achieve the perfect balance between line and
styles of paintings in the 1940–1960. colour.
• Unique as they use simple colours. • M.F Hussain, who made a series of paintings called the
‘Personification of Romance’. In the paintings that used
abstract connotations, he used the motif of a horse
frequently as it was best to depict the fluidity of motion.
Art & Culture 63

PROGRESSIVE ARTISTS GROUP PATTACHITRA

• In 1947, another group of painters grabbed the attention • Traditional painting of Odisha.
of the art world by their use of progressive and bold • Sanskrit word patta → canvas/cloth and chitra means
themes. picture.
• Show a mix of classical and folk elements.
• Colours: from natural sources including burnt coconut
shells, Hingula, Ramaraja and lamp black.
• No pencil or charcoal is used.
• Finally painting is given a coating of lacquer to give it a
glossy finish.
• Themes: Jagannath and Vaishnava cult, sometimes from
• Amalgamated these themes with softer and more abstract Shakti and Shaiva cults.
themes.
• Pattachitra on palm leaf → talapattachitra.
• Lacked any uniformity among themselves but were
inspired by European Modernism.
• More famous members: S.H Raza, H.A Gade, Ara etc. Even
the famous cubist painter M.F Hussain was a member of
the Progressive Artist Group.
FOLK PAINTINGS
• Madhubani Paintings/Mithila paintings.
• Theme : Religious motifs of the Hindus, including Krishna,
Rama, Durga, Lakshmi and Shiva.
• The figures in the painting are symbolic, for example, fish PATUA ART (WB)
depicts good luck and fertility. • Started out as a village tradition by painters telling Mangal
• Also made depicting auspicious occasions like birth, Kavyas or auspicious stories of Gods and Goddesses.
marriage and festivals. • Paintings are done on pats or scrolls.
• Flowers, trees, animals, etc. are used to fill any gaps in the • Painted on cloth and told religious stories.
painting.
• Usually used to comment on political and social issues.
• Traditionally, these were painted on walls using rice paste These patuas mostly come from Midnapur district of the
and vegetable colours on a base of cow dung and mud. state.
• Now: handmade paper, clothes and canvas, still the
natural colours were used.
• No shading → Paintings are two-dimensional.
• Double line border, bold use of colours, ornate floral
patterns and exaggerated facial featureṣ
• Given GI (geographical indication) status.
KALIGHAT PAINTING
• Around the Kalighat temple in the then British capital
(Calcutta)
• Water colours were used on mill paper using brushes
made of calf and squirrel hair
• the paintings depicted religious note
• express social sentiments.
Art & Culture 64

• Kalighat paintings are considered first of its kind in the

country to express subaltern sentiments and address
customers directly
WARLI PAINTING
• Warlis, indigenous people that occupy mainly the Gujarat-
Maharashtra border.
• Close resemblance to Bhimbetka.
• ritualistic paintings have a central motif of a chaukat or
chauk, which is surrounded by scenes portraying fishing,
hunting, farming, dances, animals, trees and festivals.
• Goddesses → Palaghata (goddess of fertility) Gods →
PAITKAR PAINTING spirits that have taken human form.
• Area: tribal people of Jharkhand, • Traditionally: Walls using very basic graphic vocabulary,
• Old form of painting has cultural association with Ma including a triangle(from conical shaped trees ), a
Mansa, one of the most popular goddesses in tribal circle(from sun or moon) and a square(sacred enclosure
household. or piece of land).
• Common theme ‘What happens to human life post death’. • The base is made of a mixture of mud, branches and cow
dung that gives it a red ochre colour.
• In Santhal tribe of Jharkhand, Paitkar painting is
considered to have the capacity to send the wandering • For painting only white pigment is used, which is made of
souls of the dead to heaven, and thus, help to free them a mixture of gum and rice powder.
from all pain.
KALAMKARI PAINTINGS
• Kalam → a pen made of sharp pointed bamboo, used to
regulate the flow of colours. The base is cotton fabric.
• Main centers: Srikalahasti and Machilipatnam in the state
of Andhra Pradesh. THANGKA PAINTING
• Images are drawn free hand. • Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh region and Arunachal
• Inspiration comes from hindu mythology. Pradesh.
Art & Culture 65

• Originally used as a medium of reverence that evoked the Mahajan Pada.

highest ideals of Buddhism. • As snake motifs are always present, → snake painting.
• Base of cotton canvas (white background) with paints • These paintings are executed on boxes of jute and paper
made from natural vegetable dyes or mineral dyes.
• Colours with their significance.
(a) Red: Intensity of passion, be it love or hatred.
(b) Golden: Life or birth
(c) White: Serenity
(d) Black: Anger
(e) Green: Consciousness
(f) Yellow: Compassion.
• Once the painting is done, it is often framed in colourful
silk brocade.
• 3 types → Based on depiction and meaning.
• Life of Buddha from his birth to his enlightenment.
• More abstract → Buddhist beliefs of life and death
including ‘Wheel of Life’.
• Used for offerings to the deities or meditation. PHAD PAINTING
• Region: Rajasthan
• A scroll-type art.
• Longpiece of cloth called phad, they are 15 feet or 30 feet
long.
• It is religious in nature and comprises of drawings of local
deities, Pabuji and Devnarayan.
• Vegetable colours on a The subjects have large eyes and
round faces.
• They are of pompous and joyful narrative and scenes of
procession are common.
CHERIYAL SCROLL PAINTINGS

MANJUSHA PAINTING
• Region: Telangana statẹ
• Region Bhagalpur region of Bihar.
• Type of Nakashi art.
• Also known as Angika art → ‘ang’ refers to one of the
Art & Culture 66

• The scrolls are depicted as a continuous story like comics

or ballad by the Balladeer community.
• Themes : Hindu Epics and Puranic stories.
• The artists use the scroll painting to narrate stories along
with music, as they move to different places.
• They are often huge in size, going upto 45 feet in height.
It has been accorded the Geographical Indication status in
2007.
SAURA PAINTINGS, ORISSA

• Region: Saura tribe of Odisha and are similar to Warli
paintings.
• Essentially a wall mural painting and is ritualistic.
• Also called italons or ikons and are dedicated to Idital, the
main deity of the Sauras.
• Colour: Mostly in white, while the backdrop of painting is
red or yellow.
• The human shapes are geometrical and stick–like. The
designs have gained fashion in recent times with lots
of T-shirts, female clothing, etc., featuring Saura style
designs.
PITHORA PAINTINGS
• The paintings are done by some tribal communities of
Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
• Traditionally performed on walls inside the homes of the
Rathvas.
• Drawn on special family-occasions as a ritual. Depiction of
animals are common especially horses.
nnnn
Art & Culture 67

1. Who among the following Mughal Emperors PRELIMS

Shifted QUESTIONS
(a) Avalokiteshvara
emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and (b) Lokesvara
individual portrait?
(c) Maitreya
(a) Humayun
(d) Padmapani
(b) Akbar
5. Kalamkari painting refers to:
(c) Jahangir
(a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South India
(d) Shah Jahan
(b) a handmade drawing on bamboo handicrafts in
2. The well-known painting “Bani Thani” belongs to the North East
(a) Bundi school (c) India a block-painted woollen cloth in Western
(b) Jaipur school Himalayan region of India
(c) Kangra school (d) a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in North-
(d)Kishangarh school Western India
3. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani is one of the 6. Consider the following historical places:
most famous and oft-illustrated paintings at 1. Ajanta caves
(a) Ajanta 2. Lepakshi temple
(b) Badami 3. Sanchi stupa
(c) Bagh Which of the above places is/ are also known for mural
(d) Ellora paintings?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
4. With reference to Indian history, who among the
following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
world? nnnn
MAINS QUESTIONS
1. The “flute playing Krishna” theme is very popular in Indian art. Discuss. 2012
2. While banging out their salient features, distinguish between either ‘Madhubani’ Art and ‘Manjusha’ Art or’ Rajasthani’
schools of painting and the’ Pahari’ school of Painting. 2011
3. Write about the chief features of the Bundi school of painting. 1993
4. Write about the chief features of: 1990

(a) Kishangarh style of painting
(b) Kangra school of painting
5. What are the basic differences between Mughal style of painting and Rajput style of painting? 1985
nnnn
Art & Culture 68

Art & Culture Indian Music

INDIAN MUSIC
• All the seven notes of the raga Kharaharapriya can be 3 categories (According to the number of notes):
found in the descending order in the Sama Veda. • Audav/Odava Raga: ‘pentatonic’ raga, contains 5 notes.
• Science of music called the Gandharva Veda (an Upaveda • Shadava Raga: ‘hexatonic’ raga, contains 6 notes.
of the Sama Veda).
• Sampurna Raga: ‘heptatonic’ raga, contains 7 notes.
• Aitareya Aranyaka: Parts of the instrument Veena.
Total 72 Ragas → 6 Mains Ragas
• Jaimini Brahmana speaks collectively of dance and music.
• Kausitaki Brahmana dance, vocal and instrumental music Raga Time Season Mood
together as an art. Bhairav Morning Autumn Peace
• Musicologists → Om being the source of all ragas and Hindola Dawn Spring Evokes sweetness of a
notes. young couple
• Panini made the first proper reference to the art of making Deepak Night Summer Compassion
music. Megh Late Night Rainy Courage
• Bharata’s Natyashastra (200BC-200AD): First reference Shree Evening Winter Gladness

to musical theory was discussed. Malkauns Midnight Winter Vir or Brave
• Indus Valley Civilization: Musical instruments seven- TALA

holed flute and Ravanahatha.
• Rhythmic groupings of beats.
• Pillars of indian music: Swara, Raga and tala.
• Cycles range from three to 108 beats.
SWARA • According to the concept of tala, the musical time is
• ‘Note’ or ‘scale degree’ in a composition. divided into simple and complicated metres. This theory of
• Natyasastra, Bharata → twenty-two notes scale. Currently time measurement is different in Hindustani and Carnatic
→ Hindustani music uses SAPTAK or SARGAM – Sa, re, ga, music.
ma, pa, dha, ni. • Independent of the music that accompanies it and has its
Sadaja Tonic Sa own divisions.
Rishabha Supertonic Re • Laya: The tempo of the tala, which keeps the uniformity of
Gandhara Mediant Ga the time span.
Madhyama Sub-dominant Ma • Recognized and used talas: Dadra, kaharba, rupak, ektal,
Panchama Dominant Pa jhaptal, Teental and Ada chautal.
Dhaivata Sub-mediant Dha RASA
Nishada Subtonic Ni • Emotional responses in the performer and the audience
• Swara differs from Shruti (smallest gradation of pitch → • Also been called the ‘aesthetic delight’
quality of frequency).
• Initially → 8 rasas then ‘shanta’ rasa was added → nine
• 22 Shrutis or microtones → 12 are audible (7 Suddha
rasas or ‘Nauras’.
Swaras + 5 Vikrita Swaras).
Type of Rasa Mood it Evokes
RAGA Shringara Love
Derived from Sanskrit word ‘Ranj → to delight or to make Haasya Humour/Laughter
happy and satisfy a person form the basis of the melody (tala Karuna Pathos
becomes the basis of the rhythm).
Art & Culture 69
Roudra Anger (b) Carnatic Music

Bhayanak Horror 2. Folk Music
Veer Bravery 3. Classical + Folk
Adbhuta Wonder (a) Sugam Sangeet
Bibhatsa Disgust (b) Rabinder Sangeet
Shant Peaceful or calm (c) Haveli sangeet
• After the 15 century, Bhakti (rasa of devotion to God)
th
(d) Gana Sangeet
became widely accepted into the initial corpus of the 4. Modern
nine rasas. Some musicologists → Bhakti and Shant rasa
(a) Rock
(same).
(b) Pop
THAAT
(c) Blue
• A system of classification of the ragas in different groups.
(d) Jazz
• Presently, in Hindustani classical music, 10-Thaat
(e) Trance
classification has been adopted.
• A thaat can only be sung in aaroha as the notes are HINDUSTANI MUSIC (NOTHERN INDIA)
composed in the ascending order. • Hindustani and Carnatic belong to the Bharata’s
• A thaat should have seven notes out of the 12 notes (7 Natyasastra → diverged in the 14th century.
Suddha Swaras and 5 Vikrata Swaras) and they should • Hindustani branch of music focuses more on the musical
necessarily be placed in an ascending order. The 10 thaats structure and the possibilities of improvisation in it.
are; Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, • Adopted a scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka or the ‘Octave
Marwa, Poorvi and Todi. of Natural notes’.
• Thaat has no emotional quality unlike raga and it is not • 10 main styles of singing: ‘Dhrupad’, ‘Dhamar’, ‘Hori’,
sung. ‘Khayal’, ‘Tappa’, ‘Chaturang’, ‘Ragasagar’, ‘Tarana’, ‘Sargam’
• The ragas produced from the thaat are sung. and ‘Thumri’.
SAMAY DHRUPAD
• Ragas → More effective at that particular time. • Mentioned even in Natyashastra.
• Poorva Bhaag (12 AM to 12 PM) → ragas sung → poorva
• Dhrupad owes its roots to older forms like Prabhanda and
raga.
Dhruvapada.
• Uttar Bhaag (12 PM to 12 AM) → Ragas sung → Uttar raga.
• Origination → ‘dhruva’ and ‘pada,’ → denotes both verse
• saptak also changes according to the period of the day. form of the poetry and the style od Singing. Dhruva
Points of Difference Thaat Raga literally means ‘unmoving’ → return of the Swara (tonal),
• Origin Scales which are produced from 12 swar (notes). Kala (time) and Shabda (textual) trajectories to a fixed
Ragas belong to the genre of thaats. point.
• Number of Notes 7 notes atleast 5. • Starts with Alap → Sung without words.
• Types of Notes only has Aaroha or ascending notes. • Essentially a poetic form that is incorporated into an
Aaroha and Avaroha notes. extended presentation style that is marked by precise and
• Melody no need to be melodious → not sung. Sung so overt elaboration of a raga.
need to be melodious. • Dhrupad includes use of sanskrit syllables → temple origin
• Important notes Thaats don’t have vaadi and samvaadi. • Compositions → 4 to 5 stanzas and are performed by a
Ragas have vaadi and samvaadi. duo.
• Naming Thaats are named after the popular ragas. Ragas • Tanpura and Pankhawaj usually accompany them.
are named after the emotion they evoke.
• Although Dhrupad consolidated in 13th Century but
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN MUSIC reached its zenith in the court of emperor Akbar
(patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami
1. Classical Music
Haridas and Tansen).
(a) Hindustani Music
Art & Culture 70

Famous Gharanas: • Famous for their concern towards precise tuning and
• Dagari Gharana: Dagar family sings in the Dagar Vani,puts expression of notes
great emphasis on alap, Dagars are Muslims but usually • Nayak Gopal founded it but the real credit of making this
sing Hindu texts of Gods and Goddesses. Ex: Gundecha popular lies with Abdul Karim Khan and Abdul Wahid
Brothers from Jaipur. Khan in the early 20th century.
• Darbhanga Gharana: Khandar Vani and Gauhar Vani. Agra Gharana
Emphasise on the raga alap and composed songs over an • Historians → 19th century,established by Khuda Baksh.
improvised alap. Improvise it by incorporating a variety of • Musicologists → Haji Sujan Khan founded it.
layakari. • Faiyaz Khan revived the Gharana by giving it a fresh
• Ex: Mallik family Ram Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik and lyrical touch. Since then it has been renamed as the
and Siyaram Tewari. Rangeela Gharana.
• Bettiah Gharana: Perform the Nauhar and Khandar vani • Composition: Blend of Khyal and Dhrupad style. The artists
styles.Famous family who expounds the system is the give special emphasis to Bandish in the composition.
Mishras. The living member who performs regularly is • Major expounders: Mohsin Khan Niazi and Vijay Kichlu.
Indra Kishore Mishra. Form of Dhrupad prevalent in the Patiala Gharana
Bettiah and Darbhanga schools is known as the Haveli • Bade Fateh Ali khan and Ali Baksh khan started the
style. Gharana in the 19th century.
• Talwandi Gharana: Sing the Khandar vani but as the • Gathered a reputation for ghazal, thumri and khayal.
family is based in Pakistan it has become difficult to keep • Use of greater rhythm, emotions (tend to use
that within the system of Indian music. ornamentation or alankaras in their music). They stress on
intricate tanas.
KHYAL
• Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab → one of India’s greatest
• Derived from Persian and means “idea or imagination”.
Hindustani classical vocalists well known for his rendition
• Origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau. of the Raga Darbari.
• Popular → greater scope for improvisation.
Bhendibazaar Gharana:
• Most unique features of Khyal → use of taan in the
Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan and Khadim Hussain Khan founded
composition → Alap is given lesser room as compared to
it in the 19th century. They gained popularity and fame as the
Dhrupad.
singers were trained to control their breath for a long period.
• Based on the repertoire of short songs ranging from two Using this technique, these artists could sing long passages
to eight lines. in a single breath. Furthermore, they are unique as they use
• Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’. some Carnatic ragas in their envious repertoire.
• Bada Khyal: Sung in the slow tempo.
TARANA STYLE
• Chhota Khyal: Sung in the fast tempo.
• The rhythm plays a very crucial role.
KHAYAL GHARANAS • Structure consists of a mainly melody, usually short,
Gwalior Gharana repeated many times, with variation and elaboration at
the performer’s discretion.
• One of the oldest and the most elaborate Khyal Gharana
• Uses many words that are sung at a fast tempo.
• Very rigorous → equal emphasis on melody and rhythm
• Currently, the Worlds Fastest Tarana Singer is Pandit
• Singing is very complex but perform simple ragas
Rattan Mohan Sharma of the Mewati Gharana(“Tarana ke
• Ex: Nathu Khan and Vishnu Palushkar. Baadshah).
Kirana Gharana SEMI-CLASSICAL STYLES OF HINDUSTANI MUSIC
• After the town named Kirana in Uttar Pradesh • Lighter version of ragas.
• Better known for their mastery over the slow tempo ragas • Lighter version of tala and use madhyam or dhrut laya(
• Prefer the use of traditional ragas or the Sargam faster in tempo).
• Most famous: Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai • Emphasize more on bhava and lyrics than alap-jod-tan-
Hangal. jhala.
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Thumri CARNATIC MUSIC

• Based on mixed ragas. • Music is kriti based (highly evolved musical song set to a
• Compositions : romantic or devotional. certain raga and fixed tala or rhythmic cycle).
• Inspired by the Bhakti movement → text usually revolves • Father of Carnatic Music : Purandaradas (1484-1564)
around the girl’s love for Krishna. (settled in Vijay Nagar- Krishna deva raya), Kannada and
Sanskrit, Vaishnavite Mostly krishna
• Language: Hindi or Awadhi dialect or the Braj Bhasha
dialect. • Thyagraja (1767-1847) was influenced by Purandar Das .
composed thousands of devotional compositions, most in
• Compositions are usually sung in a female voice →
Telugu and in praise of Lord Ram.
different than the other forms as thumri is characterized
by its inherent sensuality. • Trinity of Carnatic music: Saint Tyagaraja along with
Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Sastri.
• Greater flexibility with the use of raga → Improvisation.
• Every composition in the Carnatic style has several parts
• Ex: Begum Akhtar (Most timeless voice of singing thumri).
to it.
TAPPA • Pallavi: First or the second thematic lines of the
• Rhythm plays a very important role as the compositions composition → often repeated → great scope for
are based on fast, subtle and knotty constructions → great improvisation.
use of very quick turn of phrases. • Anu Pallavi: Follow the Pallavi or the first line → sung in
• Originated → folk songs of the camel riders of North-West the beginning and sometimes also towards the end of the
India. song, but it is not necessary to repeat it after every stanza
• Legitimacy → brought to the Mughal court of emperor or Charanam
Muhammad Shah. • Varnam: Mainly sung at the beginning of a recital.
• Genre of choice of the wealthy elite as well as the classes • Ragamalika: Mainly the concluding part of the
with more modest mean. performance → soloist is free to indulge in improvisation.
• Zamindari classes (late 19th and early 20th centuries) in But artists have to return to the original theme at the end
of the composition.
their baithak-khanas (literally, baithak - assembly, khana -
halls or salons) → “Baithaki” style and jalsaghar (literally, • Mainly played with mridangam.
halls for entertainment, mujra or nautch halls). • Thanam: Piece of melodic improvisation in free rhythm
• Style is getting extinct and no one is getting involved with with mridangam.
it. • Ragam: Pieces which do not have a mridangam are called
• Expounders: Mian Sodi, Pandit Laxman Rao of Gwalior ‘Ragam’.
and Shanno Khurana. Points of Hindustani Hindustani
Difference Music Music
GHAZAL
Influence Arab, Persian and Indegenous
• A poetic form that consists of rhyming couplets and a Afghan
refrain, with each line sharing the same meter. Freedom Scope for artists No freedom to
• Believed to originated in Iran (1000 AD). Maximum 12 to improvise. improvise
ashaar or couplets. Hence scope for
variations
• Spread in South Asia in the 12th century due to the
Sub-styles Several → Only one
influence of Sufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic gharanas particular
Sultanate. prescribed style
• Reached its zenith in the Mughal period. It is said that of singing
Amir Khusrau was one of the first expounders of the art of Need for equally important Emphasis on
Instruments as vocals vocal music
making Ghazal.
Time Adheres to time No
• Ghazal not only has a specific form, but traditionally deals
Major Instruments Tabla, Sarangi, Veena,
with just one subject love, specifically an unconditional
Sitar and Santoor Mrindangum and
and superior love. Mandolin
• Famous persons: Muhammad Iqbal, Mirza Ghalib, Rumi Common Flute and Violin Flute and Violin
(13th century), Hafez (14th century), Kazi Nazrul Islam.
Art & Culture 72

