JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 61, NO.
Major Article
Dietary Intakes and Eating Habits of College
Athletes: Are Female College Athletes Following
the Current Sports Nutrition Standards?
Lenka H. Shriver, PhD; Nancy M. Betts, PhD, RD;
Gena Wollenberg, PhD, RD, CSSD
Abstract. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess
dietary intakes and eating habits of female college athletes and
compared them with the minimum sports nutrition standards.
Participants: Data were obtained from 52 female college athletes
from a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I
university between January 2009 and May 2010. Methods: Partici-
pants completed anthropometric measurements and dietary assess-
ment using a 3-day food record, a 24-hour recall, and a nutrition
questionnaire. Results: t tests indicated the energy and carbohy-
drate intakes were below the minimum recommended amount (p <
.001), with only 9% of the participants meeting their energy needs.
Seventy-five percent of the participants failed to consume the min-
imum amount of carbohydrates that is required to support training.
The majority of the participants reported no regular breakfast, 36%
consumed < 5 meals/day, and only 16% monitored their hydration
status. Conclusions: Effective nutrition interventions are needed to
improve dietary intakes and eating habits of female college athletes.
Keywords: athletics, nutrition
T
he number of female student-athletes participating in
collegiate sports has increased tremendously in the
last decade, with more than 190,000 women being
registered under the National Collegiate Athletic Associa-
tion (NCAA).1 Adequate nutrition is important not only for
maintaining good health and nutritional status of these young
women, but also for maximizing their athletic potential.2–5
Overall, female athletes are more vulnerable to nutrition-
related issues than their male counterparts, including nutrient
deficiencies, eating disorders, body image issues, and weight
Dr Shriver, Dr Betts, and Ms Wollenberg are with the Depart-
ment of Nutritional Sciences at Oklahoma State University in Still-
water, Oklahoma.
Copyright © 2013 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
10
management problems.6,7 Despite the dramatic increase in
the number of women competing in college sports and the
importance of nutrition for health and performance, very lit-
tle is known about dietary intakes, food habits, and overall
diet quality in this unique population.
Dietary assessment is a time-consuming and complex pro-
cess that requires in-depth dietary data collection and appro-
priate interpretation of the results.8 The utilization of 24-hour
dietary recalls, food records, and other dietary assessment
tools is critical for gathering detail food-related information.
A combination of 2 or more dietary assessment techniques
can significantly improve the quality of the obtained data;
however, studies on college athletes utilizing such approach
are lacking in the current literature. This is in part due to
dietary assessment posing a high burden on subjects, espe-
cially athletes whose schedule is hectic. Yet, using multiple
techniques and obtaining detailed data is warranted for con-
ducting accurate dietary assessment and designing effective
nutrition education or intervention programs for collegiate
athletes in the future.
The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) include the Ac-
ceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) and
currently represent the energy and nutrient standards for
a general healthy population in the United States.9 The
AMDRs state that the acceptable proportion of daily energy
intake from carbohydrates, protein, and fat is 45%–65%,
10%–35%, and 20%–35%, respectively.4,9,10 However, re-
search has indicated that the macronutrient requirements for
athletes vary from these recommendations. Furthermore, ex-
perts agree that the requirements for athletes should be ex-
pressed in grams per kilogram of body mass (g/kg) rather
than as proportion of total energy intake in order to re-
flect their needs more accurately.5,10–12 This approach is

believed to minimize the number of athletes for whom the
macronutrient needs are miscalculated, especially for those
with very low or very high energy intakes.13
Using the weight-based approach, studies have established
that a minimum of 5 g/kg of dietary carbohydrates is needed
to maintain adequate glycogen stores and support general
training of all athletes on a regular basis.5,13 The protein
recommendations have been also established for athletes de-
pending on their body size.12,14 The guidelines range from
1.2 g/kg for endurance athletes to ≤ 2.0 g/kg for strength
athletes or athletes engaged in weight loss efforts. Overall,
the 1.2 g/kg is considered to be the minimum amount of
protein required for adequate recovery and tissue repair for
any type of athletes.4,12 Currently, there are no weight-based
guidelines for athletes in terms of dietary fat intake. Thus,
athletes are advised to follow the AMDR for dietary fat, rang-
ing from 20% to 35% of their total energy intake.4 Despite
the established weight-based minimum recommendations for
carbohydrates and protein, athletes often continue to be ad-
vised to consume carbohydrates and protein based on their
total energy intake.3,11,15
Food-related habits and dietary patterns are important
for athletic performance and recovery because they influ-