FOLK MUSIC amongst the masses in Karnataka and Maharashtra.Very

• Classical music → follow the rules of Natyashastra and close to the Ghazals + sung on a slower pitch.
cultivate a guru-shishya (student-mentor) tradition; the • Mando (Goa) :A unique blend of Indian and western
folk tradition is the music of the people and has no hard musical traditions. Instruments used in Mando music
and fast rules. include guitars, violins and the ghumot drum.
• Kolannalu or KolattamAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Baul
Tamil Nadu. It is similar to “Dandiya”.
• Also a Bengali religious sect. Music represents a long
heritage of preaching mysticism through songs in Bengal, CLASSICAL AND FOLK
as in the Shahebdhoni or Bolahadi sects. • Sugam Sangeet genre of devotional music.
• Bhajan origin from Bhakti movementmusical instruments
Wanawan (Kashmir)
like the chimta, dholak, dhaphli and manjira. The major
• It is specially sung during wedding ceremonies and is expounders of the bhajans in the medieval period were
considered very auspicious. Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir
Pandavanis • Shabad rise of Sikhism
• Based on the grand epic-Mahabharata and Bhima as hero. • Qawwali kind of devotional music as they are in praise of
the Allah or the Prophet Muhammad or any other major
• Tijanbai from the state of Chhattisgarh who won the
Sufi or Islamic saint. composed in a single raga and is
Padma Shri and the Padma Bhushan for her contribution
generally written in Urdu, Punjabi or Hindi. Some words of
to this musical field.
Brajbhasa and Awadhi are also used
• Alha (Madhya Pradesh): A heroic ballad song with
intricate words. It is also related to the epic Mahabharata Other Sugam Sangeet:
as they try to glorify the heroes who are seen as the • Abhanga Maharashtra In praise of Vithobha God. Songs
reincarnations of the Pandavas. Five brothers of the composed and sung by Tukaram, Namdev, etc.
Pandavas are substituted here as Alha, Udal, Malkhan, • Bhatiali Bengal About nature and daily life and sung by
Lakhan and Deva. the boat drivers.
• Panihari (Rajasthan): Related to water. women fetching • Tevaram Tamil Nadu Sung by the Shaivite community like
water from the nearby well. Oduyars.
• Ovi (Maharashtra and Goa): Usually the songs of women • Kirtan Bengal Involves singing and dancing and takes
during leisure time and when they are completing their inspiration from the Gita Govinda.
household work.
RABINDRA SANGEET
• Pai Song (Madhya Pradesh): Sung during the festivals,
• Recreates the music produced by the Nobel Laureate
especially those festivals that fall during the rainy season Rabindranath Tagore.
→ good monsoon and a good harvest’.
• Themes of this sangeet range from worship of the one
• Lavani (Maharashtra): Combination of traditional dance true god, devotion to nature and its beauty, love and a
and song that is performed usually on the beats of the celebration of life.
Dholki, which is a percussion instrument. The music is
• Most prominent emotions in the Rabindra Sangeet was
unique as it is perfect for dancing. It has a powerful rhythm also the strain of patriotism and to keep one’s nation
and beats which ensures that everyone dances merrily. above one’s own needs.
• Maand (Rajasthan): Developed in the royal courts (So
Gana Sangeet
recognised in the classical circles). Usually about the bards
singing the glory of the Rajput rulers. Near to Thumri or • Form of fusion music that is sung in chorus or groups and
Ghazal → song Kesariya Balam is in Maand style. in large numbers.
• Powad (Maharashtra): Usually ballads sung for the heros • Most common form of Gana Sangeet is to sing about the
of the past like Shivaji. patriotic feelings.
• Also include songs of protest against the malpractices in
• Khongjom Parva (Manipur): A popular ballad genre
the society. They generally try to bring in a social message.
which is a musical narration of the battle of Khongjom
fought between the British army and the Manipuri • One of the most popular examples of Gana Sangeet is our
resistance forces in 1891. national song. Vande Mataram, which is sung in praise of
the nation.
• Bhavageete: Emotional songs that are very popular
Art & Culture 73

HAVELI SANGEET • Baghela Madhya Pradesh Semi-historical songs devoted

• Developed mostly in Rajasthan and Gujarat but now is to hardaul deity.
seen in many parts of the country. • Pulayar hill tribes Tamil Nadu They perform melodies
• Originally meant to be sung in the temple premises but called talams.
now are performed outside of the temple. • Idu Mishmis Arunachal Pradesh Perform ritual dance and
• Currently practiced by a community known as the fertility dance.
Pushtimarg Sampradaya or the community that believes • Moken Tribe Andaman & Nicobar Is. They have no religion
in Pushtimarg as the way to salvation. and perform only ancestor worship. They perform a ritual
tribal dance.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
• Bazigar (Goaar) community Punjab They perform in
• Awanad/Avanaddha Vadya: membranophone festivals and occasions and display strength, balance and
instruments also known as percussion instruments as courage.
one has to strike them to generate musical sound. most
ancient amongst this class are the Bhumi Dundubhi or the PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS - MAINS
earth drum. Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam. • 2012 What are the groups into which musical instruments
• Sushira Vadyaaerophones, i.e. this category includes all in India have traditionally been classified?
the wind instruments. Most common instruments include • 2009 What are the important similarities and differences
Bansuri (flute), Shehnai, Pungi, Ninkirns, etc. between the Hindustani and the Carnatic styles of classical
• Ghana Vadyasolid instrumentsalso called the Idiophone music?
instrumentsManjira, Jaltarang, Kanchtarang, Jhanj, • 1997 Write about Khayal music?
Khartal, etc. • 1990 What are the chief characteristics of Classical music?
• Tata Vadya Chordophones or the string instruments. • 1982 On what instrument does Ustad Amjad Ali Khan
• Bowed: The instruments where the sound is drawn play?
from drawing a bow across the strings. For example,
PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS - PRELIMS
Sarangi, Esraj and Violin.
2014
• Plectral: The instruments where the strings are
plucked by the fingers or by a plectrum of wire or horn. A community of people called Manganiyars is well-known
For example, Sitar, Veena and Tamboora. for:
• Those instruments that are struck by small hammer (a) their Martial arts in North-East India
or a pair of sticks. For example, Gotuvadyam and (b) Musical tradition in North-West India
Swaramandal. (c) Classical vocal music in South India
(d) Pietra dura tradition in Central India
COMMUNITIES RELATED TO MUSIC
• Langha (muslim tribal community) Gujarat and 2012
Rajasthan Entertain muslim Rajputs by praising them With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions of
through songs. India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the
• Manganiar or Merasi (muslim community) Rajasthan following statements are correct?
Use an instrument Kamaicha to sing classical folk music. (i) Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput
• Karta bhajas West Bengal They have four classes and are kingdoms during the Mughal period.
indulged in chanting mantras leading to perfection as per (ii) Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and spiritual music.
their belief. (iii) Dhrupad Map uses Sanskrit syllables from mantras.
• Bauls West Bengal Mystic group of singers in the Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
countryside. They are one of the classes of Kartabhaja.
(a) (i) and (ii)
• Jogi,Bhopa Rajasthan.
(b) (ii) and (iii)
• Barot, Charan, Gadhvi Gujarat.
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii)
• Muria tribes Madhya Pradesh Sing songs called Relo.
(d) None of these
• Kamar community Chhattisgarh Marriage song.
nnnn
Art & Culture 74

Art & Culture Dances of India

DANCES OF INDIA
CLASSICAL DANCE • The Gopurams of Chidambaram display the poses of
• Originated Mostly in temples. Bharatnatyam, chaaris, and Karanas that are carved in the
stones.
• Main Aim: Worshipping.
• One dancer takes on many roles in a single performance
• The roots can be traced from the Sanskrit text – ‘Natya
→ Also known as Poetry in motion.
Shastra’.
• Style was kept alive by the devadasis (young girls ‘gifted’
• Bharat Muni traces its origin from lord Bramha and
by their parents to the temples and married to the gods).
dictated that Lord Bramha created a fifth veda known
as ‘Natyaveda’, representing the essence of four existing • Devadasis performed music and dance as offerings to the
Vedas. deities, in the temple courtyards.
• Pathya (words) were taken from Rigveda, Abhinaya • Abhinaya Darpan and Sangeet Ratnakar guide the
(gestures) from Yajurveda, Geet (music) from Samaveda, technique and grammar of body movements.
Rasa (emotions) from Atharvaveda. • leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance→
• Can only be performed by trained dancers + have very Dancer expresses the sahitya through movement.
particular meanings for each step, known as “Mudras”. • Ekcharya lasyam’ → One dancer takes on many roles in a
single performance.
Main Components
• ‘Tanjor quartet’ → Four Thanjavur teachers → Chiniah,
Three main components form the basis of these dances
Ponniah, Vadivelu and Shivanandam. → Dance also
viz.
known as Tanjore natyam.
1. Natya-Dramatic element of the dance (the imitation of
• Also referred as the ‘fire dance’.
character).
• One of the principal mudras is ‘Kataka Mukha Hasta’ in
2. Nritta-Pure dance, in which the rhythms and phrases of
which the three fingers are joined to symbolise ‘Om’.
the music are reflected via body gestures.
3. Nritya-the portrayal of mood through facial expression,
hand gesture, and position of the legs and feet.
Parts
There are two basic aspect of Indian classical dance viz.
1. Tandava- emphasize on male characteristics of power
strength and firmness.
2. Lasya- denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya, which
represents the feminine aspect of dance.
BHARATNATYAM (TAMIL NADU)

• Bharatnatyam can be broken down into- Bha (bhaav/
expression); Ra(raag/ melody), Ta (taal/rhythm). The repertoire/ sequence of Bharatanatyam
• Silappatikaram (its existence was mentioned in this • Alarippu – Invocation
ancient Tamil epic). • Jatiswaram – Nritta part
• Brihaddeshwara temple was a major center for • Shabdam – Short compositions with word
Bharatnatyam since 1000CE. • Varnam – A story→includes both Nritta and Nritya
Art & Culture 75

• Padam – Religious prayer, Bhajan, Keertanam. Greeva Bhedas: Neck Movements

• Thillana – Origin in the Tarana of Hindustani Music
• Ends with Mangalam, invoking the blessings of the Gods.
Instruments: The accompanying orchestra consists of a
vocalist, a mridangam player, a violinist or veena player, a
flautist and a cymbal player.
The person who conducts the dance recitation is known as
the Nattuvanar. Adavus: Foot Movements
ABHINAYA- FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

Navarasa- The Nine Emotions
BASIC COMPONENTS OF BHARATANATYAM

Postures
Mudras: Hand Movements
Dhristi Bheda: Seye Movements
REVIVAL
• Rukmini Devi Arundale created a Renaissance. Before
her, this art was almost dead. She raised this art form to a
Puritan form.
Art & Culture 76

• Rukmini Devi founded the Kalakshetra in Adyar and • Full foot contact is of prime importance with no sharp
thus gave a new hope to the promotion of this Dance bends of the upper or lower part of the body
form. • Only classical dance of India having links with Muslim
• Also, T.Balasaraswati ‘s efforts helped to uplift this art culture→unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in
form to the form known today. art.
• Famous dancers :Yamini Krishnamurthy, Meenakshi • Only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the
Sundaram Pillai, Saroja Vaidyanathan, Janaki Rangarajan North Indian music.
etc. • #Jugalbandi is the main attraction of kathak recital
which shows a competitive play between the dancer
KATHAK (UTTAR PRADESH)
and the table player
• #Kramalaya is the concluding piece comprising of
intricate and fast footwork.
• #Gat bhaav is dance without any music or chanting.
This is used to outline different mythological
episodes.
• World famous →spectacular footwork, amazing spins,
Nazakat and Padhant (Chanting of bols, toda, tukdas by
dancer himself and then performing). A distinctive feature
of Kathak→creates a nexus between the dancer and
audience.
• The heavy ghunghroos are worn by the Dancers
• Kathakars or story-tellers, are the people who narrate • A Wide variety of sounds are hidden in these ghunghroos
stories. like running train, heavy rains, Sound of Horse riding,(
• largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and Ghode ki chaal) and much more. This adds more beauty to
legends. the performance.
• Early Phase: oral tradition. GHARANAS

• Later Phase: Mime and gestures added→make the 1. Jaipur
recitation more effective. 2. Lucknow
• Vaishnavism (15th century) became the prominent range 3. Raigarh and the
of lyrics and musical forms – Krishna and his leela.
4. Banaras gharanas.
• Dance in Raslila was mainly an extension of the basic
• These schools are named according to the geographical
mime and gestures of the Kathakars.
area in which they developed.
• In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly
• Each has a slight difference in interpretation and repertoire
popular source of entertainment.
and can be recognized from their presentations.
Elements of Kathak Music Used
• Hindustani Music: Lyrics may be in Hindi, Brij, Sanskrit or
any other regional language.
• Instruments like Pakhawaj, Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar,
Harmonium, Flute, Sarod, etc. are used.
Sequence
• Starts with Vandana ( Worshipping God).
• Uthaan
• That
• Aamad (sequence of That/ Aamad/ Uthaan may be
different in different gharanas).
• Equal distribution of Body weight along the horizontal • Salaami
and vertical axis.
Art & Culture 77

• Toda Tukdas movements.

• Tihai • Themes related to Vaishnavism, Lord Krishna, Rukmini,
• Paran Satyabhama and other myths. Kuchipudi also holds
certain specialties of Bharatnatyam and Odissi as well.
• Gatnikas
• #The performance has:
• Gatbhaav (Story)
• Sollakath or Patakshara: the Nritta part, where
• Ladi-Tatkaar(Footwork)
movement of the body is made.
• End with a Bhajan, Thumri, Tarana or Ashtapadi, Kajri,
• Kavutvams: The Nritya part which involves extensive
Chaiti, Chaturang etc.
acrobatics. It may also be performed as Nritta (pure
Revival and Promotion dance).
• The period of Nawab Wajidali Shah → golden age for
Kuchipudi vs Bharatanatyam
Kathak.
• The King of Raigarh Raja Chakradhar Singh who himself
was a Kathak dancer gave birth to Raigarh Gharana of
Kathak—greatest contribution to Kathak.
• Ex: Achhan Maharaj, Shambhu Maharaj, Gopi Krishna,
Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit Rajendra Ganagani ji, Sitara
Devi, Rohini Bhate, Maya Rao, Mandvi Singh, Shama Bhate,
Shovana Narayana and many more.
• Kathak Kendra Delhi, a constituent Body of Sangeet
Natak Akademi are dedicated for promotion of Kathak.
KUCHIPUDI (ANDHRA PRADESH)
• Originated in Kuchipudi village, Krishna district of

modern Andhra Pradesh around 3rd century BCE. • Famous dancers in Kuchipudi: Raja-Radha Reddy, Yamini
Reddy, Vaijayanti Kashi, Uma Rama Rao etc.
• A long-established dance-drama style.
• The repertoire of Kuchipudi: similar to that of
• Tirtha Narayana Yati and his disciple Siddhendra Yogi
Bharatanatyam:
organized and founded the modern version of Kuchipudi
in 17th century. • Kuchipudi has a specialty called, ‘Tarangam’ in which
the dancer performs on the top of the brass plates.
• It begins with an invocation to Lord Ganesha followed
by Nritta (non-narrative pure dancing), Nritya (narrative • And sometimes balances some pot on the head. This
dancing) and Natya. makes the dance form extremely unique.
• Music: Carnatic → singer is accompanied by musical • #Manduk shabdam: Tells the story of a frog.
instruments like mridangam, violin, flute and tambura. • #Jala Chitra Nrityam: Draws pictures on the floor with his
• Marked by fast rhythmic footwork & sculpuresque body or her toes.
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• #Daaru → Each principal character introduces itself

→ small composition of dance and song, specifically
choreographed for the revelation of each character..
The costume and makeup of Kuchipudi

• Traditionally performed by all males and their attire was
quite simple ‘Angivastra’ also known as Bagalbandi and
a dhoti.
• The music and instruments: Carnatic music the language
is usually Telugu.
• Mridangam, cymbals, veena, flute and Tambura.
Make-up
• A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to make the
chutti on the face, which highlights the facial make-up.
• The lips, the eyelashes and the eyebrows are designed to
look prominent.
• According to the role→face is colored/painted.
• Green → Noble characters.
• Tati (Red)→evil like Ravana.
• Kari (black) → Hunters and monsters.
• Yellow → women
KATHAKALI (KERALA) Famous Artists Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad, Kalamandalam
• ‘Katha’= Story or tale, ‘Kali’= Performance and Art. Its Kesavan, Namboodiri, Kalamandalam Gopi etc.
roots are in ancient ‘Kutiyattam’ (Classical Sanskrit Dance
Drama) and ‘Krishnattam’ (Dance-Drama depicting Stories
of Hindu God Krishna).
• Movements are influenced by ancient martial arts and
athletic tradition.
• Conducted at night and ends in early morning →
Originated from Ramanattam (Ram story via 8 plays)
• #Language: Manipravalam → a mixture of Malayalam
and Sanskrit.
• The weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet
which are slightly bent and curved.
ODISSI (ODISHA)
• Archaeological evidence→2nd century BC → Found in the
• Traditionally a male-dominated dance and now females
caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneshwar.
are too welcomed in this dance form.
• Probably it is oldest classical dance of India denotes the
• Main themes: Mythological themes include Ramayan,
worship of Lord Jagannath.
Mahabharat, Bhagvat Purana, etc.
• It has its mention in the oldest Sanskrit Text – Natya
• Kathakali is also famous for its huge elaborate costumes,
Shastra as Audramagdhi.
amazing make-up style, face masks, and ornaments.
• The Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th century, with
• The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the
its Natya mandap or Hall of dance, marks the culmination
lower eye-lids as described in the Natya Shastra are not
of the temple building activity in Orissa.
used to such an extent in any other dance style.
• These dance movements, frozen in stone, continue to
• The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly
inspire Odissi dancers even today.
divided into Satvika, Rajasika and Tamasika types.
• Odissi is famous for its presentations on poet Jayadev’s
• Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and more
fabulous work.
refined.
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• Two basic postures.

• Chowk represents a very masculine stance with the
weight of the body equally balanced.
• Tribhanga represents a very feminine stance where
the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
• Odissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of the maharis where
they sought liberation or moksha through the medium of
dance
• The accompanying orchestra includes Pakhawaj , flute,
Sitar / Violin and Manjira .
Elements
• Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements
are used to suggest certain feelings or emotions.
• With the lower half of the body remaining static, the torso
moves from one side to the other.
Two styles of traditional Odissi

• Maharis (Devadasis or Temple Girls).
• Gotipua (Performed by Boys).
• The maharis, who were originally temple dancers came
to be employed in royal courts which resulted in the
degeneration of the art form.
• It has a combination of Lasya and Tandav. Graceful and
mesmerizing, it appears like waves of the ocean.
Sequence
• Managalacharan (Worshipping Lord Jagannath or other
Revival and Promotion:
gods, goddesses).
• Kelucharan Mahapatra, Gangadhar Pradhan, Pankaj
• Pushpanjali (Offering of flowers) and salutation to mother
Charan Das etc.revived this dance form in the late forties
earth. This also includes Trikhandi Pranam- Devas, Gurus,
and early fifties.
and Rasikas.
• Upliftment and popularization by Sanjukta Panigrahi,
• Batu Nrutya: Fast dance pure dance which we call it as
Sonal Mansingh, Kumkum Mohanty, Anita Babu, Sujata
Nritta which is then followed by Nritya which include,
Mohapatra etc. contributed to the of Odissi.
Abhinay- Expressions on some devotional poems or
songs. • Recently, the Odissi has now been included in the syllabus
of IIT Bhubaneshwar’s B.Tech syllabus since 2015. It
• The verses may be in Sanskrit or Odia language.
became the first national technical institute to introduce
Ashtapadis—Dashavtar, Ardhanari etc. Are quite famous.
any Indian Classical Dance form in their syllabus.
• Then comes the Dance Drama in sequence.
#2 types of Concluding item
• Moksha includes joyous movements signifying liberation.
• Trikhanda majura is another way of concluding, in which
the performer takes leave from the gods, the audience
and the stage.
• Themes: Hindu gods and goddesses. Modern day
expressive theme presentations go beyond the horizon.
• Prominent Feature→independent movement of head,
chest and pelvis.
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SATTRIYA (ASSAM) • Sattriya received patronage outside Assam and Outside

• Introduced by the great Vaishnava saint, Mahapurusha India too.
Sankaradeva in Assam around 15th century. • Sattriya Kendra Guwahati is a constituent body of
• Nurtured and preserved till today with great commitment Sangeet Natak Akademi established for preserving,
by the Sattras in Vaishnava monasteries. promoting and providing training to young aspirants of
Sattriya.
• Sattras are the dance community halls (namghar) of
monastery temples. • Famous Artists: Guru Indira P.P Bora, Late Pradip Chaliha,
Jatin Goswami, Anita Sarma etc.
MANIPURI (MANIPUR)
Elements
Themes and styles
• Performed are mostly on Radha-Krishna and other
myths.
• Dramas written by Sankardev are typically presented.
Sattriya performance integrated two styles
• Masculine (Paurashik Bhangi — energetic and with
jumps).
• Feminine (Stri Bhangi—Lasya or delicate).
Costumes
• Male—Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban).
• Female—Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (waist cloth) made up of
materials manufactured in Assam.
• The play and Character specific costumes are also seen in
Sattriya.
• Also known as ‘Jogai’.
• Masks are used for special characters (like demons)
• Manipuri showcases the love between Radha- Krishna
sometimes.
through Raaslila.
• Traditional Assamese jewelry is employed.
• A combination of two culture- Indian and South-East
• Music: Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev. Asian.
• Instruments: Khol (two faced asymmetrical drum), • Manipur dance has a large repertoire; however, the most
Cymbals- Manjira Bhortal, Flute, Violin, Harmonium etc. popular forms are the Ras, Sankirtana and Thang-Ta
Revival and Promotion • There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked
• Conventionally, it was only performed by with specific seasons, while the fifth can be presented at
‘Bhokots’/‘Monks’ as a part of their daily rituals not before any time of the year
the idol but before the copy of Bhagvat Purana placed in • The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies
the eastern corner of dance community hall (namghar). the dance which is known as Sankirtana in Manipur.
• After the second half of the 20th century, this dance • The martial dancers of Manipur – the Thang-ta – have
form moved from the den of Assam’s Monasteries to the their origins in the days when man’s survival depended on
modern day stage. his ability to defend himself from wild animals.
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Elements • Female dancers wear decorative barrel-shaped drum like

long stiff skirt till bottom with decorative embellishments.
• Dark colored velvet blouse covers the upper part of the
body and a traditional veil is worn over hair that falls
gracefully over the face.
• The male dancers adorn themselves with dhoti kurta
white turban, a folded shawl over the left shoulder and the
drum strap over the right shoulder.
• The costume for the character of Lord Krishna is Yellow
dhoti, dark velvet jacket, and crown of peacock feathers.
Themes: Hindu Vaishnavism + Shaivism and Shaktism and
regional deities.
• Tandav Manipuri depicts themes of Shiv, Shakti or
Krishna as warrior.
• Lasya theme includes Love inspired stories of Radha-
Krishna.
The Manipuri Raslila: Three styles

• Main characters are Radha, Krishna and the Gopis. • Tal Rasak: It is accompanied by clapping.
• Manipuri has significant movements of hands and upper • Danda Rasak: The synchronous beat of two sticks where
body(not on facial movement) dancers position creates geometric patterns.
• The expressions used in Manipuri are from the poetry • Mandal Rasak: The Gopis make a circle while Krishna
of Jayadev, Vidyapti, Chandidas, Govindadas and attains the center.
Gyandas that may be in Sanskrit, Maithili, Brij or any
other language. Different types of Manipuri Dance Styles
• Another uniqueness of this dance form is that, while • Raas
Ghunghroos (Bells) glorify the classical dances of India, • Nata-Sankirtan
they are not worn in Manipuri. • Pung Cholam
• Nagbhanda Mudra: connect body through curves(sign • Dhola Cholam
of eight)
• Kartal Cholam
• Instruments: Pung (A barrel Drum) and small kartals
• Thang ta (a Martial art of Manipuri) etc.
(Cymbals) are employed in dance as well and not
restricted to accompaniment alone. Other instruments
include Sembong, Harmonium, Pena (String Instrument),
Flute(Wind Instrument), Esraj and Shankh (conch).
Costume
Revival and Promotion

• There are several private institutes as well as few
Government aided centers that provide training in
Manipuri Dance.
• The prominent among them is, Jawaharlal Nehru Manipuri
Dance Academy, Imphal which is the constituent body of
Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi.
• Manipuri dancers: Guru Bipin Sinha,Nirmala Mehta,Savita
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Mehta,Yumlembam Gambhini Devi,Jhaveri Sisters (uses • Mohiniyattam has a unique White/Off-White Costume
Ghunghru)and many others. with the gold ornaments
• The prominent one-sided hairstyle (bun) also called as
MOHINIATTAM (KERALA)
‘Kuduma’.
• A feminine classical dance form; literally meaning the
Dance of the Enchantress. The sequence of Mohiniyattam
• The word ‘Mohini’ →charming women avatar of Lord • Invocation → Jatiswaram → Varnam → Shlokam →
Vishnu – to end the evil powers. Mohiniattam also Shabdam → Padam → Tillana.
connotes, beautiful dancing women.
Revival and Promotion
• It is deeply rooted in femininity, Grace (Lasya) and Beauty
• In 1930, Nationalist Malayalam poet Vallathol Narayan
(Sringara) forming the quintessence of this dance form
Menon helped to repeal the ban on temple dancing in
• Distinguishing feature → Characteristic body movements,
Kerala as well as established the Kerala Kalmandalam dance
marked by the graceful sway of the torso
school and gave encouragement for its training and practice.
• The movements are never abrupt, but dignified, easy,
• Mukundraj, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony as well as Guru
natural, restrained and yet subtle.
and Dancer Kalamandalam Kalyanikutty Amma gave
• The text ‘Hastha Lakshanadeepika’ is followed (for hand their heroic contribution in reviving the traditional art form.
gestures and facial expressions) that has an elaborate
description of mudras. FOLK DANCES
• The swaying coconut trees in the gentle breeze is • Performed for every possible occasion - to celebrate the
reminiscent of the soft and languorous movements of arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals,
Mohiniyattam. which are a plenty.
• Accompanying music → Sopana style, which in its lyricism, • Extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement,
is evocative of the spiritual element. full of energy and vitality. Some dances are performed
separately by men and women while in some performances
men and women dance together.
• On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves,
accompanied by artists with instruments.
• Most of the costumes, worn for folk dances, are colorful
with extensive jewels and designs.
NORTH INDIA
• Dumhal (J&K): Dancers performing this dance are dressed
up wearing vibrant colored robes and conical caps which
are generally studded with beads and look really beautiful.
Not every man can perform this dance but only males of
Wattal can perform this dance and that too during special
occasion.
Costume
• Kud Dance (J&K): It is performed to honor the gods ‘Lok

Devtas’ as a thanks giving ritual and is mostly done in
nights.
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• Bhangra, Punjab: The origins of this impressive dance

form remains speculative. While it is widely believed that
‘Bhangra’ is a martial dance form, it is also said that it was
started by farmers to celebrate the harvest season. No
celebration in the Punjab and surround areas is complete
without a Bhangra performance.
• Rouf Dance, J&K: This dance form is practiced on festive

occasions like Eid and Ramzan days are going. It is
performed by group of women standing face to face to
each other but the most notable feature of this dance
form is the footwork of the dancers.
• Giddha, Punjab: Giddha is the female version of ‘Bhangra’.
The dance aims at expressing the feminine grace. The
women wear colorful clothes while performing. Giddha is
usually accompanied by Bolliyan’, a collection of couplets.
• Hikat, H.P.: Performed in groups, the dancers hold each

other’s hand and go around dancing in circles.
• Mayur Nritya, Uttar Pradesh: Also known as peacock

dance, ‘Mayur Nritya’ is performed by dancers who wear
specially designed clothes so as to resemble a peacock. It
is performed while worshipping Lord Krishna.
• Chholiya, Kumaon region, Uttarakhand: It is traditionally

performed in wedding processions. Sword wielding men
dancers are seen dancing spiritedly and hence ‘Chholiya’ is
often referred as ‘sword dance’.
• Charkula, Braj region of Uttar Pradesh: ‘Charkula’ is

basically a multi-tiered circular pyramid and it’s believed
that Goddess Radha’s grandmother announced the birth
of her granddaughter while balancing a ‘Charkula’ on her
head. Hence women dancers carry huge ‘Charkulas’ which
in turn holds many lighted oil lamps.
Art & Culture 84

dance is associated with the fertility cult and is related to

the Karma festival that falls in the month of August. The
dancers form a circle by placing their arms on the waist of
the adjacent dancer and dance in a rhythmic manner.
• Kaksar Dance, Abhujmarias of Bastar: It is performed
in hope of reaping a rich harvest. To invoke the blessings
of the deity, young boys and girls perform Kaksar. An
interesting trivia about the Kaksar dance is that it allows its
dancers to choose their life partners from the same dance
troupe.
CENTRAL INDIA
• Gaur Dance, tribal people of Chhattisgarh: In this
dance, men don colorful head-dresses and hats adorned
with peacock plumes. Women, beautified by tattoos and
ornamented with fillets made out of brass and necklaces • Jawara Dance, Madhya Pradesh: The dance not only
made out of beads, also join the gathering. involves rapid feet movement but also difficult acts
of balancing. The women perform a balancing act by
carrying a basket full of the harvested crop on their head.
• Saila Dance, Bastar district in the state of Chhattisgarh.

• Tertali Dance, Kamar tribe of Chhattisgarh: The dance
Saila is a unique dance in which the dancers use sticks
is performed only by women who start by squatting. A
for rhythmic purpose. The dancers are seldom seen
musical instrument called ‘Manjira’ is tied all over their
forming a circle, each standing on one leg and supporting
body – most commonly to their legs and the same is
themselves by holding on to the dancer in front. Then they
played by the performers throughout the ritual.
all hop together round and round.
• Grida Dance, Madhya Pradesh: Performed during winter

when the rabi crop is ready to be harvested. The dance
marks the success of farmers which is celebrated among
• Karma Dance, tribes of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya the villagers in a grand manner.
Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and other regions of India. The
Art & Culture 85

• Bhagoria Dance, tribal people of Madhya Pradesh:

Though the dance is part of a unique festival, which allows
young men and women to elope, it has its own agricultural • Brita Dance, West Bengal: The dance is usually performed
significance – completion of the harvest season. to thank the local deity after recovering from a contagious
disease – usually small pox.
• Suwa Dance, tribes of Chhattisgarh: Also known as

‘parrot dance’, this unique dance gets women to act like
• Dalkhai, Odisha: The dance is performed by young
parrots! It is usually performed only by women and girls
women who are later joined by men, playing drums and
while men get to play musical instruments of their choice.
other instruments. Interestingly, the men address the
women as their girlfriends throughout the play.
EAST INDIA
• Chhau: This dance form traces its roots to Odisha,
Jharkhand and West Bengal but it is popular in other parts
as well. As masks form an important feature of this dance
it is called ‘Chhau’, which literally translates to ‘mask’. The NORTH EAST INDIA
performers wield weapons such as swords and shields • Bihu, Assam: Bihu is celebrated at the beginning of the
while dancing. harvest season and goes on for nearly 30 days.
Art & Culture 86

• Bagurumba, Bodo tribe in Assam: Usually performed by

the women, the dance is accompanied by instruments like
drums and flutes. Bagurumba dance has a rich history and
is believed to be inspired by nature.
• Hojagiri, Tripura: Women and young girls balance bottle

and earthen lamps on their head and move their lower
body so as to make sure the bottles or lamps don’t fall.
Men are involved in the act by singing and playing musical
instruments. • Bhortal Dance, Assam: Performers wield cymbals and
dance in groups, with each group consisting of six or seven
dancers. Dancers come up with a unique beat known as
‘Zhiya Nom’ and engage in rapid feet movements.
• Nongkram Dance: Performed by the Jaintia Hill

inhabitants of Meghalaya, the ‘Nongkram’ dance is a
colorful event. The dance form is a way of paying respect • Cheraw Dance, Mizoram: While the men move
to the local deity. horizontally and vertically held bamboo staves, women
dance in between them so as to avoid their legs getting
caught in between the staves. The beats are formulated
when the bamboo staves are moved at rapid pace.
(During Chapchar Kut festival: Other dances are Khuallam,
Chheihlam, Chai, Solakia (war dance) and Sarlamkai.)
• Bardo Chham: It is performed by Sherdukpens, a

small community living in the West Kameng District of
Arunachal Pradesh. The Sherdukpen tribe believe that
every month an evil force appear to mar the good qualities
of humans. Thus to ward off those evil forces, they wear
masks representing different animals and dance together.
• Chang Lo, Chang tribe of Nagaland: Since the dance is

traditionally performed to celebrate the victory over their
enemies on a battle field, dancers don costumes worn by
warriors and display war tactics in the form of dance.
Art & Culture 87

of the musicians. The dancers often imitate the moves of

peacock.
SOUTH INDIA • Paampu Attam, Tamil Nadu: This dance is performed

• Kummi, Tamil Nadu and Kerala: Since this dance form while worshipping snakes as snakes are considered divine
originated when there were no musical instruments, it just in this part of the country. Young girls wear clothes that
involves women singing and clapping. resemble the skin of snakes and go about moving like
snakes!
• Parai Attam, Tamil Nadu: Men folk play a percussion

instrument called ‘Parai’ and dance to the rhythm they
come up with. Traditionally, the dance was performed for
• Poikal Kudirai Attam: ‘PoikalKudirai’ literally means ‘horse
various reasons and is one of the oldest dance forms of
with fake legs’. The dancers are made to look like they are
India.
riding a horse with just two legs! This is one of the most
popular folk dances in Tamil Nadu.
• Karagattam, Tamil Nadu: Karagattam is performed while

worshipping the goddess of rain. Dancers balance huge
pots on their head and dance to the tunes of musicians. • Theyyam, Malabar region of kerala: Theyyam is an age-
old dance, performed to praise Goddess Kali and hence it
is also known as ‘Kaliyattam.’ The dancers paint their faces
with vibrant colors which add to the overall effect.
• Mayil Attam, Tamil Nadu and Kerala: This dance is

similar to the ‘Mayur Nritya’ of Uttar Pradesh. Young girls
are dressed to look like peacocks and perform to the beats
Art & Culture 88
SOUTH WEST INDIA

• Dollu Kunitha, Karnataka: Dollu Kunitha is a popular
drum dance. Large drums are hung around the necks of
men. The songs used in this dance usually have religious
and battle fervor.
• Veeragase, Karnataka: Performed during Dasara

celebrations in Mysore. Performed only by men, this dance
form is intense and involves energy-sapping movements.
• Ghodemodni, Goa and the adjoining areas:

Ghodemodni is also called as ‘warrior dance’ as the
performers are dressed as warriors and wield swords. The
dance portrays a war since the village in which the dance
form originated was once captured by a king.
WEST INDIA
• Dandiya, Gujarat and Rajasthan: Dandiya is a dance
form which requires its dancers to wield sticks and wear
colorful costumes. Much like the ‘Saila’ dance, sticks here
are used for rhythmic purpose.
• Lava Dance, Islands of Lakshadweep: It’s performed by

the men inhabiting the island. The dance is based on folk
songs and rhythmic movements.
• Garba, Gujarat: Garba is traditionally performed during

the nine-day Hindu festival ‘Navaratri’. The dance is
performed around a lamp. Often the lamp is replaced with
a picture or statue of Goddess ‘Shakti’.
• Fugdi: It is a Goan dance performed in the Konkan region.

Performed by women, this dance form is given life during
Hindu festivals.
Art & Culture 89

• Koli, Maharashtra: Since the dance is performed by • Tamang Selo (Sikkim): This group dance of Tamang
fishermen, it involves elements of fishing and sea. Both community with robust foot tapping and elaborate sound
men and women are involved in this interesting dance and display of Damphu instrument is performed on all
form which is a treat to watch. happy occasions. It highlights vigour and vitality of the
community. Tamang songs known as ‘ Hwai’ are full of
human emotions. These are so popular that no Nepali
merrymaking is considered complete without singing a
Tamang song.
• Mamita (Tripura): Mamita dance is performed on the
occasion of MAMITA festival, which is harvest festival of
Tripuri People. Mamita festival is held during the time of
Durgapuja or Osa Mutai. The king would celebrate Durga
puja, who would sacrifice buffalo, yak etc in the Durga
puja, at that time common man would perform Mamita
festivals, where they would sacrifice cock, duck and
• Tippani Dance: Saurashtra region of Gujrat, this dance is
pigeon in the mamita festivals.
performed only by women. Shehnai and percussions like
Manjira, Tabla and Dhol are used to create music. • Fusim Dance (Jammu Kashmir).
• Misra Raas / Gop Raas (Gujarat) by both men and women
though this form has remained an ‘all-male’ performance,
in Saurashtra. As a newly evolved form it is barely two
generations old. Since Mishra raas is not a dance tradition
of any specific community, there is a lot of flexibility in
costumes and music.
• Hudka Chhudka (Uttarakhand).
• Koli dance(Maharashtra) -- traditionally performed by
• Padhar Dance, Gujarat: Performed by fishermen, who fisherwomen of the state -- and another dance form by
spend their lives along the banks of Nal Sarovar, Padhar men, which is closely related to the exchange of the ‘takla’
dance involves enactment of fishing and rowing of boats. vegetable among local tribal groups.
STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF FOLK DANCES

• Arunachal Pradesh: Bardo Chham
• Assam: Bagurumba, Bhortal, Jhumur, Khel, Gopal, Rakhal
Lila, Tabal Chongli, Canoe, Nongkrem, Ankiya Nat, Kirtania
Natak, Ojapali,Bihu
• Bihar: Jadur, Kathaputli, Bhako, Jhijiya, Karma, Jatra, Natna,
Bidesia, Senkela Chhau, Jat-Jatni ,Bidpada, Ramkhelia.
• Chhattisgarh: Raut Nacha,
• Gujarat: Dandiya, Bhavai, Garba, Tippani Dance, Padhar
FOLK DANCES IN REPUBLIC DAY PARADE dance, Dangi Nritya, Hudo, Matukdi, Aagwa, Siddi Dhamal
• Karakattam (Tamil Nadu) is one of the many artistic • Haryana: Swang, Naqqal, Ras Leela, Dhamal dance,
traditions that has its roots in tribute to the rain goddess Manjira dance, Dhamal dance, Goga dance
Mariamman. erotic nature .Top a pot filled with either • Himachal Pradesh: Nati, Kariyala, Bhagat, Ras Ihanld,
water or rice, are three tiers of green, white and pink flower Harnatra Haran or Harin.
arrangements. The figure is finished off with a jarringly
• Jammu and Kashmir: Bhand Pathar or Bhand lashna,
green model of a parrot.
Rouff, Vetal Dhamali.
• Taakala Folk Dance(Maharashtra).
• Karnataka: Yakshagana, Bedara Vesha, Dollu Kunitha,
• Gungtey (Arunachal Pradesh) performed by men and Santa, Doddata-Bayalata, Tala Maddle or Prasang.
women, celebrates closeness to nature. Dasarata, Radhna, veeragase.
• Satoiya Nitya (Assam). • Kerala: Duffmuttu, Oppana, Padayani, Theyam, Kodiyattam,
Art & Culture 90

Margam Kali, Puli Kali, Mudiattam, Thirayattam, Chavittu • Andhra Pradesh: Veethi Natakam, Burrakatha, Lambadi,
Nadakam, titambhu nritam, Chakyar koothu. Koya.
• Madhya Pradesh: Maanch, Nacha, Phul patti, Tertali, Grida. • Tamil Nadu: Therukuttu, Veethi Natakam, Bhagwat Mela
• Maharashtra: Tarfa Naach, Tamasha, Lalit Bharud, Natakam, Kurvaanji, Pagal Vasham, Kavadi Chindu.
Gondha, Dashavatar, Lavani, Koli dance. • Telangana: Bathukamma.
• Meghalaya: Shad sukmysiem, Shad nongkrem, Derogata, • Uttar Pradesh: Bhagat, Sang-Swang, Naqqual, Mayur
Do dru Sua, Laho Nritya, Charukala.
• Nagaland: Chang Lo (Sua Lua). • Uttrakhand: Chholiya.
• Odisha: Pala Jtra, Daskathia, Mayurbhanj Chhau, Mangal • Goa: Fugadi, Dashavatar, Perni jagar, Musal khel, Samai
Ras, Sowang, sambalpuri (dalkhai, rasarkeli), parbha. nrutya, Gonph dance, Dekhni, Kunbi dance, Ghode modni,
• Punjab: Naqqal, Swang Bhangra. Dhalo, Tonya mel, Talgadi.
• Rajasthan: Khyal, Rasdhari, Rammat, Turra Kilangi, Gauri, • West Bengal: Chhau (Purulia), Santhali.
Ghoomar, Nautanki, Ihamtara.
nnnn
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INDIAN THEATRE
• long tradition of theatre in Indian cultural scenario. ® • Natya Shastra describes only two of these – Nataka and
excavated ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara caves represent Prakarna.
the world’s oldest amphitheatres. • Classical Sanskrit play was bound by some rigid
• In Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra (200BC-200AD)® Brahma conventions:
created the Natya Veda for the pastime of Gods, combining • Four to seven-act plays.
elements of the four Vedas. ® Natya Shastra is first formal
• Happy-endings. (unlike the Greek tragedies)
treatise on dramaturgy.
• The protagonist was male who would always achieve
• According to the author, he has evolved natyaveda by
the object of his desire at the end.
taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda,
gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the • The plays had well defined opening, progression,
Atharvaveda. In it, ten types of play – from one-act play development, pause and conclusion.
to ten acts – has been described and covers all aspects of • Sanskrit plays followed an almost ritualistic
classical Sanskrit literature. progression as well, described as below:
• Started with a number of pre-play rituals, also known
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT THEATRE
as purva-raga, most of which were performed behind
• A began as a narrative art form (Music + Dance + acting) the curtain.
• Sanskrit word ‘nataka’ ® root word ‘nata’ ® dancer. • Sutradhar, entered the stage with his assistants.
• Rupaka, Drishyakvya and Preksakavya were others also Dressed in white, he would offer worship to the deity
used to describe drama. and seek his blessings.
• In ancient India ® Plays ® 2 types: • After that, the leading lady was summoned and the
• Lokadharmi: These were realistic depictions of daily time and place of the play was announced by the
life. Sutradhar.
• Natyadharmi: These were conventional plays with a • The theatre, as per Bharata, could accommodate
more stylised narration and overt symbolism. around four hundred persons. The stages were two-
storeyed.
• 1st example of classical Sanskrit drama ®
Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosh. • While the upper floor was used for representing
celestial sphere, the lower one represented the
• 4th-5th century B.C. ® Bhasa (composed thirteen plays).
terrestrial sphere. Curtains were used to intensify the
• Sudraka was the first to introduce the essence of conflict
impact of play. However, masks were not used.
in his play Mricchakatika.
• Characters in Sanskrit plays were important. They
• Kalidasa: Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi and
were broadly classified into three kinds which are:
Shakuntalam – are some of the finest examples of classical
• Nayaka (Hero or the Protagonist): Played by males
Sanskrit drama.
may be of different personalities like Lalita (Kind-
• Uttaramacharitra and Mahaviracharitra by Bhavabhuti.
hearted), Shanta (Calm & composed), Uddhata
• Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta. (Agitated or arrogant) etc. Hero may also be
• Ratnavali by Harshavardhan. ‘Pratinayaka’ (Anatagonist) like Ravana, Duryodhana,
• Categorised into ten types – namely Anka, Bhana, Dima, etc.
Ithamgra, Nataka, Prahasana, Prakarna, Svakarna, Vithi • Nayika (Heroine): Played by females are queens,
and Vyayog. friends, courtesans (ganika), divine lady (Divya).
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Art & Culture Indian Theatre
• Vidusaka (Clown): Comic character plays a vital • Ankia Nat (ASSAM)

role in the plays. He is the noble and good-hearted, • one-act play
often a friend of hero Nayaka (Hero) ® questions
• started by the famous Vaishnava Saint Shankaradeva and
the prevailing social norms through satire ® spoke
his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th century A.D
in Prakrit while others in Sanskrit. Thus, the Sanskrit
play became an amalgamation of entertainment and • performed in the style of an opera and depicts incidents
religious traditions. from the life of Krishna.
Reasons for decline of Sanskrit Theatre • narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians known
• As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry, as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the ‘khol’ and cymbals.
the lyrical writings started gaining popularity over the • unique features of this form of theatre is the use of masks
dramatic works. to depict special expressions.
• The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre restricted the
creative space of new playwrights who turned to other KALA
forms.
• As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost
popularity among the masses.
• It was increasingly confined to the religious sphere and
among the Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali
and Prakrit took its place.
• With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a
definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage.
FOLK THEATRE
• Ancient folk theatre of the Vaishanvite tradition.
Folk theatre Sanskrit theatre • It is mainly based around the lifes and incarnations of
rural roots and the rustic more urban-oriented Vishnu.
flavour was reflected in the and sophisticated in its • Some of the popular branches of Kala are Dashavatar Kala,
dramatic style involved. treatment of the play. Gopal Kala and Gaulan Kala.
devotional themes, adopting Sanskrit play became
RAMLILA (UTTAR PRADESH)
love ballads and accounts an amalgamation of
of local heroes and thus entertainment and religious
adopted more secular tones. traditions.
social wisdom than mere Nayak, Nayika,Vidushak.
social entertainment.
• Indian folk theatre can be broadly classified into three
categories as follows:
• Ritual Theatre
• Theatre of Entertainment
• South Indian Theatre
• an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances and
Ritual Theatre
dialogues, mainly during the period before Dussehra. It is
• During Bhakti movement® popular means for generally performed by male actors, who perform the role
communicating faith to God. of Sita as well.
RASLILA (UTTAR PRADESH)
Art & Culture 93

• Raslila is a dance drama enactment of the adolescent love • Bhavai (Gujarat and Rajasthan) series of small plays,
stories of Krishna and Radha, known as Vesha or Swanga.
• exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; • theme of the play is generally romantic.
• it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based • accompanied by a semi-classical music.
on the life of Krishna. • Instruments such as Bhungala, Jhanjha and tabla.
• In this theatre form the dialogues in prose combined • The sutradhara is known as Nayaka.
beautifully with songs and scenes from Krishna’s pranks.
DASKATHIA ODISHA
BHUTA, KARNATAKA
• 2 narrators – Gayaka (chief singer) and Palia (co-narrator)

• Narration is accompanied by a dramatic music composed
• Bhuta, which means spirit, is a traditional practise of
using a wooden musical instrument called kathia.
worshipping the dead ancestors.
• Variant: Chhaiti Ghoda, which uses two musical
RAMMAN, UTTARAKHAND instruments – dhol and mohuri – and three narrators.
Garodas
• Dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local deity.