ence energy consumption, nutrient intake, as well as hy-
dration status.16 The timing and macronutrient composition
of meals are especially critical for athletic performance be-
cause they impact not only the upcoming training session,
but also the athlete’s immediate recovery from the work-
out.5 Thus, sports nutrition guidelines have been established
for meal/snack frequency, breakfast consumption, hydration,
and other nutrition-related behaviors.3,4,14,17,18 Preexercise
fueling improves performance and prevents hunger during
high-intensity prolonged exercise, thus athletes should con-
sume a carbohydrate-rich meal/snack depending on the time
available, duration, and intensity of the event.19,20 Athletes,
particularly females, are especially vulnerable to low energy
levels, hypoglycemia, and fatigue in the morning. As shown
in previous research, skipping breakfast may negatively in-
fluence cognitive abilities and it may alter metabolism due
to reduced availability of carbohydrates to the brain.21 In
athletes, breakfast consumption significantly improves per-
formance by restoring the level of liver and muscle glycogen
after the overnight fast.5 Athletes are not only advised to
eat breakfast regularly, but also to consume a minimum of
5 meals or snacks in order to maintain energy levels and
supply adequate amount of carbohydrates to working mus-
cles during the day, especially when multiple workouts are
completed.4,13
Some research indicates that athletes tend to have poor
dietary intakes; however, most of the existing studies com-
pared athletes’ diets with the nutrient standards that were es-
tablished for general populations.10,22–26 Furthermore, only
a few studies have examined dietary habits and food pat-
terns among female college athletes, who are known to be at
a higher risk for nutrient deficiencies, eating disorders, and
other nutrition-related health issues than male college ath-
letes.6,7,27 Thus, the main purpose of this study was to assess
VOL 61, JANUARY 2013
Dietary Habits of Female College Athletes
energy and macronutrient intakes of female college athletes
and compare their intakes with the minimum sports nutri-
tion recommendations. The secondary purpose of the study
was to explore eating habits and dietary patterns in the target
population.
METHODS
Participants
This descriptive study utilizing a convenience sample of fe-
male college athletes was conducted in a Division I university
in a midwestern state of the United States. The athletic train-
ers were informed about the nature of the study and about the
details related to participation in the study. The trainers then
assisted with the recruitment of potential participants from
3 university women’s athletic teams between January 2009
and May 2010. Potential participants were informed about
the details of the study and were provided with a written in-
formed consent form for their review during team meetings
and/or individual visits in the athletic training room. The in-
clusion criteria for the study included being a member of one
of the women’s athletic teams, being 18 or older, and being
free of injury at the time of the study. Interested athletes were
then scheduled for a visit in a laboratory in the Department
of Nutritional Sciences. During the laboratory visit, the pri-
mary investigator and research assistants provided potential
participants with further details about the study, including the
risks and benefits associated with the study. The participants
were asked to sign written informed consent prior to data
collection. The study protocol was reviewed and approved
by the university’s Athletic Department and the university’s
institutional review board before any subject recruitment and
data collection began.
Procedures and Research Instruments
Anthropometric measurements, including height, body
mass, and body composition, were completed with each
subject during the first laboratory visit. Height and body
mass were measured using a digital scale (Seca 664;
Hamburg, Germany), and a wall-mounted stadiometer
(Harpenden, Holtain, Crymmych, Pembrookshire, United
Kingdom). Standard procedures for height and body mass
measurements commonly used in previous research were
used in the study.3 Body mass and height of each subject was
measured twice to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, with an av-
erage of the 2 measurements used for the final analysis. Body
composition was determined using a whole-body scan per-
formed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA; QDR
4500A; Hologic, Bedford, Massachusetts). The body compo-
sition assessments were performed first thing in the morning
and the participants were instructed to fast overnight, refrain
from strenuous physical activity, and not to eat or drink any-
thing before the morning laboratory visit. The DEXA instru-
ment was calibrated, following the manufacturer’s protocol,
in the morning hours of the laboratory visits. The quality
control for body composition measurements was conducted
using a step-phantom calibration, which ensured that the
11
Shriver, Betts, & Wollenberg
system and software were scanning properly before testing.
The coefficient of variation for the whole-body scan was <
1%. Prior to the DEXA scan, participants were asked to re-
move any metal objects and were instructed to change into
medical gowns. The proportion of fat mass (% of body fat)
and the amount of lean body mass (LBM; in kg) were deter-
mined from the DEXA scan for each athlete.