• People of the Bhandari caste wear the sacred mask
symbolizing Narasimha (half-man and half lion).
• ‘Garoda’ community of Gujarat.
• Dances are performed and various songs are sung. Stories
• It uses painted pictures to narrate stories of romance and
of Lord Rama are also narrated.
valour.
• Listed in UNESCO intangible list.
Jatra
Theatres of Entertainment
Narration and Storytelling: More Secular ,stories of love,
valour +sociocultural traditions.
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• Eastern India NAUTANKI

• open-air performance®initiated by Vaishnava saint Sri
Chaitanya.
• He used the medium of Jatra to propagate the teachings
of Krishna
• Variants: Rama Jatra, Shiv Jatra and Chandi Jatra also
came into existence that narrated stories of Puranic
legends
• Today Jatra was used to narrate stories of secular, historical
and even patriotic themes.
• In Odisha, a popular form of street theatre known as Sahi
Jatra is prevalent.
KARIYILA, HIMACHAL PRADESH • Offshoot of Swang.

• Open-air theatre • Finds mention in Abul Fazl’s Ain-e-Akbari.
• Generally staged during village fairs and festivals, the • Theme: historical, social and folk tales and delivered
• Performance occurs through the night and comprises of a through dance and music.
series of small plays and skits. • Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion, accompanied
by the beats of a drum called Nagara.
• In the later period, two schools of Nautanki seated around
Kanpur and Lucknow gained importance.
OJA-PALI, ASSAM
MAACH MALWA IN MADHYA PRADESH

• Associated with the festival of Mansa or the serpent goddess.
• The narration is a prolonged affair, with three distinct parts
– Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda and Deva Khanda.
• Oja is the main narrator and Palis are the members of the
chorus.
POWADA, (MAHARASHTRA)
• Originated in Ujjain around 17th century A.D. and was

based on mythological themes
• Later, romantic folk tales were included into its repertoire.
• Unique feature: dialogues delivery ® in the form of
couplets known as Rangat Dohas.
Art & Culture 95

• A play was written lauding the heroic deeds of Shivaji BHAND PATHER, J&K
(Shivaji killed his adversary Afzal Khan).
• Operatic ballads depicting stories of valour and sung by
the folk musicians known as Gondhalis and Shahirs.
SWANG, (PUNJAB AND HARYANA)
• Contemporary social satire or even mythical stories.

• Mainly musical dramas, sung through verses, accompanied • It is secular in outlook, although it is performed by
by the music of ektara, harmonium, sarangi, dholak Muslims.
and khartal. • It has music, dance and drama.
TAMASHA, MAHARASHTRA BHAONA, ASSAM
• Known for its humour and erotic content.

• Unique feature: Presence of female actors ® play the
even the male roles.
• It is a presentation of Ankia Naat and Vaishnavite themes
• The Tamasha performances are generally accompanied by
are common.
Lavani songs.
DASHAVATAR (KONKAN REGION)
VILLU PATTU, TAMILNADU
• Notably Sindhudurg (Maharashtra) and North Goa.

• ‘Villu Pattu’ means bow-song. • Ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu. It has two parts
• A form of musical theatre popular in the Deccan. ‘poorvaranga’ (initial part) and ‘uttara-ranga’ (second
• Stories of Ramayana are narrated using bow-shaped part). The second session is the main act and is based on
instruments. mythological stories.
Art & Culture 96

NAQAL OR BHAND (PUNJAB AND ADJOINING AREAS) • Derives its name from Burra – the percussion instrument
used extensively during the performance.
PAGATI VESHAALU (TELANGANA + KRISHNA DISTRICT

OF ANDHRA PRADESH)
• Mimicry based performance.

• Performing artist is often called ‘Behroopiya’ or ‘Naqalchi’
(impersonator).
• Uses comedy, absurdities, wit and humour to get across
the social or political message. It is performed by two
artists. • Primarily a role-playing act, revolving around a principal
character known as vesham (disguise) and other sub
THEATRES OF SOUTH INDIA
characters.
• Period of 8th century A.D ® Sanskrit classical theatre
started to decline in North India ® gained popularity in BAYALATA (KARNATAKA)
the southern parts India.
• Speciality: Emphasis on dance as compared to the
emphasis on music in Northern India.
YAKSHAGANA, KARNATAKA
• Perhaps the oldest theatre
traditions.
• Regions of Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka.
• Originated: Royal Court
(Vijaynagar empire).
• Performed by: Jakkula Varu (a • Open-air theatre tradition.
Community). • Performed during the worship of the local deity.
• largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a single • 5 types of Bayalatas – Dasarat, Sannata, Doddata, Parijata
artist. Later forms adopted further variations and became and Yakshagana.
a typical dance drama. • The stories are based on the love of Radha-Krishna.
• Popular variants: Lalita in Maharashtra, Bhavai in Gujarat • Parijata and Yakshagana ® by a single Sutradhar.
and Gandharva Gana in Nepal.
• Other three forms ® performed in a chorus of three-four,
• Popular Plays: Garudachalam by Obayya Mantri, Krishna- aided by a Vidushaka.
Hiramani by Srinddha and Sugriva Vijayam by Rudra Kavi.
TAL-MADDALE (KARNATAKA)
BURRA KATHA (ANDHRA PRADESH)
Art & Culture 97

KOOTHIYATTAM (KERALA)
• Tal ® cymbal
• Maddale ® drum
• India’s oldest continuing form of theatre that has survived
• Considered as the predecessor of Yakshagana.
since 10th century A.D. in Kerala.
• Performed while sitting and without any costumes, dance
• Completely adheres to the rules laid down in Natya
or acting.
Shastra.
• The narration is done by a Bhagavata who is aided by a
• Chakyaar (actor), Nambiar (instrumentalist) and
group of Arthadharis.
Nangyaar (those taking woman’s role) are the main
THEYYAM (KERALA) characters of Koodiyattam.
• Language: Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayalam, with Mizhavu
and Edakka providing the background music.
• All the characters begin the play with Nirvahana, a
recollection of the past events of the story.
• After this, the story unfolds in a leisurely fashion with
commentaries on social, philosophical, and political
behaviour.
• Margi Madhu Chakyar is a leading exponent of this art
form.
• It is similar to a practice in Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola.
MUDIYETTU, KERALA
• open theatre ® performed in front of the local temples to
mainly honour the spirit of the ancestors besides gods.
• Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Shaivism are now
common.
• The actors wear elaborate headgear and colourful
costumes.
KRISHNA ATTAM (KERALA)

• Originated in the mid 17th century.
• Krishna Geethi, it is a carnival that lasts for eight days, with
performances in eight consecutive nights narrating the
life story of Sri Krishna. • Mudiyettu is a traditional folk theatre of Kerala.
• It is performed in the month of Vrichigam. i.e., November-
December.
• It is performed only in Kali Temple as a presentation to
Goddess.
• It is a part of Bhadrakali cult. It depicts the triumph of
Goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika.
• Mudiyettu is performed by Marar and Karuppu
community.
• Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli, and
Art & Culture 98

Koimbidar are the seven charaters of Mudiyettu. PREVIOUS YEARS’ QUESTIONS - MAINS
• In 2010, Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO’s • 2011: Write a sentence each on any five of the following
Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of traditional theatre forms:
Humanity after Koodiyattam. • Bhand Pather
KURUVANJI (TAMILNADU) • Swang

• Maach
• Bhaona
• Mudiyettu
• Dhashavatar
• 1995, 2005, 2007: Write about Yakshagana.
• 1987: Where did the following traditional Folk Theatres
originate?
• Jatra
• Tamasha
• Characterised by classical Tamil poetry and songs.
• Koodiyattam
• The first Kuruvanji was composed by Thirukutarajappa
• Bhavai
Kaviyar.
• Nautanki
• The basic theme revolves around a love-struck heroine.
Kuruvanji literally means ‘fortune-teller’ who predicts the nnnn
fate of the heroine.
• Kuruvanji is performed in a dance ballet form with
Bharatnatyam being the principal dance form in Tamil
Nadu.
Art & Culture 99

INDIAN PUPPETRY
• Ancient forms of entertainment. String Puppets
• A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious
inventions of the man. It has been said that a puppet has
to be more than his live counterpart for it is definitely the
suggestive element that is more captivating and enduring
in a puppet.
• Srimad Bhagavata, the great epic depicting the story of
Lord Krishna in his childhood say that with three strings-
Satta, Raja and Tama, the God manipulates each object
in the universe as a marionette.
• he root of Puppet is derived from the latin word ‘Pupa’ Features
meaning a doll.
• The puppets are generally 8-9 inch miniature figures
• excavation sites at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro have chiselled out of wood.
yielded puppets with sockets attached to them.
• Oil colour is used to paint the wood with skin colour
• Oldest written reference: Tamil classic Silappadikaram and add other facial features such as eyes, lips, nose, etc.
(around 1st and 2nd century B.C).
• Small wooden pipes are created with the body to
• Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy form the limbs. The body is then covered with colourful
written sometime during 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD., miniature dress and stitched.
does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-
• Miniature jewelleries and other accessories are attached
cum-director of the human theatre has been termed
to give a realistic feel.
as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings. The word
might have found its place in theatre-terminology long • Strings are attached to small holes in the hands, head
before Natyashastra was written but it must come and back of the body which are then controlled by the
from marionette theatre. Puppetry, therefore, must have puppeteer.
originated in India more than 500 years before Christ. A. Kathputli (Rajasthan)
Classification of Puppetry in India
• ‘kath’ ® wood + ‘putli’ ® doll.

• The puppets are covered in traditionally bright Rajasthani
dress.
• The show is accompanied by a dramatic folk music.
• Unique feature ® absence of legs.
• The strings are attached to the finger of the puppeteer.
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Art & Culture Indian Puppetry
B. Kundhei (Odisha) 2. SHADOW PUPPETS
• Material: Light wood and are dressed in long skirts.

• Puppets ® more joints ® more flexibility. Features:
• The strings are attached to a triangular prop. • Flat figures cut out of leather.
• There is a marked influence of Odissi dance on Kundhei • Painted identically on both sides of the leather.
puppet shows.
• The puppets are placed on a white screen with light falling
C. Gombeyatta (Karnataka) from behind, creating a shadow on the screen.
• Styled and designed on the • The figures are manipulated so that the silhouettes
various characters of the created on the blank screen create telling imagery.
Yakshagana theatres.
A. Togalu Gombeyatta (Karnataka)
• Have joints at the legs, shoulders,
elbows, hips and knees.
• Unique feature ® more than
one puppeteer is used to
manipulate the puppets.
• Mostly small in size.

• Unique feature: variation of puppet size based on social
status.
• Kings and religious figures: large puppets.
• Common people and servants: smaller puppets.
D. Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu)
B. Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh)
• It combines features of rod and
string puppetry.
• The strings are attached to an
iron ring which is worn by the
puppeteer on his head.
• The Bommalattam puppets are the
largest and heaviest marionettes
found in India, with some of them as large as 4.5 ft in
height and 10 kg in weight.
• The Bommalattam theatre has four distinct stages –
Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam.
Art & Culture 101

• Accompanied by a classical background in the music . A. Pavakoothu (Kerala)

• Theme: mythological and devotional tales of the epics
and Puranas.
• The puppets are larger in size and coloured on both sides.
C. Ravanchhaya (Odisha)
• Around 18th century A.D.

• The puppets are decorated with colourful headgears,
• Material: deer skin and depict bold, dramatic postures. feathers and face paints, which is evidence of a heavy
• No joints attached to them, making it a more complex art. influence of Kathakali dance form.
• Use of non-human puppets, such as trees and animals as • Theme: Ramayana and Mahabharata.
well.
4. ROD PUPPETS
• The Ravanchhaya artists are thus extremely trained in their
art – creating a lyrical and sensitive theatrical narration.
3. GLOVE PUPPETS
• Glove puppets are also known as sleeve, hand or palm

puppets. • Larger variations of glove puppet and are controlled by
• They are small figures with head and arms wearing a long, rods by the puppeteer from behind a screen. It is mainly
flowing skirt as costume. popular in the region of Eastern India.
• Material: Cloth or wood, but some variations of paper A. Yampuri (Bihar)
puppet has also been seen.
• Material: Wood and are without any joints.
• Glove puppets are popular all across India, with the
• Carved out of a single piece of wood and then painted and
performance usually accompanied by rhythmic beats of
dressed in bright colours.
drum or dholak.
Art & Culture 102

• The figures are generally 3-4 ft. high and dressed like
B. Utul Nachh (Bengal-Odisha-Assam)
characters of Jatra.
• They Generally have three joints – at the neck and at the
shoulders.
• The puppeteers, each of whom control a single puppet by
means of a rod attached to his waist, are placed behind
a high curtain.
• The puppeteers move around behind the curtain,
imparting similar movements to the puppets.
• The performance is accompanied by a musical troop of
3-4 musicians playing harmonium, cymbals and tabla.
nnnn
Art & Culture 103

Art & Culture Indian Philosophy

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY IN INDIA • Yogic techniques control body, mind & sense organs,
• In Vedic period, philosophies has been defined about thus considered as a means of achieving freedom or
true nature of soul or Atman + cosmic principle or mukti.
Brahman®ultimate reality. • By purifying & controlling changes in the mental
• Later these philosophical concepts gave rise to six different mechanism, yoga systematically brings about the
schools of philosophies called shada darshana. (orthodox release of purusha from prakriti; which could be
system). attained by practising:
• Orthodox School ®as the final authority of the Vedas is • Self-control (yama) & Observation of rules (niyama).
recognized by all of them (Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaishehsika, • fixed postures (asana) & Breath control (pranayama).
Mimansa, Yoga, Vedanta). • Choosing an object (pratyahara) & fixing the mind
• Unorthodox School ® No believe in Vedas Authority (dharna).
(Carvaka, Kapalika, Jainism, Buddhism). • Concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana).
• Samkhya School (Kapila) • Complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and the
• Reality is constituted of two principles: object (Samadhi).
• Purusha ® mere consciousness, devoid of attributes, • Vaisheshika School (Kanada)
cannot be changed (absolute, independent, free, limitless) • Atomism Theory ® Combination of atoms and
• Prakriti ® constituted of materialistic attributes molecules into matter ® Marked the beginning of
(thoughts & movement) + change or transformation of physics in India.
these attributes brings about the change in all objects. • All objects in the universe ® composed of five
• All in this world originates from the interplay of these two elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether except time,
entities i.e. Purusha and Prakriti. space, mind and soul and God is the guiding principle.
• No concept of God. • Believe in law of karma.
• Nyaya School (Gautama) • Creation and destruction of universe is a cyclic process
• Basically a technique of logical thinking. and take place in agreement with God’s wish.
• Valid knowledge ® real knowledge ® one knows • Finally this school was merged with Nyaya school of
about the object as it exists viz. it is when one knows a philosophy.
snake as a snake or a cup as a cup. • Mimamsa School (Jamini)
• Salvation ® through acquisition of knowledge and
• Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge, and
veracity of a statement can be tested via inference,
religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by
hearing and analogy.
the Vedas.
• Theory of Praman – Nyaya (science of reasoning, debate,
• Vedas contains eternal truth & in order to attain
logic and epistemology).
salvation it strongly recommended vedic sacrifices
• Pratyaksha (Perception). (Which ultimately needed Brahamanas).
• Anumana (Inference). • Reasoning was used to provide justification of vedic
• Upamana (Comparison). rituals and attainment of salvation, dependent on their
• Sabda (Testimony). way of performance.
• Yoga School (Patanjali) • Principle aim of this philosophy was to attain Heaven
• Base is in Samkhya school. and salvation ( A person will enjoy heavon as long as his
Art & Culture 104

virtues last and then will come to earth, but in salvation – the philosophy of the masses.
he will be free from the cycle of Death and Birth). • Believe in Perception (Pratyksha)®So do not believe in
world, God, Soul, Heaven Karma.
Vedanta School
• Basic Structure BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Brahamasutra of Badrayana (200 B.C.) ® Later • In northern India, it developed into two streams, nirguna
commentaries were written by Shankaracharya and bhakti and saguna bhakti.
Ramanujam. • Nirguna bhaktas: Devotees of a formless God even
• It implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the while calling him variously as Rama, Govinda, Hari or
concluding portion of the Vedas. Raghunatha. The most conspicuous among them were
Kabir and Nanak.
• Shankaracharya
• Saguna bhaktas: Devotees of Rama, the son of
• Propagated Advaita (non-dualism or belief in one
Dasharatha, or Krishna, the son of Devaki and Vasudeva.
reality).
• Tulsidas, who idolised Rama in his famous Ramcharita
• Ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman; existent, Manas.
unchanging, the highest truth & the ultimate knowledge.
• Surdas, who sang praises of Krishna in his famous.
• World is false and self and Brahman are not different –
• Raskhan, a Muslim poet, who was a devotee of Lord
All is Brahman and Brahman is all.
Krishna, also belonged to this tradition.
• Ramanujacharya
• An eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-
• Propagated Vishistadvaita means modified monism. i-Hïndi to explain Islamic equivalents of Krishna, Radha,
• Ultimate reality is Brahman (God) & matter and soul are Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc.
his qualities. • Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the
• Madhavacharya pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a
• Propagated Dvaita (Dualism). trainee on his march to godliness.
• world is not an illusion but a reality full of differences. • The Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony,
called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom
• Nimbaraka
(the saint-soldier concept).
• Propagated Dvaitadvaita (Dualistic monism).
• God transformed himself into world and soul. VAISHNAVISM AND SHAIVISM IN SOUTH INDIA
• world and soul are different from God (Brahman) & Vaishnavism
survive with the support of God only, hence, they are • Panini’s Ashtadhyayi worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna).
separate but dependent. • Vasudeva-Bhagavata cult Vishnu (primarily an aspect of
• Vallabhacharya sun) and Narayana (cosmic God).
• Propagated Suddhadvaita (Pure non-dualism). • Gupta period Vaishnava bhakti cult + doctrine of
• Brahman (God) is Sri Krishna who manifested himself as incarnations (avataras).
souls & matter. • Vaishnava saints (Vishnu)in Tamil ® known as Alvars +
• God and soul are not distinct, but one. songs called Prabandhas.
• His philosophy came to be known as Pushtimarga (the Shaivism

path of grace) & school was called Rudrasampradaya. • Panini ® group of Shiva worshippers as Shiva-bhagavatas.
UNORTHODOX SCHOOL • Shiva Bhakts are characterized by the iron lances and clubs
they carried and their skin garments.
• Charvaka School (Charvaka)
• Shaiva Bhakt in Tamil ® Known as Nayanars which hails
• Mentioned in the Vedas and Brihad-aranyka Upanishad,
from all castes+Songs called Tevaram Stotras / Dravida
® earliest in the growth of the philosophical
Veda.
knowledge.
• Prominent Shaiva movements ® Agamanta, Shudha and
• 5 elements ® earth, water, fire, air and ether ®
Vira-shaivism.
Charvakas do not recognize ether as it is not known
through perception. BUDDHISM AND JAINISM (for details check Ancient
• Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic History notes)
philosophy + also known as the Lokayata Philosophy nnnn
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1. PRELIMS
With reference to the religious history of India, consider QUESTIONS
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
the following statements: (b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. (c) Lokayata and Kapalika
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika (d) Sankhya and Yoga
sect of Buddhism
7. Which one of the following describes best the concept
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas
of Nirvana in Buddhism?
fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
(a) The extinction of the flame of desire
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) The complete annihilation of self
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) A state of bliss and rest
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension
2. Consider the following :
8. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to
1. Deification of the Buddha
Jain doctrine?
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice
3. Image worship and rituals
penance.
Which of the above is/ are the feature/ features of
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
Mahayana Buddhism?
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. With reference to the religious practices in India, the
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
“Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to:
(a) Buddhism (b) Jainism 9. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of
the following was/were common to both Buddhism and
(c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism
Jainism?
4. With reference to the religious history of India, consider
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment
the following statements:
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of
phenomena were not wholly momentary, but Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
existed forever in a latent form. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only 10. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 maintained by
5. With reference to the religious history of India, consider (a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth
the following statements : (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul
1. The concept of Bodhisattva is
central to 11. With reference to the Indian History, consider the
Hinayana sect of Buddhism. following text:
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to 1. Nettipakarana
enlightenment.
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to
3. Avadanashataka
help all sentient beings on their path to it.
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Which of the above are Jains texts?
(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 4
6. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of
the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
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12. With reference to Indian history, consider the following (c) Logical arguments were essential means for the
pairs: highest bliss.
Historical person Known as (d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.
1. Aryadeva Jaina scholar 14. According to Kautilya’s Arthahshastra, which of the
2. Dignaga Buddhist scholar following are correct?
3. Nathamuni Vaishnava Scholar 1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial
How many pairs given above are correctly matched? punishment.
(a) None of the pairs (b) Only one pair 2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was
legally free.
(c) Only two pairs (d) All three pairs
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her
13. The world’s second tallest statue in sitting pose of
master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the
Ramanuja was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of
master’s son.
India at Hyderabad recently. Which one of the following
Which of the statements given above are correct?
statements correctly represents the teachings of
Ramanuja? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(a) The best means of salvation was devotion (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(b)
Vedas are eternal, self-existent and wholly
authoritative nnnn
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Art & Culture Languages in India

LANGUAGES IN INDIA
What is Language? inscriptions of Rudradamana at Junagarh in the present
Language in its literary meaning is a system of communication Southern Gujarat region.
through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of people • In Plays → Sanskrit language: Characters of high varna.
understand to have the same meaning. • Prakrit language by women and shudras.
Language family includes individual languages related
MIDDLE INDO-ARYAN GROUP
through a common ancestor that existed before the recorded
history. Prakrit includes:
Dialect: A form of language spoken in a local area. It should • Pali: Magadha 5th-1st century BC. Brahmi script. The
be noted that several dialects can be derived from a particular Tripitaka of Buddhism were also written in Pali. It serves
language. as the lingua franca of Theravada Buddhism. It is believed
Classification of Indian Languages that Buddha himself did not speak in Pali but gave his
preachings in ardha-magadhi language.
• Indo Aryan Group
• Magadhi Prakrit or Ardha-Magadhi: Literary uses
• Dravidian Group
increased after the decline of Sanskrit and Pali. Buddha
• Sino Tibet Group
and Mahavira perhaps spoke in Ardha-Magadhi. Court
• Negroid language of few Mahajanapadas and also the Mauryan
• Austric dynasty. Evolved languages of Eastern India namely
• Others Bengali, Assamese, Odia, Maithili, Bhojpuri.
• Shauraseni: Used to write dramas in the medieval
INDO-ARYAN GROUP OF LANGUAGES
India. Jain monks wrote mainly in this version of Prakrit.
• Larger Indo-European family→ with the advent of the
Digambar’s → ‘Shatkhandgama’.
Aryans.
• Maharashtri Prakrit: Spoken till 9th century AD.
• Largest Language Group → about 74%.
Predecessor to Marathi and Konkani. Used widely
Old Indo-Aryan Group in western and southern India. Official language of
• Around 1500BCE Satavahana dynasty. Several dramas ‘Gaha Kosha’ by King
Hala, ‘Gaudavaho’ (slaying of the king of Gauda) by Vakpati.
• Born: Sanskrit
• Elu: Ancient form of modern Sinhala language of Sri Lanka
• Vedas, Puranas, Upanishad are written in Sanskrit.
similar to Pali.
• Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian languages.
• Paishachi: ‘Bhuta-Bhasa’ (dead language) and it is often
• One of the 22 scheduled languages listed in the
regarded as Prakrit. Gunadhya’s Brihatkatha (6th century),
Constitution.
an ancient epic is written in Paishachi unimportant
Development of Sanskrit dialect.
400 B.C. → Panini wrote Asthadhyayi.
APABHRAMSA
Text in Sanskrit: • By 6th-7th century → Apabhramsa’ (corrupt or non-
• Mahavastu of the Hinayana school is a treasure of stories. grammatical).
• Lalitavistara, the most sacred Mahayana text. • Dialects other than Sanskrit or even Prakrit.
• Ashvagosha’s Buddhacharita were also written in Sanskrit. • Represents a transition from Middle to Modern Indo-
1 evidence of the use of Sanskrit can be found in the
st Aryan Group of languages.
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• Bhamaha(Poet of Kashmir) → divided poetry into Sanskrit, 0.6% of the Indian population speaks languages
Prakrit, and Apabhramsha. belonging to this group. The Sino-Tibetan group is further
• Dandin said that Apabhramsa is the dialect of the common divided into:
folk. 1. Tibeto-Burman: Languages under Tibeto-Burman are
• Many Jain monks and scholars wrote extensively in further divided into four groups.
Apabhramsa and sustained it. • Tibetan: Sikkimese, Bhutia, Balti, Sherpa, Lahuli and
• Major texts and writers are: Pushpadanta→ Mahapurana Ladakhi
(Digambara Jain text), Dhanapala→ Bhavisayattakaha. • Himalayan-Kinnauri and Limbu
MODERN INDO-ARYAN GROUP • North Assam-Abor, Miri, Aka, Dafla and Mishmi
• Languages: Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Gujrati, Marathi, • Assam-Burmese-Kuki-chin, Mikir, Bodo and Naga.
Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Odia, Urdu etc. Manipuri or Meithi is the most important languages
spoken under Kuki-chin under the sub-group.
• The languages under this sub-group developed gradually
after 1000 AD. 2. Siamese-Chinese: Ahom is important language. Extinct.
• These languages are mainly spoken in the northern, AUSTRIC

western and the eastern parts of India.
• Belong to Austro-asiatic sub-family
DRAVIDIAN GROUP • Languages: Munda or Kol group and spoken in Central,
• Southern part of India. Eastern and North-Eastern India. Also belong to Mon-
Khmer group, vig. Khasi and Nicobarese.
• 25% of the Indian population is covered under this group.
• Existence → much before the advent of the Aryans and
• Proto Dravidian → rise to 21 Dravidian languages →
were referred to in ancient Sanskrit literature as Nisadas.
Classified into three groups: Northern group, Central
group and Southern group. • Santhali is the most important language under this group
which is spoken among by Santhal tribals of Jharkhand,
1. Northern Group: 3 languages → Brahui is spoken in
Bihar and Bengal.
Baluchistan, Malto in the tribal areas of Bengal and
Odisha while Kurukh in Bengal, Odisha, Bihar and Madhya • With the exceptions of Khasi and Santhali, all Austro-
Pradesh. asiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.
2. Central Group: 11 languages → Gondi, Khond, Kui, OTHERS

Manda, Parji, Gadaba, Kolami, Pengo, Naiki, Kuvi and Dravidian adivasi languages: Gondi, Oraon, Praji, → very
Telugu. Only Telugu → civilised language (Andhra Pradesh distinct so, cannot be classified in the groups mentioned
and Telangana) whereas others are tribal languages. above.
3. Southern Group: 7 languages → Kannada, Tamil, Indo-Aryan Group Dravidian Group of
Malayalam, Tulu, Kodagu, Toda and Kota. Tamil is the Languages
oldest among all these. Grammatical structure Grammatical structure
→ inflected (the words → agglutinative (the
4 major languages of the Dravidian group are:
ending or its spelling combinations in which roots
• Telugu (numerically the largest of all Dravidian languages). changes according to its words are united with little or
• Tamil (oldest and purest form of language). grammatical function in a no change of form or loss of
• Kannada. sentence.) words).
• Malayalam (smallest and the youngest of the Dravidian STATUS OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGE
group). Criteria
SINO-TIBETAN GROUP • High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a
period of 1500–2000 years.
• Belong to Mongoloid family and stretch to all over the
Himalayas, North Bihar, North Bengal, Assam and up to • Ancient literature/texts → considered a valuable heritage
the North-Eastern frontiers of the nation. Considered to by generations of speakers.
the older than the Indo-Aryan languages and are referred • Original literary tradition and not borrowed from another
to in the oldest Sanskrit literature as Kiratas. speech community.
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• The classical language and literature being distinct from 2. Brahmi script: Oldest writing systems used in the Indian
modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the subcontinent and in Central Asia during the final centuries
classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. BCE and the early centuries CE.
• Tamil in the year 2004 Sanskrit in the year 2005 Telugu in • Some believe that Brahmi derived from contemporary
the year 2008. Semitic script or may be Indus script.
• All surviving Indic scripts in South East asia are
• Kannada in the year 2008 Malayalam in the year 2013
descendants of the Brahmi.
Odia in the year 2014.
• Ex: Rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India →
**The Government has been criticised for not including Pali as
deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep. Brahmi is usually
a classical language as experts argue that it fits all the above
written from left to right.
mentioned criteria.
• Brahmi is an abugida → meaning that each letter
Lingua Franca → bridge language, common language, represents a consonant, while vowels are written with
trade language or vehicular language → used to make obligatory diacritics called matras in Sanskrit, except
communication possible between persons not sharing a native when the vowels commence a word.
language or dialect, in particular when it is a third language,
distinct from both native languages. India → English.
ANCIENT SCRIPTS OF INDIA

• Also known as writing system or orthography.
• Example: Brahmi script and Kharosthi script.
• Most of the ancient and modern scripts in India are
developed from Brahmi script → Devanagari, Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Assamese/Bengali, etc.
• Brahmi is the mother of scripts
• Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic.
1. Indus script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus
Valley Civilization. Most inscriptions are extremely short.
It is not clear if these symbols constitute a script used to
record a language.
3. Gupta Script: Used to write Sanskrit. descended from

Brahmi and gave rise to the Nagari, Sharada and Siddham
scripts. These scripts in turn gave rise to many of the
most important scripts of India, including Devanagari,
Gurmukhi script for Punjabi Language, Assamese script,
Bengali script and the Tibetan script. All these descendents
of Brahmi script are collectively called Brahmic scripts.
4. Kharosthi script: Used in ancient Gandhara (present
Afghanistan and Pakistan) to write the Gandhari Prakrit
and Sanskrit. A sister script of Brahmi and was deciphered
by James Princep again. Kharoshthi is also an abugida like
Brahmi. Kharosthi includes a set of numerals that are similar
to Roman numerals like I, X, etc. Kharosthi is bidirectional
(generally right to left and some times reverse).
5. Vatteluttu script: An abugida writing system originating
in South India. Developed from Tamil-Brahmi, Vatteluttu
is one of the three main alphabet systems developed by
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Tamil people to write the Granthi or Pallava alphabet and has its origins in 13th century. It is closely related to the
the Tamil script. development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script.
6. Kadamba script: A dedicated script for writing Kannada. Urdu script in its extended form is known as Shahmukhi
It is also a descendant of the Brahmi script and developed script and is used for writing other Indo-Aryan languages
during the reign of the Kadamba dynasty in the 4th-6th of North Indian subcontinent like Punjabi and Saraiki as
centuries. This script later became Kannada-Telegu script. well.
7. Grantha script : Widely-used between the sixth century PRELIMS QUESTION
and the 20th centuries by Tamil speakers in South India,
Q. Which one of the following was given classical language
particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, to write Sanskrit
status recently?
and the classical language Manipravalam, and is still in
(a) Odia (b) Konkani
restricted use in traditional Vedic schools. It is a Brahmic
(c) Bhojpuri (d) Assamese
script. The Malayalam script is a direct descendant of
Grantha as are the Tigalari and Sinhala alphabets. 2015
8. Sarada scrip An abugida writing system of the Brahmic Q. Consider the following languages:
family of scripts, 8th century. It was used for writing i. Gujarati ii. Kannada
Sanskrit and Kashmiri. Originally more widespread → later iii. Telugu
restricted to Kashmir, and it is now rarely used except by Which of the above has/have been declared as ‘Classical
the Kashmiri Pandit community for ceremonial purposes. Language/Languages’ by the Government?
9. Gurmukhi script: Developed from the Sarada script and (a) (i) and (ii) only (b) (iii) only
was standardised during the 16th century by Guru Angad. (c) (ii) and (iii) only (d) (i), (ii) and (iii)
The whole of the Guru Granth Sahib is written in this script. 2014
10. Devanagari script: An abugida alphabet of India and Q. Consider the following statements:
Nepal. It is written from left to right. Used for over 120 1. 21st February is declared to be the International
languages, including Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Pali, Konkani, Mother Language Day by UNICEF.
Bodo, Sindhi and Maithili among other languages and 2. The demand that Bangla has to be one of the
dialects, making it one of the most used and adopted national languages was raised in the Constituent
writing systems in the world. The Devanagari script is also Assembly of Pakistan.
used for classical Sanskrit texts. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
11. Modi script: Used to write the Marathi language. After
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
20th century the Balbodh style was promoted as the
standard writing system for Marathi. Other languages Q. With reference to India, the terms ‘HaIbi, Ho and Kui’
such as Urdu, Kannada, Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil are also pertain to
known to have been written in Modi. (a) dance forms of Northwest India
(b) musical instruments
12. Urdu script: Right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu
(c) pre-historic cave paintings
language. It is a modification of the Persian alphabet,
(d) tribal languages
which is itself a derivative of the Arabic alphabet and
nnnn
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Art & Culture Coins

COINS
Coinage in India
Greek Coins
• Study of coins → Numismatics. Numismatics The Greeks bring along their old age
is very important to know about History of an tradition of issuing coins. They are the first
Era. ones to issue gold coins(besides the use of
Silver).
Punch Marked Coins
The Indus valley civilisation of Mohenjo-Daro
Kushan Coins
and Harappa dates back between 2500 BC and
1750 BC. There, however, is no consensus on Kushan Empire who become the first Indian
whether the seals excavated from the sites were Empire to issue gold coins.
in fact coins.
1. Janapadas/Mahajanapadas: Punched-mark coins (7-6th

century BC) → Earliest account of issuing coins. Made in
Silver and were initially issued by merchant guilds and
later, by the state.
2. Post-Mauryan Period For the first time → Regular

Dynastic coins being issued.
Punched-mark coins (7-6th century BC) → Earliest

account of issuing coins. Made in Silver and were initially
issued by merchant guilds and later, by the state.
Satavahana
Coins were predominantly of copper and lead, however,
silver issues are also known. These coins carried the motifs of
fauna like elephants, lions, bulls, horses, etc. often juxtaposed
against motifs from nature like hills, tree, etc. The silver coins
of the Satavahanas carried portraits and bilingual legends.
3. Post-Mauryan Period
• For the first time → Regular Dynastic coins being issued.
The Greeks bring along their old age tradition of issuing

coins. They are the first ones to issue gold coins(besides
the use of Silver).
Art & Culture 112

Art & Culture Coins
• Western Kshatrap → earliest coins bearing dates. Harsha (7th century AD, Kalachuri of Tripuri (11th century
AD) and early medieval Rajputs (9th-12th centuries AD).
• Common copper coins → ’bull and hill’ and the ‘elephant
• Gold coins struck between this period are rare.
and hill’ types.
• These were revived by Gangeyadeva the Kalachuri ruler
who issued the ‘Seated Lakshmi Coins‘.
• The Bull and Horseman type of coins were the most common
motif appearing on coins struck by the Rajput clans.
• In western India, imported coins like the Byzantine solidi
were often used reflecting trade with the Eastern Roman
Empire.
3. Gupta Period
• Gupta coinage (4th-6th centuries AD) followed the tradition
of the Kushans, depicting the king on the obverse and a
deity on the reverse. SOUTH INDIAN COINAGE
• The deities were Indian and the legends were in Brahmi. • The symbols and motifs on South Indian coin issues
were confined to dynastic crests such as the:
• The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta,
Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta and their coins • Boar (Chalukya), Bull (Pallava), Tiger (Chola), Fish (Pandya
often commemorate dynastic succession as well as and Alupas), bow and arrow (Cheras) and lion (Hoysala)
significant socio-political events, like marriage alliances, etc.
the horse sacrifice, etc (King and queen type of coin of • The Yadavas of Devagiri issued ‘Padmatankas’ with an
Chandragupta 1, Asvamedha type, etc.), or for that matter eight-petalled lotus on the obverse and a blank reverse.
artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members • Decorative features are rare and divinities are almost
(Lyrist, Archer, Lion-slayer etc.). absent till the medieval Vijayanagar period (14th-16th
centuries AD).
• We see the decline in the number of coins produced in
this phase. Some historian believe that it was because of
a decline in trade and commerce.
Post-Gupta Coinage
• Represented by a monotonous and aesthetically less
interesting series of dynastic issues including those of
Art & Culture 113

Art & Culture Coins
Coins of Akbar • Kalpi rupees feature a fish and a tortoise can be seen on
coins form Hazrat Delhi Mint. A Trishul symbol appears on
• Coins of Akbar also reflect the power of this mighty
one of the Agra rupees and the Surya or the sun appears
emperor and they are the most exquisite and varied
on one of the rupees from Hissar Firooza mint.
among the ones that were minted by other Mughal
emperors.
• Themes: A duck was depicted on gold mohur from Agra
mint and a rupee from berar mint. A Hawk was depicted
on a commemorative coin that was issued to celebrate
the victory over fort Asirgarh.
FOREIGN COIN HOARDS FOUND IN INDIA
nnnn
Art & Culture 114

Art & Culture Indian Calendar

INDIAN CALENDAR
INDIAN CALENDAR • The names of the months in Saka Calendar are:
• A system of organizing days for social, religious, • Chhaitra (March 21 – April 20)
commercial or administrative purposes. • Vaishakha (April 21-May 21)
• Synchronisation of calendars is based on following • Jyeshtha (May 22-June 21)
three systems: • Ashadha (June 22- July 22)
• Lunar calendars: Synchronized to the motion of the • Shravana (July 23-August 22)
Moon (lunar phases). Example- Islamic calendar. • Bhaadra (August 22-September 22)
• Solar calendars: Based on perceived seasonal changes • Ashwin (September 23-October 22)
synchronized to the apparent motion of the Sun. Example-
• Kartika (October 23-November 21)
Persian calendar.
• Agrahayana (November 22-December 21)
• Luni-solar calendars: Based on a combination of both
• Pausha (December 22-January 20)
solar and lunar reckonings. Examples- traditional calendar
of China, the Hindu calendar in India, and the Hebrew • Magha (January 21- February 19) and
calendar. • Phalguna (February 20-March 20/21)
In India, four types of calendars are followed: HIJRI CALENDAR
• Vikram Samvat (Hindu lunar calendar) • It is a lunar calendar.
• Saka Samvat (Hindu Solar calendar) • The zero year is 622 A.D is a Zero Year.
• Hijri Calendar (Islamic lunar calendar) • It was initially started and followed in Saudi Arabia.
• Gregorian Calendar (Scientific solar calendar)- followed • Every year has 12 months and 354 days.
universally • First month → Muharram.
Vikram Samvat: • Ninth month → Ramzaan. During this month, people
• 57 B.C. is the zero year. observe a fast for the purification of souls. The morning
breakfast is called Shehri and evening food is called Iftar.
• Introduced by King Vikramaditya to mark his victory over
the Saka rulers. The 12 months of the calendar are:
• It is a lunar calendar as it is based on the movement of the • Muharram
moon. • Safar
• Every year is divided into 12 months and each month is • Rabi’ al-awwal (Rabi’ I)
divided into two phases. • Rabi’ al-thani (Rabi’ II)
• The bright half is called the Shuklapaksha (15 days). It • Jumada al-awwal (Jumada I)
starts with the new moon and ends with a full moon.
• Jumada al-thani (Jumada II)
• The dark half is called the Krishnapaksha (15 days). It starts • Rajab
with the full moon and ends with a new moon.
• Sha’ban
Saka Samvat: • Ramadan
• 78 A.D. is a Zero Year. • Shawwal
• It was initiated by King Shalivahan. • Dhu al-Qi’dah
• It is both solar and lunar calendar, with lunar months and • Dhu al-Hijjah
solar year.
GREGORIAN CALENDAR
• It was adopted by the Government of India as the official Scientific calendar: Every year has 365 days, 5 hours, 48
calendar in the year 1957. minutes and 46 seconds.
• Every year has 365 days.
nnnn
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Art & Culture UNESCO

UNESCO
Unesco Representative List of India’s Intangible Kumbh Mela Largest peaceful congregation
Cultural Heritage of Humanity of pilgrims on the earth; held at
Ramlila Traditional Performance of Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain, and
Ramayana Nasik every four years by rotation.
Nowruz Beginning of Persian calendar Yoga Consists of a series of poses,
usually 21st march or +- 1 day meditation, controlled breathing,
Buddhist Ladakh, J&K word chanting, and other techniques
chanting designed to help individuals build
recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in
self-realization, ease any suffering
the trans-Himalayan Ladakh
they may be experiencing and allow
Ramman Garhwal Himalayas religious festival for a state of liberation.
and ritual theatre (UK)
Vedic Chanting Practitioners are taught from
Kalbelia Rajasthan childhood complex recitation based
Folk songs and dances once on tonal accents, a unique manner of
professional snake handlers. pronouncing each letter, and specific
Today, women as serpent dancing on speech combinations; embraces a
mens been multitude of texts and interpretations
Chhau dance Orissa, Jharkhand, WB collected in four Vedas- “books of
knowledge”.
Episodes from epics including
Mahabharata & Ramayana Famous Universities of India
performed on Chaitra Parva origin Odantapuri Patronage of Pala dynasty KiNg
traced to martial practices. (Bihar) Gopala I. It was a Buddhist
Performed at night on reed pipes mahavihara destroyed by Bakhtiyar
mohuri and shehnai Khilji.
Kutiyattam Kerala Vikramshila Established by King Dharampala

(Bihar) of Pala dynasty, The Vajrayana
Sanskrit Theatre
sect flourished here and Tantric
Mudiyettu Kerala teachings were taught. Other
Mythological tale of a battle subjects like logic, Vedas, astronomy,
between goddess Kali & demon urban development, law, grammar,
Darika philosophy, etc were also taught.
Sankirtana Manipur Jaggadala probably established by King
Manipur singing, drumming and (Bengal) Ramapala of Pala dynasty Centre of
dancing ritual of Manipur learning for the Vajrayana sect of
Thatherus Punjab Buddhism, in Bengal. Many scholars
Utensils took shelter here after Nalanda and
Punjab Traditional brass and copper
Vikramshila declined.
craft of utensil of Thatheras
Valabhi (Gujrat) Supported by the grants of rulers of
Durga Puja Worship of the Hindu mother-
Maitraka Dynasty of Gujarat.centre of
Kolkata goddess Durga; sculpt images of
learning for the Hinayana Buddhism.
Durga using unfired clay pulled from
the Ganga River.
Art & Culture 116
Art & Culture UNESCO
Nalanda (Bihar) Probably established by Manyakheta It rose to prominence under the

Kumargupta. All three Buddhist (Malkhed, Rashtrakuta rule. Scholars of Jainism,
doctrines were taught here but Karnataka) Buddhism and Hinduism studied
Mahayana Buddhist teachings. here. It has a ‘matha’ of Dvaita school
Subjects like Vedas, fine arts, of thought.
grammar, philosophy, logic, Pushpagiri Established by Kalinga kings around
medicine, etc were also taught Vihara and 3rd century AD near the Udayagiri
here. Famous scholars; Nagarjuna Lalitagiri hills. It was mainly a Buddhist
(Madhyamika Shunyavad) and (Odisha) learning centre.
Aryabhatta the astronomer.
Sharada Peeth Important place for the Sanskrit
Takshashila It is said that Chanakya composed (Pakistan- scholars and many important texts
(Pakistan) the Arthashastra at this place. Both occupied were written here. It also has a
Buddhist and Hindu theologies were Kashmir) Sharda Devi temple.
taught here. Famous teachers and
Nagarjuna (Andhra Pradesh) and it was a major
students; Chanakya, Charaka, Panini,
konda Buddhist centre with scholars from
Jivaka, Prasenajit, etc.
Sri Lanka, China, etc coming for
Kancheepuram A centre of learning for Hinduism, higher-education. It was named after
Jainism and Buddhism from 1st Nagarjuna, a south Indian scholar of
century AD and achieved great name Mahayana Buddhism.
under the rule of Pallavas.
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Art & Culture 117

ANCIENT PORTS
Art & Culture 118

Art & Culture Ancient Ports
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Art & Culture 119

Art & Culture Handicraft, Traditional Sarees, Bronze Craft, Other Metal Craft and Embroidery

HANDICRAFT, TRADITIONAL SAREES,
BRONZE CRAFT, OTHER METAL CRAFT AND
EMBROIDERY
HANDICRAFTS TRADITION Bomkai Odisha Silk and cotton saree with

ikat, embroidery.
Handicrafts on Cloth:
Konrad Tamil Nadu Fabric It is also called a
Bandhani or Even presently in Rajasthan and
temple saree.
Bandhej Gujarat. Popular in Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu also. Kosa Chhattisgarh A silk saree.
Paithani Maharashtra Silk saree embroidered
Laharia This is usually made in Jaipur and
with gold colour Kalamkari.
Jodhpur.
Which is also called the ‘resist dyeing’ Andhra Pradesh Use of pen for
Ikat
method. Major centres for this work painting designs.
are Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat and Kasavu Kerala Saree characterized by thick
Andhra Pradesh. golden border.
Kalamkari Andhra Pradesh Dabu Chittorgarh, Rajasthan. an ancient
Batik art is famous in Madhya mud resist hand block printing
Batik Art
Pradesh and West Bengal. technique used on cotton fabric.
Tanchoi Weaving is said to be derived from Bronze Crafts
Chinese inspiration. This might have Gaja Tandava Shiva dancing in the Tandava
come to Surat in Gujarat via the (Kerala) position.
trading communities. Rare Jain Aand icons Reflects the need of
Jamdani that weaves muslin with opaque imagery ancient Jain pilgrim centres in
(West Bengal) patterns on a transparent background (Karnataka) Karnataka.
in different styles. Dokra Casting Used for ornaments made of brass.
Traditional Regional Sarees of India (Odisha and Odisha and West Bengal.
Name Produced mainly in Details West Bengal)
Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh Air India airlines Pahaldar Copper and brass lamps in different
crew wears this saree. Lamps (Jaipur styles and shapes.
Patola Patan Gujarat Rich handloom sarees. and UP)
Baluchari Murshidabad, West Bengal. Pembarthi Exquisite sheet metal (brass) art to
Jamdani West Bengal craft adorn Chariots and temples.
(Telengana)
Tanchoi Brocades Varanasi A kind of banarasi
saree. Crafts from other Metals
Chanderi Madhya Pradesh Silk. Marori work of Rajasthan
Ilkal Karnataka Use of kasuti embroidery Badla Which are semi-circular or rounded
with chariot and elephant as common pots made in Marwar region of
motifs. Rajasthan by using zinc.
Tant West Bengal Crisp cotton, printed Other major work on metal is done
saree. in Moradabad who perfects the
Nauvari Maharashtra A single nine-yard sari technique of Baarik Kaam or delicate
also known as Kasta saree. work.
Art & Culture 120

Art & Culture Handicraft, Traditional Sarees, Bronze Craft, Other Metal Craft and Embroidery
Rajasthani artists have also perfected • Aari J&K and Gujarat.

Tarkashi
(Rajasthan) the technique of Koftagiri. • Mirror work Rajasthan and Gujarat Use of small
Kansari (West Bell metal workers. pieces of mirrors Dharaniya Gujarat Embroidered wall
Bengal) hangings used at the homes.
• Heer Gujarat Bold geometric patterns worked in silk.
A LIST OF EMBROIDERIES IN INDIA • Gota Rajasthan Small pieces of gold zari ribbon.
Name of Embroidery Produced mainly in Details: • Akshida Bihar Similar to Bagh.
• Rabari Gujarat animal decorations by the Rabari tribe • Kasuti Karnataka.
of Gujarat. Pichwai Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• Floor Designs.
• Shamilami Manipur It mixes weaving and embroidery.
• Chowkpurna of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
• Phool Patti ka Kaam Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.
• Aipan designs of Himachal Pradesh.
• Toda Toda tribes of Tamil Nadu Similar to Kantha work.
• Mandana of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh literally
• Banni Gujarat By the Lohana community. Use of silk means mandan (decoration).
floss for embroidery of geometrical motifs including
• Santhias are made in Gujarat to decorate the entrance
use of glass works.
of houses.
• Banjara Lambada tribes of Andhra and Banjara tribes of
• Rangoli of Maharashtra uses elegant shapes and motifs
MP.
like lotus, swastik, etc.
• Mukesh Uttar Pradesh Involves twisting thin metallic
• Kolam designs of South India It is also called Hase
threads to create patterns all over the fabric.
in Karnataka, Muggulu in Andhra Pradesh, Golam in
• Karchobi Rajasthan. Kerala.
• Pipli (Odisha)Based on patchwork where brightly. • Jhonti of Odisha and the Aripana designs of West
• Chikankari Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. Bengal and Assam are highly stylised.
• Kantha West Bengal and Odisha. • kalam ezhuthu Ritual floor painting of Kerala.
• Phulkari Punjab.
VARIOUS TYPES OF TOYS
• Zardozi Uttar Pradesh Uses combination of gold, silver
• Beautiful dolls were made of Red wood, for example,
or copper wire with silver or golden polish and silk
the Tirupati dolls that are prevalent in Andhra Pradesh.
threads.
• Channapatna toys (Karnataka).
• Kashidakari J&K.
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Art & Culture 121

Art & Culture Martial Arts

MARTIAL ARTS
• Martial art literally means “arts concerned with the waging of war”. India has a long history of martial arts. Various Indian
martial arts have originated from various ancient war skills.
MARTIAL ARTS DESCRIPTION

“Kalari”®Arena+ “Payattu” ®combat/fighting.
Kalarippayattu Involves strikes, kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry and healing methods.
(Kerala specially) The most important key is footwork.
According to legends, sage Parasurama started Kalaripayattu
Combat-Wrestling type. Unarmed type.
Four types:
Malla-Yuddha 1. Hanumanti – for technical superiority
(South India) 2. Jambuvanti – focuses on locking and holding till opponent gives up
3. Jarasandhi – breaking limbs and joints
4. Bhimaseni – focuses on sheer strength
Majorly used “Silambam staff” as a weapon. (staff – a traditional pole weapon. It has many variants from
just a stick to having knife at one end)
Silambam (Tamil
Foot movements plays a key role
Nadu)
“Kuttu varisai” – a variant of silambam & uses no weapon
According to legends, this martial art was developed by Lord Muruga (son of Lord Shiva) & sage Agasthya
Weapon based
Used by Sikhs mainly
Gatka (Punjab)
Gatka means – “One whose freedom belongs to race”
Stick, Sword, kirpan or kataar used as weapon
Musti Yuddha Unarmed Martial Art.
(Varanasi) It has all three aspects physical, mental and spiritual
Weapon Based
“Thang” means sword. “Ta” means spear.
Anything from sword or spear can be used.
Thang Ta Other weapons used are shield and axe.
(Manipur) Used in three different ways
1. As absolutely ritual in nature
2. As spectacular performance
3. As actual Fighting technique
Weapon Based
Lathi (Punjab &
Cane Sticks used
Bengal)
Popular more in villages
Art & Culture 122

Art & Culture Martial Arts
Mardani Khel Weapon Based, Created by Marathas

(Kolhapur, Suitable for hilly regions
Maharashtra) Uses sword mainly & needs rapid movements
Weapon Based
. Pari-Khanda
Created by Rajputs
(Bihar, Jharkhand,
“Pari” means shield & “Khanda” means sword
Odisha)
Foremd the basis of Chhau dance
Unarmed Type
Has strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and bending of the knees.
Inbuan Wrestling
Aim is to lift the opponent off his feet while strictly adhering to the rules
(Mizoram)
Catching hold of the belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist; it has to remain tight all through the
game.
Unarmed Type
“Kuttu Varisai” means empty hand combat
Kuttu Varisai
First mentioned in Sangam Literature
(South India)
used to improve footwork and athleticism through gymnastics, stretching, yoga and breathing exercises
use of animal-based sets which includes tiger, snake, elephant, eagle and monkey
Cheibi Gadga Weapon Based
(Manipur) Uses sword and shield
Unarmed Type
Sarit-Sarak
Hand to hand combat
(Manipur)
Perfect in its evasive and offensive action
Weapon Based
Thoda (Himachal Originated from the times of Mahabharata
Pradesh) Generally based on archery skills
“Thoda” is the round piece of wood fixed to the head of the arrow
Unarmed
Wrestling Type
Mukna (Manipur)
Two men with their hands holding clothe bands on each other waists wrestle with one another and
attempts to throw the other down, and the victor should always be on top of the one falling down
Lakna-Phanaba Unarmed, Wrestling Type
(Manipur)
Karra Samu Armed Type, Basically stick fighting
(Andhra Pradesh)
Kathi Samu Armed Type, Basically sword fighting
(Andhra Pradesh)
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Art & Culture 123

Art & Culture Important Books-Authors, Foreign Travellers, Jain and Buddha Vocabulary

IMPORTANT BOOKS-AUTHORS, FOREIGN
TRAVELLERS, JAIN AND BUDDHA
VOCABULARY
IMPORTANT BOOKS AND AUTHORS
Malavikagnimitram (Love story of
Agnimitra Sunga(son of Pushyamitra
Authors Books Kalidas Sunga) and Malavika)
Amarasimha Amarakosha Meghaduta;
Aryabhatiya(Book on astronomy and Raghuvamsa;

Aryabhatta mathematics) Kumarasambhava;
Vikramorvasiyam(Love story of Vikram
Buddhacharita(Buddhist literature in and Urvasi)
Sanskrit) Abhijnanashakuntalam (The recognition
Asvaghosha of Shakuntala)
Vajrasuchi
Suandarananda Kamandaka Nitisara (On Polity)
Harshacharita King Bhoja Rajmariganka (On Astronomy)
Banabhatta
Kadambari
Lagdhacharya Book on astrology
Bharata Muni Natyasastra
Madhava Madhava Nidana(Book on pathology)
Siddhanta Shiromani [4 parts – Lilavati,
Bhaskaracharya Bijaganita, Grahaganita & Gola (on Mathara Nitishastra (On Polity)
Astronomy)] Nyayachandra Hammirakavya
Bhattin Ravan Vadha Padmagupta Navashasankacharita
Uttarama-Charita (Continuation to Panini Ashtadyayi
Bhavabhuti Valmiki Ramayana)
Malati Madhava Patanjali Mahabhasya
Bhoja Saraswati Kanthabharana Karpuramanjari
Bala Ramayana
Vikramanakadevacharita (Chalukya king Rajashekhara Bala Bharata
Bilhana Kavyamimamsa
Vikramaditya) Bhuvana Kosha
Bilhana Karnasundari Haravilasa
Billala Bhojaprabandha Sudraka Mrichakatik (Drama)
Brahmasiddhanta Sushruta Sushruta Samhita (Book on surgery)

Brahmagupta
Khandakhadya Tisata- Chikitsakalika or Yogamala
Vagbhatta’s Son
Chandrabardai Prithvirajcharita
Vagabhatta Astanga-Sangraha
Charaka Charaka Samhita (Book on medicine) Astanga-Hirdaya-Samhita
Dandi Dasakumaracharita Vakpati Gudavaho (Yasovarman of Kannauj)
Devabhadra Parsvanathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Valmiki Ramayana
Devachandra Shantinathacharita (Jaina Narrative) Panchsiddhantika(Book on Astrology)
Dhananjaya Dasharupa Suryasiddhanta
Varahamihira Brihatsamhita(book on wide range of
Hemchandra Dvayashraya Mahakavya; Sapta Sadhana topic like planetary movements, geology,
architecture etc.)
Hiuen Tsang Si-yu-Ki
Vardhamana Adinathacharita (Jaina Narrative)
Jayadeva Prasannaraghava
Ved Vyas Mahabharata
Jayanka Prithviraja Vijay
Vijnanaeshvara Mitakasara
Jayasimha Kumarapalacharita
Visaladeva Harikeli Nataka
Mudrarakshasa (Chandragupta Maurya
Vishakhadatta defeating the Nandas);
Devichandraguptam (Story of
Chandragupta Maurya)
Art & Culture 124

FOREIGN TRAVELLERS
Traveller/ Identity/Job Duration Reign of the Contribution
Envoy Ruler
Ptolemy Greco-Roman 130 CE Wrote a book named “Geography of India”
mathematician,
Geographer,
astronomer etc.
Megasthenes Greek 302-298 BCE Chandragupta wrote a book named “Indica”
Ambassador of Maurya
Selecus Nikator
Deimachos Greek 320-273 BCE Bindusara
Ambassador
Fa-Hien Chinese 405-411 CE Chandragupta II First Chinese pilgrim. Wrote a travelogue
Buddhist monk “Vikramaditya” “Fo-Kyo-Ki” (the records of Buddhist
Kingdoms)
Sung Yun Chinese 515-520 CE He was sent by the devout Buddhist
Buddhist monk Empress Hu of the Northern Wei Dynasty.
He returned with 170 mahayan texts
Hiuen Tsang Chinese 630-645 CE Harshavardhana Came through Taskent and Swat valley.
Buddhist monk Wrote a travelogue “Si-Yu-Ki” (The records of
Western World)
I-tsing Chinese Traveller 671-695 CE Wrote records of his 25-year travels
contributed to the world knowledge of
the ancient kingdom of Srivijaya, as well
as providing information about the other
kingdoms lying on the route between
China and the Nalanda Buddhist university
in India.
Al-Masudi Arab Traveller 957 CE Gave an extensive account of India in
“Muruj-ul-Zahab”
Al-Beruni(Abu Iranian Scholar 1024-1030 CE Wrote “ Tahqiq-i-Hind/Kitab-ul-Hind. Known
Rehan and Polymath as founder of Indology
Mahamud)
Marco Polo Venetian 1292-1294 CE Pandyan ruler Wrote “The Book of Sir Marco Polo” on the
Traveller of Madurai, economic history of India
Madverman,
Kulshekhara
Ibn Batuta Morrish Traveller 1333-1347 CE Muhammad-Bin- Wrote a travelogue “ Rehla”
Tughlaq
Shihabuddin Syrian Traveller 1348 CE Wrote a book “Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-
al-Umari amsar”
Nicolo Conti Italian Merchant 1420-1421 CE Devraya I of Gave a graphic account of Vijayanagara,
Sangam Dynasty referred “Telugu” as “Italian of the East”
of Vijayanagar
empire
Art & Culture 125

Abdur Razzaq Ambassador 1443-1444 CE Devaraya II of Stayed at the court of Zamorin of Calicut.
of Shahrukh of Sangam Dynasty Gave a brief account of Calicut and
Timurid dynasty of Vijayanagar Vijayanagara, in his Matla us Saddin wa
and Persian empire Majuma ul Baharain
Traveller
Athanasius Russian 1470-1474 CE Visited South India in 1470 described the
Nikitin merchant condition of the Bahmani kingdom under
Muhammad III. Wrote a narrative “The
journey beyond 3 seas”
Duarte Barbosa Portuguese 1500-1516 CE gave a brief description of the government
Traveller and the people of Vijayanagar Empire
Dominigo Paes Portuguese 1520-1522 CE Krishnadeva Raya
Traveller of Vijayanagar
Empire
Fernao Nuniz Portuguese 1535-1537 CE Achyutdeva Raya Wrote history of the empire from its earliest
Portuguese Merchant of Tuluv dynasty times of the closing years of Achyutdeva
Merchant of vijayanagar Raya’s reign
Empire
John Hughen Dutch Traveller 1583 CE Gave a valuable account of the social and
Von Linschotten economic life of South India
William Ambassador 1608-1611 CE Jahangir
Hawkins of British King
James I
Sir Thomas Roe Ambassador 1615-1619 CE Jahangir
of British King
James I
Edward Terry Ambassador of 1616 CE Wrote “A Voyage to East-India”. English
Sir Thomas Roe chaplain at the English embassy to the
Mughal empire
Franciso Dutch Traveller 1620-1627 CE Stayed at Agra. Gave a vivid account of
Palsaert the flourishing trade at Surat, Ahmadabad,
Broach, Cambay, Lahore, Multan etc.
Peter Mundy Italian Traveller 1630-1634 CE Shahjahan Gave valuable information about the living
standard of the common people in the
Mughal Empire
Jeen Baptiste French Traveller 1638-1663 CE Visited India 6 times. Account covers the
Tavernier reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
John Albert de German traveller 1638 CE Reached Surat in 1638 CE
Mandesto
Nicolao Italian Traveller 1653-1708 CE Dara Sikoh
Manucci
Francois Bernier French physician 1656-1717 CE Aurangzeb’s
and Philosopher noble -
Danishamand
Khan
Jean de French Traveller 1666 CE Gave an account of cities like Ahmadabad,
Thevenot Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda
Art & Culture 126

John Fryer English Traveller 1672-1681 CE Gave a vivid account of Surat and Bombay
Gemelli Careri Italian Traveller 1695 CE Landed at Daman. Important remarks on
the Mughal emperor’s military organisation
and administration
JAIN VOCABULARY
Jain Vocabulary
Name Meaning
Abhyantara tapa Internal austerity
Abrahama unchasity
Adana-niksepa regulation of actions of taking or
samiti placing Jain Vocabulary
Agama sacred precepts Name Meaning
Aghatiya karma the non-destructive karma Aparigraha abstention from greed for worldly
Ahimsa abstention from injury to living possessions
beings Apauraseya of non-human origin
Ailaka the grade of ascetics of Digambara Apavadiki nivrtti partial renunciation
sect below that of Nirgrantha Ap-kaya jivas water-bodied souls
grade
Apta Tirthankara
Ajiva non-soul, non-living substance
Arati waving of lights in front of an idol
Akasa space
Arjika a female ascetic
Aksata sacred rice
Artha wealth, worldly prosperity
Amanaska Jivas souls having no mind
Asatya falsehood
Anagara-dharma ethical code for non-householders,
Asrama a stage in life
i.e. ascetics.
Asrava the attraction of karmic matter
Ananta-chatustaya infinite quaternary
towards the soul
Ananta-darsana infinite perception
Asubha-asrava influx of vice or demeritorious
Ananta-jnana infinite knowledge karmas into the soul
Ananta-sukha infinite bliss Asteya abstention from theft
Ananta-virya infinite power Atichara transgression, short coming
anarthadanda- a vow to abstain form wanton Atithi-samvibhaga- a vow to feed ascetics and/ or pious
vrata unnecessary activities vara householders
Anasana fasting Atman soul, spirit
Anatmavada belief in the non-existence of soul Atmavada belief in existence of soul
Anekanta manifoldness Autsargiki nivrtti complete renunciation
Anekantavada many-sided view-point, doctrine Avadhi-jnana clairvoyant knowledge of matter
of manifold aspects
Avamodarya eating less
Anga essential requisite, component,
Avasarpini descending
limb
Avasyakas necessary daily duties
Anihnava Without concealment of knowledge
Avatara incarnation
Antaraya karma the obstructive-karma
Avidya ignorance
Anumana inference
Avirati vowlessness, non-renunciation
Anupreksa reflection
Aviveka want of discrimination
Anu-vrata a small vow
Ayu-karma the age-determining karma
Anu-vrata the small vow movement
Baddha jivas souls in bondage
Andolana
Bahumana great honor or zeal
Art & Culture 127

Jain Vocabulary Jain Vocabulary

Name Meaning Name Meaning
Bahya-parigraha actual possession of worldly objects Deva-mudhata belief in false gods
Bahya-tapa external austerities Deva-puja worship of God
Bla-mada pride of power, pride of one’s own Dharma religion, religious merit, virtue,
strength medium of motion
Bandha bondage of soul by karmic matter Dharma-guru a religious authority
Bhakti faith, devotion Dhrauvya permanence
Bharata-varsa India, i.e., the country named after Dhundhia Searchers, another name of
Bharata, the eldest son of the Sthanakvasi sub-sect of Svetambara
first Jaina Tirthankara Adinatha sect
(Risabhdeva) Dhyana mediation, concentration of mind
Bhasa-samiti regulation of mode of speech Digambara sky-clad, naked, name of a major sect
Bhattaraka a Dharma-guru of Digambara Jainas of Jainas
Bhavana contemplation Digvrata avow to limit worldly activity to fixed
Bhogabhumi enjoyment-region points in all directions
Bispantha name of sub-sect of Digambara Diksa initiation
Jainas Diksa-vidhi initiation rite
Brahmacharya abstention form unchasity or Dravya substance
sexuality Dravya-naya the substantial point of view
Brahma- the first stage in life of study and Dvi-indriya jivas Souls having first two senses of touch
charayasrama preparation and taste
Chiatya idol or statue Esana samite regulation of seeking or eating food
Chaityalaya a temple Evambhuta Naya the ‘such-like’ standpoint
Chaityavasi temple residents, another name Ganadhara spokesman of Tirthankara
of Murtipujaka sub-sect of Gati form of existence
Svetambara sect
Ghatiya karma the destructive karma
Chakravarti Emperor, a paramount sovereign
Gotra karma the family-determining karma
Charitra biographies of great teachers and
Grantha book, correct use of the words
personages
Grharambhi himsa accidental injury, injury due to
Chatur-indriya- souls having first four senses of
household activities
Jivas touch, taste, smell and sight
Grahasthasrama the second stage in life of a house
Chaturyama fourfold religion
holder
Dharma
Guan quality
Chaurya theft
Guna-vrata a multiplicative vow
Chhedopasthapana recovery of lost equanimity
Gupti regulation, control
Dana charity
Guru teacher, preceptor, guide
Darsanavaraniya the conation-obscuring karma
Gurupasti worship of the preceptor
karma
Himsa injury
Dasalaksana observance of ten virtues
dharma Iray-samiti regulation of walking
Deravasi temple resident, another name Jaina a follower of Jaina religion

of Murtipujaka sub-sect of Jaina-dharma Jaina religion
Svetambara sect Jati-mada pride of cast
Desa-vrata a vow to limit worldly activity to a Jina spiritual victor
particular area. Jina-dharma Jain religion
Deva-gati celestial condition of existence
Art & Culture 128


Jinakalpi Sadhu an ascetic who observes prescribed Mandira-margi temple goers, another name
rules of conduct in the strictest form of Murtipujaka sub-sect of
Jiva soul, spirit, living substance Svetambara sect
Jnana knowledge Mano-gupti control
Jana-mada pride in learning Mano-yoga activity of mind
Jnanavaraniya the knowledge-obscuring karma Manu law giver
karma Manusya-gati human form
Kala time, period, age Matha monastery
Kama pleasure want Mati-jnana sense-knowledge
Kalpa a unit of the cosmic time Maya deception, illusion
Kamandalu a wooden water pot Mithyadarshana wrong belief
Kanksa desire for sense pleasure Mithyatva wrong belief
Karma subtle particles of matter Mohaniya karma the deluding-karma
Karmabhumi life based on efforts Moksa attainment of complete freedom
Karunya compassion for the afflicted beings of the soul from karmic matter,
salvation
Kasaya passion
Moksa-marga way to salvation
Kaya-gupti regulation of bodily activity
Mudhata superstitious belief
Kayaklesa mortification of the body
Mukta jiva a liberated soul
Kaya-yoga activity of body
Mukti complete liberation or emancipation
Kayotsarga the way of practicing penance in a
standing posture Mula-gunas basic attributes, root-virtues
Kevalajnana pure infinite knowledge Muhapatti a piece of white cloth kept always on
the mouth by Svetambara sadhus
Kevala-jnani the omniscient
Muni an ascetic
Kevali Jina the Jina who has attained Kevala-
jnana Muni-dharma ethical code for ascetics
Krodha anger Murtipujaka idol-worshipper, a major sub-sect of
Svetambara sect
Ksullaka the lowest grade of ascetics of
Digambara sect Naigama-naya the figurative point of view
Kulakara law giver Nama karma the body-making karma
Kula-mada pride of family Naraka-gati hellish form
Lanchhana emblem Naya a particular point of view, a mode of

expressing things
Loka universe
Nayavada system of describing reality from
Lobha greed
different points of view
Loka-mudhata belief in superstitions
Nirgrantha naked, a naked ascetic, the highest
Mada pride, arrogance grade of Digambar ascetics
Madhya-marga middle path Nirjara gradual removal of karmic matter
Madhyastha indifferent to ill-behaved persons from the soul
Maha-vrata a great vow Nirvana salvation, liberation
Maitri friendship Nischya naya the realistic point of view
Mana pride Niyoga levirate
Manahparyaya- capacity to know other’s mind Pakhandi mudhata belief in false ascetics
jnana Pancha-indriya souls having all five senses of touch,
Jivas taste, smell, sight and hearing
Paramasravaka best householder
Art & Culture 129


Parigraha worldly attachments and possessions Sadhu-margi followers of Sadhus, another name of
Parigraha- limitation of worldly attachments Sthanakvasi sub-sect
parimana Sadhvi a female ascetic
Parigraha- a vow not to exceed worldly Sagara-dharma ethical code for householders
parimana vrata attachments beyond a pre- Sakala-charitra complete or unqualified conduct
determined limit
Sallekhana ritual peaceful voluntary death by
Parihara-visuddhi pure and absolute non-injury fasting
Parisaha suffering, hardship, affliction Sambhirudha naya the specific standpoint
Parisaha-jaya subdual of sufferings Samanaska jivas souls having mind
Prayaya mode or form Samanya kevali the Jina or the omniscient involved in
Paryaya-naya the modal point of view his own salvation
Pichhi a peacock-feather whisk-broom Samayika equanimity, meditation
Pramada carelessness Samiti carefulness
Pramada-yoga careless activity of mind, speech or Samsara cycle of transmigration
body Samsari-jivas mundane souls, embodied souls
Pramana means of acquiring knowledge Samyag-jnana right knowledge
Pramoda delight for better qualified persons Samyak right
Pratikramana the recitation of the formulae of Samyak-charitra right conduct
confession of past faults
Samyaktva firm faith in Jaina religion/realities
Pratima a stage of ethical progress in a
Samyama practice of self-control
householder’s life
Samvara the stopping of asrava
Pratyakhyana the recitation of the formulae for
averting future faults Sangraha naya the class point of view
Prayaschitta expiation Sankalpa preconceived idea
Prthvi-kaya jivas earth-bodied souls Sankalpi himsa intentional injury
Prosadhopavasa a vow to fast on the four days of a Samsaya doubt
vrata month Samnyasa-asrama the last life stage of absolute
Pudgala matter renunciation
Puja worship Saptabhangi another name of Anekantavada,
the doctrine of seven-fold
Puja-mada pride in worship
predication
Pujera worshippers, another name of
Murtipujaka sub-sect of Svetambara Sat reality
sect Satya truth, abstention from false speech
Punya merit Sabda naya the verbal view point
Purana a biography of great teachers or Sanka doubt, scepticism
persons Sastra scripture
Rasa-parityaga renunciation of one or more Siddha jiva a liberated soul
delicacies in food Sila-vratas supplementary vows
Ratna-traya the three Jewels, viz., samyag- Sopadana propriety of behaviour
darsana, jnana and charitra Sravaka male householder, a layman
Rddhi-mada pride of wealth or accomplishments Sravaka-dharma ethical code for layman
Rjustra Naya the standpoint of momentariness Sravaka-gunas qualities of an ideal householder
Sachitta flowers, fruits and green vegetables Sravika female householder, a lay-woman
Sadhu a male ascetic Sruta-jnana scriptural knowledge
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Sthanaka a building meant for prayer and Upabhoga- a vow to limit enjoyment of
religious activities paribhoga- consumable and non-consumable
Sthanakvasi a major sub-sect of Svetambara parimana-vrata things
sect, Stahanak-resident Upadhyaya the sadhu in charge of instruction
Sthavara jiva immobile soul Upamana analogy
Sthavirakalpi ascetics who observe their rules of Upasraya a building meant for stay of
Sadhus conduct in a milder form Svetambara ascetics
Subha-asrava influx of virtue or meritorious karmas Utpada origination, appearance
Suddha ammaya pure and sacred tradition Utsarga-samiti regulation of movements connected
Sukla dhyan pure mediation with answering calls of nature
Suksma-sampraya all but entire freedom form passion Utsarpini ascending
Sutra aphoristic expression Uttama- supreme non-attachment
Svadhyaya study of scriptures akinchanya
Svetambara white-clad, name of a major sect of Uttama-arjava supreme simplicity

Jainas Uttama- supreme chastity
Swastika the particular sign considered brahamacharya
propitious Uttma-dharma supreme virtue
Syadvada many-sided view-point, the doctrine Uttama-ksama supreme forgiveness
of qualified assertion Uttama-mardava supreme humility or tenderness
Syat in some respect, some how, in a way Uttama-samyama supreme self-restraint
Tapa penance, austerity Uttama-satya supreme truthfulness
Tapa-mada pride of penance or religious Uttama-saucha supreme purity
austerities Uttama-tapa supreme austerity
Tarana-pantha name of a sub-sect of Digambara Uttama-tyaga supreme renunciation
sect, name of a major sub-sect of Vachana-yoga activity of speech
Svetambara sect
Vag-gupti stoppage of speech
Tattva principle, reality
Vaiyavrttya rendering service to saints
Tejah-kaya jiva a fire-bodied soul
Vanaprastha- the third stage in life of retirement
Terapantha name of a major sub-sect of asrama form worldly activities
Digambara sect, name of a major
Vanaspati-kaya jiva vegetable bodied and bacteria type
sub-sect of Svetambara sect
soul
Tirtha the contrivance which helps to cross
Vapu-mada pride of body or beautiful form or
the great ocean of worldly life
appearance
Tirthankara one who makes the Tirtha, ford-
Vayu-kaya jiva air-bodied soul
maker across the stream of existence,
Vedaniya karma the feeling karma
Great Guide, promulgator
Vibhrama vagueness, indefiniteness
Tirthankara Kevali the Kevali showing the path of
salvation to all beings Vichikitsa disgust of anything
Tiryancha-gati sub-human form Vikala-charitra partial or qualified conduct
Trasa jiva a mobile soul Vimoha attachment, delusion
Tri-indriya jivas souls having first-three senses of Vinaya reverent attitude, modest behaviour
touch, taste and smell Virodhi himsa protective injury
Udyami himsa occupational injury Vivikta-sayyasana sitting and sleeping in a secluded
place
Vrata a vow
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Jain Vocabulary Basic Buddhist Vocabulary

Vrati a person who observes vratas Bodhi enlightenment, awakening.
Vrtti- taking a mental vow regarding Bodhi tree -- the fig tree under which
parisamkhyana acceptance of food Buddha gained enlightenment.
Vyavahara-naya the practical point of view Bodhicitta sanskrit word for 'mind of
vyaya destruction, disappearance enlightenment'
Vyutsarga giving up attachment to the body Bodhidharma monk who brought Buddhism to
China.
Yathakhyata ideal and passionless conduct
Bodhisattva enlightened being who remains in
Yati a male ascetic
this existence to help others, a saint.
Yoga activity of mind, speech and body.
Brahma the supreme deva, who convinced
Basic Buddhist Vocabulary Buddha to teach.
Name Meaning Brahma vihara four "sublime states" of the
Abhidharma pitaka higher teachings, philosophy boddhisattva: Maitri, Karuna,
Mudita, Upeksa.
Alaya-vijñana "store" consciousness (similar to
Buddha The awakened one, the enlightened
collective unconscious)
one.
Amitabha the Buddha of the Western "Pure
Ch'an Chinese for Zen Buddhism.
Land." Also known as Amida.
Chandaka Buddha's squire, who helped him
Ananda Buddha's friend, cousin, and
leave his princely life.
favorite disciple, and the monk who
remembered the Sutras. Ching-T'u Chinese for Pure Land.
Anatman (anatta) not-self, self or ego not ultimately Citta basic mind or consciousness
real. Citta-matra mind only, idealism
Annitya (anicca) change, impermanence of all things, Dalai Lama the leader of Tibetan Buddhists.
including us. Deer Park where Buddha gave his first sermon,
Arahant Worthy one, a name for the Buddha. in Sarnath, near Benares, to the five
sadhus.
Arhat a monk who has achieved nirvana.
Dependent "one thing leads to another," all is
Asanga one of two brothers who lived in
origination connected.
India in the 300's ad who developed
Yogachara. Devadatta Buddha's "evil" cousin. "Theodore."
Asita the astrologer who predicts Buddha's Devas gods.
fate Dhamma Pali for dharma.
Asuras titans or demigods. Dharma (dhamma) the teachings of the Buddha.
Avalokiteshwara boddhisattva of compassion Dharmakaya Buddha-mind, the pervasive essence
Avidya (avijja) ignorance, delusion. Dharmas ultimate elements of the universe
Avadana (Sanskrit- “Noble Deeds”) legendary (not dharma as in teachings!)
material centring on the Buddha’s Dhyana (ch'an, meditation.
explanations of events by a person’s zen)
worthy deeds in a previous life. Dogen (1200- monk who brought Soto Zen to
Bardo (Tibet) the period between death 1253) Japan.
and rebirth. Duhkha (dukkha) suffering, distress, lack of peace. First
Bhagava The blessed one, a name for the noble truth.
Buddha. Dzogchen Tibetan tantric techniques for rapid
Bhikshu monk. enlightenment.
Bhikshuni nun. Dvesha (dosha) hatred, anger, avoidance.
Bodh-gaya a town in Bihar where Buddha was Eightfold Path right view, aspiration, speech, action,
enlightened at 35. livelihood, effort, mindfulness,
concentration.
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Basic Buddhist Vocabulary Basic Buddhist Vocabulary

Five sadhus the five ascetics who practiced self- Mahayana northern Buddhism ("large or greater
mortification with the Buddha. vehicle or journey").
Flower Adornment a sect which attempted to Maitreya the future Buddha, who will be born
School consolidate all forms of Buddhism. 30,000 years from now.
Also known as Hua-Yen or Kegon. Maitri caring, loving kindness displayed to
Gandharvas angelic beings who provide the gods all you meet. One of the four brahma
with music. vihara.
Gati realm. Used to refer to the six realms Manas I-consciousness, mind, intelligence
(gods, titans, humans, animals, Mandala a complex, circular, symmetrical
ghosts, and demons) image used in meditation
Gautama (Gotama) Buddha's family name. Mantra a phrase or syllable repeated during
Hinayana southern Buddhism ("small or lesser meditation
vehicle or journey"). Mara a deva associated with death and
Ho-tei Japanese name for Pu-tai hindrances to enlightenment. It was
Mara who tempted Buddha under
Indra a major deva, originally the Hindu
the bodhi tree.
sky god.
Marga the path, track. The eightfold noble
Jodo, Jodoshin Japanese for Pure Land. path. Fourth noble truth.
Kalpa millions of years, an eternity. Metta Pali for Maitri.
Kamma Pali for karma. Mudita sympathetic joy, being happy for
Kanthaka Buddha's horse. others, without a trace of envy. One
Kapilavastu Shakyan capital, where Buddha grew of the four brahma vihara.
up. Mudra symbolic hand positions
Karma (kamma) intentional or willed act. Nagarjuna monk who developed Madhyamaka
Karuna compassion or mercy, the special in India about 150 ad.
kindness shown to those who suffer. Nagas great serpents (or dragons, or water
One of the four brahma vihara. creatures). The king of the Nagas
protected Buddha from a storm.
Kashinagara were Buddha died (near Lumbini), in
a grove of sala trees. Narakas demons (hell beings)
Koan a very brief story demonstrating Nibbana Pali for nirvana.
the paradoxical nature of dualistic Nichiren Japanese school popular in west, and
thinking. Used in Zen meditation. the name of its founder. Emphasizes
chanting.
Kwan Yin, Chinese and Japanese names for
Kwannon Avalokiteswara. Nirmankaya Gotama, the historical Buddha.
Lama Tibetan tantric master, now often Nirodha containment of suffering. Third noble
truth.
used to refer to any respected monk.
Nirvana (nibbana) liberation, enlightenment, release
Lumbini Grove where Buddha was born, during his
from samsara.
mother's trip to her parents' home.
Pali a language related to Sanskrit in
Madhyamaka middle way, negative logic, not this
which the earliest scriptures were
-- not that
recorded in Sri Lanka.
Mahakyashapa the monk who understood the silent
Pali canon see the Tripitaka.
sermon and led the first council.
Pancha shila five moral precepts: Avoid killing,
Mahamaya, or Buddha's mother, who died seven or harming any living thing; Avoid
Mayadevi days after his birth stealing; Avoid sexual irresponsibility;
Mahaprajapati Buddha's aunt and stepmother, Avoid lying, or any hurtful speech;
founder of Buddhist nuns. Avoid alcohol and drugs which
diminish clarity of consciousness.
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Pañña Pali for prajña Shamatha "calm abiding," peacefulness.
Pitaka basket, referring to the Tripitaka or (samatha)
scriptures. Shikantaza mindfulness meditation in Zen
Prajña (pañña) wisdom. Buddhism.
Prajña goddess of knowledge. Buddha's Shila (sila) morality.
mother was considered an Shravaka "hearer," one who needs the help of
incarnation. others to become enlightened.
Prajñaparamita a massive collection of Mahayana Shrota-appana "stream-winner" (only seven more
texts, including the Heart and rebirths!).
Diamond Sutras. Shuddodana Buddha's father.
Prateyaka-buddha solitary realizer. Shunyata emptiness, lack of inherent existence
Pretas hungry ghosts. of "own nature."
Puja ceremony in which offerings and Siddhartha "He who has reached his goal."
other acts of devotion are performed. Gautama
Pu-tai the laughing buddha, chinese monk, Sila Pali for shila.
incarnation of Maitreya Six realms realms of the gods, asuras, humans,
Pure Land Chinese/Japanese sect, emphasizing animals, pretas, narakas.
worship of Amitabha Buddha. Ching- Skandhas parts of the self.
T'u, Jodo and Jodoshin. Smrti (sati) mindfulness, meditation.
Rahul Buddha's son. Son Korean for Zen Buddhism.
Rinzai Zen a Zen sect that makes extensive use Soto Zen A Zen sect emphasizing Shikantaza
of koans. meditation
Rupa form, the physical body and senses Sthaviravada Sanskrit for Theravada, "way of the
Samadhi meditation. elders"
Samatha Pali for Shamatha. Sujata the village girl who gave Buddha
Sambhogakaya Buddha as a deva or god. milk-rice.
Samjña perception Sukhavati Sanskrit for Blissful Land, the "Pure
Samsara the wheel of cyclic existence, birth- Land" of Amitabha.
life-suffering-death-rebirth. Sutra (sutta) pitaka sacred texts, sayings of the Buddha.
Samskara mental formations (emotions and Tantra yogic, magico-ritual form.
impulses) Taras a set of 21 female saviors, born from
Samudaya arising or root of suffering. Second Avalokiteshwara's tears. Green Tara
noble truth. and White Tara are the best known.
Sangha the community of monks and nuns. Tathagata "thus gone," a name for the Buddha.
Sanskrit an early language of northern India, Tendai see White Lotus School.
modified and used as a religious Thangka a traditional Tibetan painting of a
language by some Buddhists. holy being.
Sanzen interview with a master in Zen The Four Noble duhkha, samudaya, nirodha, marga.
Buddhism Truths
Sati Pali for smrti. Theravada "way of the elders," only surviving
Satori Zen term for enlightenment. form of southern Buddhism.
Shakyamuni Sage of the Sakyas, a name for the Three bodies nirmankaya, sambhogakaya,
Buddha. dharmakaya. Three meanings of
Shakyas a noble clan, ruled an area of "Buddha."
southern Nepal. Three fires (or the causes of suffering.
poisons)
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Tipitaka Pali for Tripitaka. Maha Kumbh Mela Prayag every 144 years
Tripitaka (three earliest Buddhist scriptures: Vinaya Holi last full moon day of Phalguna
baskets) pitaka, sutra pitaka, abhidarma Maha Shivaratri 13th night in Krishna Paksha of
pitaka. Phalguna
Trishna (tanha) Navaratri 9 forms of Shakti are worshipped on
-- thirst, craving,
9 nights
desire.
Vinayaga Chaturthi On occasion of birth of Ganesha
Upali the first person ordained as a monk
by the Buddha, a barber, and the Ramzan Muslims refrain from eating, drinking
monk who remembered the Vinaya and sexual relations from dawn until
or code of the monks. Upeksa sunset
(upekkha) is equanimity, levelness, or Intended to teach Muslims about
grace. One of the four brahma vihara. patience, humility & spirituality
Vajrayana tantric Buddhism ("thunderbolt Guru Purnima Buddhists in the honor of lord
vehicle"), esp. Tibetan Buddhism.
Buddha who gave his first sermon on
Vasubandhu one of two brothers who lived in this day at Sarnath
India in the 300's ad who developed
Yogachara. Hindus on this day offer Puja or pay
respect to their Guru
Vedana sensation, feeling.
Buddha Poornima Birth anniversary of Lord Buddha
Vijñana consciousness or mind.
Vasant Panchami Worshiping Saraswati – the goddess
Vinaya pitaka discipline basket (code of behavior
of knowledge, music and art
for monks).
Vipaka "fruit" of willed act, the Children are taught to write their first
consequences. words; Brahmins are fed ; ancestral
worship is performed; the god of
Vipashyana insight, mindfulness.
(vipassana) love- Kamadeva is worshipped
White Lotus School sect focusing on the Lotus Sutra. Also People usually wear yellow garments
known as T'ien T'ai or Tendai. Christmas Commemorate the birth of Jesus
Yama the king of the 21 hells. Easter Oldest and holiest Christian festival
Yashodhara Buddha's wife, whom he married – the day when Jesus Christ was
when they were both 16 crucified
Yidam mental image of a god or other entity On this day Jesus Christ rose from the
used for meditation dead and ascended into heaven
Yogacara (or school emphasizing primacy of Thai Pongal Harvest festival celebrated in Tamil
vijñañavada) consciousness Nadu, Puducherry and Sri Lanka
Zazen sitting meditation in Zen Buddhism To thank the Sun God and farmstead
Zen a group of Buddhist sects that focus livestock
on meditation. Also known as Ch'an, Boiling of milk in clay pot symbolize
Son, or Dhyana. material abundance for household
Kumbha Mela Held at all 4 places every 3 years Muharram Celebrated on the 1st month of the
by rotation (Allahabad, Haridwar, Islamic calendar unlawful to fight
Nashik, Ujjain) during this month
Associated rivers Ganga at Haridwar, the Sangam of Dree Festival an agricultural rite, which is observed
the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical by Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh
Saraswati at Allahabad, Godawari at involves sacrifice of fowls, eggs and
Nashik, and Shipra at Ujjain animals to the sun and moon god to
Ardha Kumbh Haridwar and Prayag every 6 years appease these Gods to avoid feminine.
Mela
Purna Kumbh Mela Prayag every 12 years nnnn
Art & Culture 135
INDIAN LITERATURE
It includes everything which is included in the word ‘literature’ in its broadest, sense: religious
and mundane, epic and lyric, dramatic and didactic poetry, narrative and scientific prose, as
well as oral poetry and song.
ANCIENT INDIAN LITERATURE
Vedic Sanskrit Literature

Vedic Literature: It is not true to say that the Vedas are a series of sacred texts used in religious
rituals and sacrifices. The Vedas are essentially archetypal poetry of high literary value. They
are mythical in nature and their language is symbolic like theologian moulds his rites, the
preacher seeks his belief, the philosopher finds the clues for his intellectual speculation and
the law-makers work out the social and political life-style in accordance with the archetypal
truths of the Vedas. Vedas give importance to yajna (sacrifice). Etymologically yajna means
the worship of the divine (Vision), coordination and giving (sacrifice) provide a basic
paradigm for any creative act.
Purana (Part of Classical Sanskrit)
The Puranas are the meeting point of diverse religious and social beliefs, are linked with the
vital spiritual and social needs and urges of the people, and are a unique outcome of the ever-
continuing synthesis based on an understanding between various groups of vedic Aryans and
non-Aryans.
Classical Sanskrit Literature
The Sanskrit language is divided into the Vedic and the classical. The great epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas are part of the classical period, but are
discussed separately because of their enormity and importance, and are undoubtedly the
precursors of Sanskrit Kavya (epic poetry), nataka (drama) and other literature. Classical Sanskrit
literature includes the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka (drama), lyric poetry, romance, popular tales,
didactic fables, gnomic poetry, scientific literature on grammar, medicine, law, astronomy,
mathematics, etc. Classical Sanskrit literature is on the whole secular in character. During the
classical period, language was regulated by the rigid rules of Panini, one of the greatest
Sanskrit grammarians.
 Kavya tradition : More focus on the form, such as the style, figure of speech, conceits,
descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the background. The overall
purpose of such a poem is to bring out the efficacy of a religious and cultured way of
life, without flouting any ethical norms
Examples of Epic Poetry

Kalidasa (380AD-415 AD) Kumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar), and Raghuvamsa
(the dynasty of the Raghus)
Bharavi (550 A.D.) Kiratarjuniyam (Discussion between Shiv and Arjun)
Magha (650-700 A.D.) Sishupalavadha
 Drama : stylized and is packed with poetry and descriptive prose. It moves on a level
of worldliness as well as on another level of other-worldiness i.e. he movement from
attachment to non-attachment, from temporality to eternity, or from flux to
timelessness.
Natyashastra, by Bharata (1st century B.C.-1st century A.D.) describes rules and prescriptions
regarding performance, the theatre hall, acting, gestures, Rasa, stage direction.
o Kalidasa, poet of love and beauty, have written Malavikagnimitra (Shunga

Agnimitra), Vikramorvasiya and Abhigyana Shakuntala.
o Sudraka (248 A.D.) - Mricchakatika (the clay-cart) presents a remarkable social
drama with touches of grim reality and interlinking of a political revolution with
the private affairs of the two lovers adds new charm to the play.
o Bhasa (4th century B.C.-2nd century A.D.), which were discovered at the
beginning of the 20th century, are accepted as the most stagable plays of Sanskrit
theatre. The most popular is Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream) where
the playwright has displayed his skill of characterization and a fine manipulation
of the plot.
o Bhavabhuti (700 A.D.) Uttara-Ramacharitam (the later life of Rama)
 Lyrical poetry: Constitutes a fusion of erotic and religious sentiments. In fact, division
between art and religion in Indian culture seems to be less sharp than in Europe and
China. In Kalidasa’s narrative lyric poem, Meghaduta , cloud as messenger tell the
story of two lovers who are separated which is to keep sublime conception of love,
which looks dark in separation, like a black cloud with a silver lining. Jayadeva (12
century A.D.) wrote the lyric poetry Gitagovinda to describe every phase of love
beween Krishna and Radha – longing, jealousy, hope, disappointment, anger,
reconciliation and fruition – in picturesque lyrical language.
 Didactic fable: Panchatantra (five chapters), written by Vishnu Sharma, dealing with
politics and practical wisdom. Hitopadesha, written by Narayan Pandit , the bird,
animal-human and non-human stories of advice for the benefit of the listeners, These
literary masterpieces crossed the borders of the sub-continent and became popular in
foreign lands. So, whole of Sanskrit literature was just not religious or elitist. These
popular fables are obviously a retelling of folklore.
Literature in Pali and Prakrit
Pali and Prakrit were the spoken languages of Indians after the Vedic period. Prakrit in the
widest sense of the term, was indicative of any language that in any manner deviated from
the standard one, i.e. Sanskrit. Pali is archaic Prakrit. In fact, Pali is a combination of various
dialects.
Buddhist Text in Pali : Vinaypitaka, suttapitaka , abhidhamma pitaka and jataka Kathas ,
Avadanas(Noble deeds) .Jataka tales grew in bulk, they assimilated popular tales, ancient
mythology, stories from older religious traditions, etc. Buddhist literature is also abundantly
available in Sanskrit, which includes the great epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.).
Jain tales in general are didactic in character and written in some forms of Prakrit. Much also
in the way of moral tale and poetry are to be found.
Gathasaptashati by king Hala (Satvahana ): Best example of erotic literature. It is a

compilation of 700 verses along with his own contribution of 44 poems. It is interesting to note
that quite a few poetesses like Pahai, Mahavi, Reva, Roha and Sasippaha are included in the
anthology.
The vast Katha (story) literature of Prakrit, written with a conspicuous religious overtone,
even by Jain saints, is full of erotic elements. The author of the Vasudevahindi ascribes this
changed approach of the Jain authors to the fact that it is easy to teach religion cloaked by
erotic episodes, like sugar-coated medicine. The characteristic of Prakrit poetry is its subtlety;
the inner meaning (Hiyaali) is its soul. Jain literature is available in Sanskrit too, like the
Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).
Early Dravidian Literature

Dravidian literature mainly consists of the four classical languages, Tamil(oldest in
Dravidian), Telugu, Kannada(Cultured one ) and Malayalam(Newest). All these languages
have borrowed many words from Sanskrit and vice versa.
Sangam literature: Two themes aham (subjective love poems), and puram (objective, public
poetry and heroic). The Sangam classics, consisting of 18 works (eight anthologies of lyrics
and ten long poems), are well known for their directness of expression. These were written
by 473 poets, among whom 30 were women, the famous poetess Avvaiyar being one of
them. Tamil grammar Tolkappiyam,written by Tolakappiyar , was written, to understand
early Tamil poetry. It indicates five landscapes or types of love, and outlines their symbolic
conventions. The famous Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar, serves as a manual of precepts to
guide one to noble living(Ethics). It expounds a secular, moral and practical attitude towards
life. The twin epics, Silappadhikaram (the story of the anklet), written by Ilango-Adigal,
and Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar, were written sometimes in A.D.
200-300 and give vivid accounts of Tamil society during that period. If Tamil reveals a
triumph of Brahmanic and Buddhist knowledge, Kannada shows Jain ascendency in its
ancient phase. Malayalam absorbed a rich treasure contained in the Sanskrit language.
Nannaya (A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet.
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
After 7-8th Century A.D, local differences in Prakrit grew more and more pronounced, which
later came to be known as Apabhramsa, and this led to the modern Indian languages taking
shape and being born. These languages, conditioned by the regional, linguistic and ethnic
environment, assumed different linguistic characteristics. Urdu is the youngest of the modern
Indian languages, taking its shape in the 14th century A.D., deriving its script from an Arabic-
Persian origin, but vocabulary from Indo-Aryan sources, i.e. Persian and Hindi. Sanskrit,
though the oldest classical language, is still very much in use, and hence is included in the list
of modern Indian languages by the Constitution of India.
Bhakti Movement Literature

Unlike the dark middle ages of Europe, India’s middle ages brought about a very rich
tradition of devotional literature of remarkable merit which dispels the superstitious
assumption of a dark period of India’s history.
i. It discussed about worldly love (Kama -Eros) and divine love ( Prema -mystic Eros).
ii. It is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic approach to poetry. It is poetry of
connections – connecting the worldly with the divine, and as a result, the old form of
secular love poetry began to have a new meaning in all languages.
iii. The rise of bhakti poetry gave rise to regional languages (Bhasa). Kabir (Hindi) says
that Sanskrit is like water of a well stagnant, Bhasa like flowing water. A seventh
century Shaiva Tamil writer Manikkarvachakar has something similar to say about in
his book of poetry Thiruvachakam.
iv. The conception of bhakti did away with the elite tradition of Sanskrit and accepted the
more acceptable language of the common man.
v. Bhakti also attacked the age-old caste system and devoted itself to the worship of
humanity, because the catch-word of bhakti is that God is there in every human being.
vi. The movement was in essence subaltern, as most of its poets belonged to the so-called
‘lower’ castes.
vii. Bhakti is antitheology and against any kind of conceptual erudition.
viii. Bhakti became a great platform for Hindu-Muslim unity.
ix. The power of ancient bhakti poetry in Tamil set in motion what might well be
considered a pan-Indian efflorescence.
Devotional literature in Kannada called Vachanas realted to Krishna, Rama and Shiva cults,
Example: Pampa’s (10th century) , Basavanna (12th Century) ,Allama Prabhu (Kannada) wrote
great poetry under the garb of religion.
Devotional literature in Marathi, the close successor of Kannada, became the next venue for
bhakti.
i. Gyaneswar (1275 A.D.) – 1st bhakti poet and became famous for his poetic
contribution to bhakti for Vithal (Vishnu).
ii. Eknath (16th Century ): wrote devotional abhangas (a literary form)
iii. Tukarram (1608-1649 A.D.) whose songs cast a spell all over Maharasthra.
iv. Bhakti literature in Gujarati : poets like Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a
prominent place in the galaxy of the Vaishnava poets.
Afterwards, the sequential order is as follows: Kashmiri, Bengali, Assamese, Manipuri, Oriya,
Maithili, Braj, Avadhi (the last three languages come under the umbrella language, Hindi) and
other languages of India. Chandidas( Bengali poet), Vidyapati (Maithili) ,Lal Ded (Kashmiri
Muslim poetess), Govinda Das (16th century), Balaram Das are other famous saints .
Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1533), a great Bengali saint, helped Vaishnavism to turn
into a religious and literary movement, made it a living faith and became a source of never-
ending inspiration to a host of Bengali poets, including Jiva Goswami.
Sankardev (1449-1568), an Assamese devotional poet, used plays (Ankiya-Nat) and Kirtan
(devotional songs) to propagate Vaishnavism and became a legend.
Jagannath Das is a legendary devotional poet in Oriya who wrote Bhagavat (the story of
Krishna), which has spiritually united all the people of Orissa and created a living
consciousness.
Muslim and Hindu saint-poets of rural Bengal known as Bauls (mad lovers) created oral
poetry of divine intoxication under the influence of both Vaishnava and Sufi (Islamic
mysticism which enunciates the doctrine of divine love) philosophy.
Medieval Muslim Bengali poets like Daulat Kazi and Saiyad Alaoal (17th Century A.D.) wrote
narrative poems based on Sufistic philosophy, betraying a happy cultural and religious
synthesis of Islam and Hinduism.
Kabir (15th- 16th century) (Hindi) is the foremost among the poets of the sant tradition (faith
in one omnipresent god and not in many gods like Rama and Krishna). Kabir’s poetry touches
upon the various aspects of devotion, mysticism and social reforms. He is the First Indian
saint who has coordinated Hinduism and Islam by giving a universal path that could be
followed by both Hindus and Muslims
Hindi literature: With its supra-regional character, attracted Namdev (Marathi) and Guru
Nanak (Punjabi) and others to write in Hindi, which by then had developed into a
conglomeration of many languages and dialects, and came to be known as an umbrella
language. The centrality of Hindi and its vast geographical area was the reason for it. Surdas,
Tulsidas and Meera Bai (15th to 16th Century A.D.) point to the great heights of Vaishnavite
lyricism achieved by Hindi. Tulsidas (1532 A.D.) was the greatest of the Rama-bhakti poets
who wrote his famous epic, the Ramacharit Manas (the lake of the deeds of Rama). In fact,
epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata received a rebirth in the new languages. These
languages gave a fresh life, a renewed relevance, and a meaningful reincarnation to the great
Sanskrit epics, and these epics in their turn provided substance and style to the new languages
too. Kamban in Tamil, Krittibasa Ojha in Bengali, sarala Das in Oriya, Ezhuttacchan in
Malayalam, Tulsidas in Hindi and Nannaya in Telugu are well knoown and legion. Muslim
poets like Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Raskhan, Rahim and other wrote Sufi and Vaishnava
poetry. The religious and cultural synthesis that was a special feature of medieval India finds
abundant expression in its literature. Guru Nanak says truth is supreme, but above truth is
truthful living. The poetry of the Sikh Gurus and others like Kabir , ravidas is collected in the
Guru Granth Sahib . Bulleh Shah, the most famous Muslim Punjabi poet, popularised Sufism
through Punjabi Kafi (verse-form).
Kafi is a small poem in stanzas followed by refrain and is sung in a dramatic way. Shah
Latif, the famous Sindhi Muslim poet (1689 A.D.) in his sacred work Risalo explained Sufi
mystic love as the divine truth.
Women Poets of Bhakti

Women writers like Ghosha, Lopamudra, Gargi, Maitreyi, Apala, Romasha Brahmavadini,
etc., right from the days of the Vedas focused on the image of women in mainstream Sanskrit
literature. The songs of Buddhist nuns (6th century B.C.) like Mutta and Ubbiri and Mettika
in Pali express the torment of feelings for the life left behind. The Alwar women poets (6th
century A.D.), like Andal and others, gave expression to their love for the divine. Lal Ded
(1320-1384), the Muslim poetess from Kashmir Lalded & Habba Khatun, represented the sant
tradition of bhakti and wrote Vakhs (maxims), which are peerless gems of spiritual
experience. Meera Bai, in Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi (she wrote in three languages),
Avvayyar, in Tamil, and Akkamahadevi in Kannada, are well known for their sheer lyrical
intensity and concentrated emotional appeal. Their writings speak to us about the social
conditions prevailing at that time, and the position of woman at home and in society.
Other Trends in Medieval Literature

Love ballads and heroic poetry in Punjabi: known as Kissa and Var, were popular Punjabi
medieval forms like Hir Ranjha written by Warris Shah. Var is the most popular form of
Punjabi poetry, music and drama, all rolled into one, and has been in vogue since the earliest
times.
Secular Poetry in Hindi: Many poets like Bihari Lal and Keshav Das created secular poetry
of Sringara (erotic sentiment), and a large number of other poets, wrote academic accounts of
the entire range of poetry, in verse form.
Urdu Literature: Amir Khusro (1253 A.D.), an early architect of India’s composite culture, and
a great Sufi poet, who first experimented with Persian and Hindi (then known as Hindavi)
mixed poetry, which was the genesis of a new language, subsequently recognised as Urdu.
Urdu has largely followed Persian forms and metres in poetry, but it has adopted some of the
purely Indian forms also. Ghazals (lyrical couplets), marsia (elegy) and qasidah (ode of praise)
are of Iranian origin. Sauda (1706-1781) was the first among the late medieval poets who gave
vigour and versatility to Urdu poetry, which his predecessors had been struggling to
accomplish. Then, it was Dard (1720-1785) and Mir Taqi Mir (1722-1810) who gave Urdu
maturity and class, and ushered it into the modern period.
MODERN INDIAN LITERATURE

The 19th Century Indian Renaissance
The impact of western civilization, the rise of political consciousness, and the change in society
resulted in India’s acceptance of western thought on the one hand, and rejection of it on the
other, and resulted in an effort made to revive her ancient glory and Indian consciousness.
Indian renaissance in 19th century under foreign domination was different from its European
counterpart where scientific reasoning, individual freedom and humanism were the
dominant characteristics. The Indian renaissance took a different shape, in the context of the
Indian race, moment and milieu, and as a result, nationalistic, reformistic and revivalist
thinking found its way into literature, which slowly turned itself into a pan-Indian movement,
spearheaded in different parts of the country by renaissance leaders like Raja Rammohun Roy
(1772-1833), Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Vivekananda, Madhav Govind Ranade, U.V.
Swaminatha Aiyer, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, K.V. Pantulu, Narmada Shankar Lalshankar
Dave and othrs. The leaders of the renaissance, in fact, succeeded in instilling nationalistic
fervour in the people, and induced in them a desire for social reform and a sentimental
yearning for their past glory.
The most important literary event that revolutionised literature was the emergence of literary
prose in all the modern Indian languages, and the advent of the printing press, under the
patronage of an Englishman, William Carey (1761-1834), at Serampore, Bengal. It is true that
Sanskrit and Persian had a vast body of prose, but the necessity for prose in modern Indian
languages, for use in administration and higher education, led to the emergence of prose in
different languages at the beginning of the modern period. The birth of newspapers and
periodicals in Indian languages between 1800 and 1850 was extremely important for the
development of prose.
The Emergence of Nationalism

It is true that the idea of a modern state took root in Indian society because of India’s contact
with western ideas, but very soon, Indian writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali,
1838-1894) and others made use of this newly acquired concept of nationalism to attack
colonial rule, and in the process created their own brand of nationalism, rooted in the soil.
Bankim Chandra wrote many historical novels like Durgesh Nandini(1865), and Anand Math
(1882), acquired a pan-Indian popularity and made nationalism and patriotism a part of
dharma. This alternative was a distinctive civilizational concept of universalism that was
accepted by many as a reply to western colonialism.
Rabindra Nath Tagore (Bengali, 1861-1942) : He made federalism an important part of his
concept of national ideology. He said that the unity of India has been and shall always be a
unity in diversity. The foundation for this tradition had been laid in India at the social level,
not the political, by saints like Nanak, Kabir, Chaitanya and others. It is this solution-unity
through acknowledgement of differences-that India has to offer to the world. As a result,
India’s nationalism is mingled with its spiritual tradition, with truth and tolerance preached
by Mahatma Gandhi, and non-alignment advocated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, showing
India’s concern for its pluralism. Modern Indian pluralism is multi-lingual, multi-cultural,
secular, national-state concept.
The Literature of Nationalism, Reformism and Revivalism
Patriotic writings proliferated almost spontaneously in different languages, as the resistance

of a community against foreign rule. Rangalal in Bengali, Mirza Ghalib in Urdu and
Bharatendu Harishchandra in Hindi expressed themselves as the patriotic voice of that era.
This voice was, on the one hand, against colonial rule, and on the other, for the glorification
of India.
In fact, in the 19th century, the idea of national identity emerged from literature, and most
Indian writings turned into the voice of enlightment. This paved the way for India to
understand the real, factual position by the time it reached the threshold of the 20th century.
It was during this time that Tagore started writing the novel Gora (1910), to challenge colonial
rule, colonial criteria and colonial authority, and to give new meaning to Indian nationalism.
Indian Romanticism
The trend of Indian romanticism ushered in by three great forces influenced the destiny of
modern Indian literature. These forces were Sri Aurobindo’s *(1872-1950) search for the divine
in man(philosophical treaties - The Life Divine), Tagore’s quest for the beautiful in nature and
man, and Mahatma Gandhi’s experiments with truth and non-violence. The age of romantic
poetry in Hindi is known as Chhayavad, the age of romantic mystery, in Kannada, is
Navodaya, the rising sun, and in Oriya, it is known as Sabuj, the age of green. Jaishankar
Prasad, Mahadevi (Hindi); Vallathol, Kumaran Asan (Malayalam); Kalindi Charan Panigrahi
(Oriya); B.M. Srikantayya, Puttappa, Bendre (Kannada); Viswanath Satyanarayana (Telugu);
Uma Shankar Joshi (Gujarati), and poets of other languages highlighted mysticism and
romantic subjectivity in their poetry. Indian romanticism is fraught with mysticism – not like
English romanticism, which wants to break puritanic shackles, seeking joy in Hellenism. In
fact, the romantic trend of the modern times follows the tradition of Indian poetry, where
romanticism indicates the Vedantic (the philosophy of one Reality) oneness between Nature
and man. Muhammad Iqbal (1877-198), went through initially a romantic-cum-nationalistic
phase in his poetry. His best collection of Urdu poems is Bang-i-Dara (1924). His quest for
Pan-Islamism did not deter him in his concern for humanity at large.
The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi
Tagore called him Mahatma (saint). Gandhi became the theme of both poetry and fiction of
cultural nationalism. He became an apostle of peace and idealism. Poets like Vallathol
(Malayalam), Satyendranath Datta (Bengali), Kazi Nazrul Islam (Bengali) and Akbar
Allahabadi (Urdu) accepted Gandhi as a challenge to western civilization, and as an assertion
of the dignity of Asian values.
 Sarat Chandra Chatterjee (1876-1938): He was well known for his portrayal of women,
their sufferings and their often unspoken love. He was both a Gandhian and a socialist.
 Premchand (1880-1936): He was the finest literary exponent of the Indian peasantry in
Indian literature. As a true Gandhian, he believed in the idealistic theory of ‘a change
of heart’ in the exploiters. But, in his magnum opus, Godan (1936), he becomes a realist
and records the suffering and struggle of the Indian rural poor.
Progressive Literature
The advent of Marxism on the Indian literary scene in the thirties is a phenomenon which
India shared with many other countries. Both Gandhi and Marx were driven by opposition to
imperialism and concern for the dispossessed sections of society. The Progressive Writers
Association was originally established in 1936 by some expatriate writers in London, like
Mulk Raj Anand (English). However, soon it became a great pan-Indian movement that
brought together Gandhian and Marxist insights into society.
Search for Modernity
After independence, in the fifties, the disillusionment became more vivid because of the
pressure of the disintegration of society and a broken relationship with India’s past heritage.
Then came the Naxalite movement of the seventies, and with it post-modernism entered the
Indian literary scene. In the Indian context, post-modernism arrived as a reaction to media-
operated and market-guided reality – a reaction to the modernism of the sixties of the
existential anguish, of the crisis of identity, and of the frustration of the idealist, but it carried
with it the trend of progressive literature of protest and struggle.
Dalit Literature
The literature which is concerned with the socially underprivileged, and which asserts the
socio-political stature of the underdogs, is known by this name. The Dalit movement was
started in literature by Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada writes under the leadership of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar. Marathi poets, Namdev Dhasal or Narayan Surve, or novelists like Daya Pawar,
or Laxman Gaikwad, reflect in their writings the anguish of a community, and demand the
shaping of a just and realistic future for the underprivileged and the outcast in society.
Use of Mythology
In order to bridge the gap between urban and rural consciousness, between the past and the
present, another trend which is very much visible in the post-modernist poetry scene is the
use of mythology to present the modern predicament. Mythic thoughts, in fact, are attempts
to mediate the gaps between continuity and change, thereby authenticating the idea of ‘total
poetry’.
Contemporary Literature
In the post-modern era the effort is to be natural, to be Indian, to be near to the common man,
to be socially conscious. The third generation of Malayalam writers like N. Prabhakaran, and
P. Surendran prefer the term anti-modernism to post-modernism and are content simply to
narrate human tales without any explicit social message or philosophical pretensions.
Source: CCRT
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ART & CULTURE

(A COMPREHENSIVE YET CRISP COVERAGE)

RAHUL SENGAR SIR

Mural paintings  Ajanta Cave

Current Affairs to be uploaded in the month of April

INDIAN ART AND CULTURE

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

Art & Culture 1

• Cesspits were placed at regular intervals.

Art & Culture 2

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→ the set of the fourteen rock edicts. Dham: Doctrine

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EARLY EVOLUTION OF STUPAS • Elephants : signify strength and wisdom.

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• Emergence of rock-cut cave architectures. ARCHITECTURE ROCK-CUT CAVES

Giant stupa, Lalitgiri

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deep carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic GANDHARA STUPA

• Fig of stupa-slightly rounder, taller, slimmer – delicate • Settlement of,

ABHAYAGIRI DAGOBA • Architecture: In caves mural paintings on the walls of the

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BHAJA CAVES, PUNE

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• Originally a Buddhist site which was later dominated by

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• Location: Vidisha, MP. • Site of a Buddhist monastery in ancient times.

• The remains of the site include sculptures of Natraja, Sada

BAGH CAVES– NEAR GWALIOR

JUNAGARH CAVES (UPARKOT → CITADEL)

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Dharmarajika Stupa Third Stage

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• Example: Maniyar Math at Rajgir.

• Gavaksha: a Sanskrit word which means “bull’s or

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TYPES OF SHIKHARS • Sarvatobhadra: These types of the temples have

• Valabhi: They had a rectangular base with the roof rising

SUB-SCHOOL OF NAGARA STYLE

Based on Pradakshina Path (circumambulatory path)

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There are also sculptures of a child playing with mother,

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• By contrast, other eastern Chalukyan temples, like the

Somnath Temple STAGE III–RAJSIMHA GROUP

SOUTH INDIAN ART

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• Combined the features of Chola, Hoysalas, Pandyas,

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• Open ambulatory passage way

NAYAKA SCHOOL/MADURAI SCHOOL

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Sculpture of a lady using High Heels Sandal.

GROUP OF MONUMENTS AT PATTADAKAL, KARNATAKA

Ramappa Temple/Ramalingeshwara • Other temple:Jain Narayana temple, Galagnath Temple,

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ARCHITECTURE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

EAST INDIA TEMPLES: Assam and Adjoining Areas

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HILLY REGION ARCHITECTURE

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Elements from the traditional Indian style viz.