A trained research assistant completed a 1-day 24-hour
recall with each subject during the laboratory visit. The re-
search assistant completed a specific 3-hour training on the
multiple-pass 24-hour recall method that was led by the pri-
mary investigator prior to the beginning of the study. The
multiple-pass 1-day 24-hour recall method was used to max-
imize the accuracy and completeness of the foods and bever-
ages recalled.28 Plastic food models, measuring spoons, cups,
bowls, and other prompts were used to further improve the
quality of the collected dietary data. The 24-hour recall was
also used to accustom participants to recording dietary infor-
mation and to maximize the level of detail when completing
food records for the purpose of the study. At the end of the
24-hour recall interview, each subject was provided with de-
tailed instructions on how to complete a 3-day food record
and asked to return it within 1 week of the laboratory visit.
The 3-day food record included 2 weekdays and 1 weekend
day to account for food intake variability during the week.
The participants were also instructed to record the duration,
type, and intensity of their training sessions and all other
physical activities they participated in during the 3 reported
days. Once the subject returned the 3-day food record, a
trained researcher immediately checked the food record and
followed up with the athlete to clarify specific items and/or
obtain more detail if necessary. Dietary analysis of the 3-
day food record and the 24-hour recall was conducted using
the Diet Analysis Plus nutrition software (version 9.0 for
Windows; Wadsworth, Belmont, California).
The resting metabolic rate (RMR) of the participants was
estimated using the Cunningham equation.29 The LBM in
kilograms was obtained directly from the whole-body DEXA
scan that was performed with each subject. The use of the
Cunningham equation has been shown to represent the clos-
est estimate of RMR compared with other equations, pri-
marily because the equation takes LBM into account.4,29
The RMR was then multiplied by a physical activity fac-
tor ranging from 1.8 to 2.3 for each subject.4 The appropri-
ate physical activity factor was established using the de-
tailed physical activity data reported by each subject in
the 3-day food records, the 24-hour recall, and a nutrition
questionnaire (including the type, duration, and intensity of
all reported physical activities). A mean 4-day energy in-
take for each subject was estimated using dietary data from
the 3-day food record and the 24-hour recall and the en-
ergy intake was expressed in kilocalories. Two trained re-
search assistants entered and analyzed the dietary intakes
independently. The correlation coefficients between the 2
research assistants were r = .98 for total energy intake,
r = .96 for total carbohydrate intake, r = .96 for total fat
12
intake, and r = .95 for total protein intake. When substan-
tial differences in data entry were identified between the 2
research assistants, the dietary records were examined by the
primary investigator and corrections were made in the data
set.
Eating habits of the athletes were evaluated using the
Nutrition Questionnaire (NQ) that has been previously uti-
lized for the Combined Events Athlete Development (CEAD)
project with USA Track & Field athletes. Two sports nutri-
tion researchers reviewed the questionnaire and modifica-
tions were made based on their recommendations to ensure
face and content validity of the instrument prior to its utiliza-
tion in the current study. The NQ included questions about
variety of nutritional practices such as meal/snack frequency
(number of snacks and meals a day), dining out (frequency
per week and type of restaurant), hydration practices (eg, “Do
you monitor your body water level?” “Do you use a schedule
for drinking fluid during competition?”), weight manage-
ment (eg, “How do you perceive yourself?” “Is it difficult or
easy to maintain weight while traveling?”), self-evaluation of
diet quality (eg, during training, precompetition, postcompe-
tition). Breakfast consumption was coded according to cri-
teria used in previous research with athletes as any caloric
food/beverage consumed between 6:00 and 8:59 AM on each
of the reported days.16,27
Statistical Analysis
Means, standard deviations, and frequencies were used to
describe the characteristics of the sample. The participants’
carbohydrate and protein intakes were compared with the
current minimum sports nutrition recommendations using 1-
sample t tests (test value of 5 g/kg for carbohydrates and
1.2 g/kg for protein).4,5,13 Paired-sample t test was utilized
to compare participants’ reported energy intakes with their
estimated energy needs. The proportion of participants meet-
ing the estimated energy needs, the minimum recommenda-
tions for carbohydrates, and the minimum recommendations
for protein were calculated. Bivariate Pearson’s correlations
were used to explore relationships between specific macronu-
trient intakes and selected eating habits. All statistical anal-
yses were conducted using SPSS 18.0 for Windows (SPSS,
Chicago, Illinois), with the level of significance set at p <
.05 unless otherwise noted.
RESULTS
Anthropometric and Demographic Characteristics
Fifty-two female collegiate athletes completed all the mea-
surements and provided dietary data for the study, reaching
84% of the target population (n = 62). Seven participants
being excluded from the final statistical analyses because
their 3-day food records did not include sufficient informa-
tion. The demographic and anthropometric characteristics of
the sample are presented in Table 1. The mean age of the
participants in years was M = 20.0, SD = 1.5. The sample
consisted of soccer players (45%), basketball players (40%),
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
 Dietary Habits of Female College Athletes

t tests revealed that carbohydrate intake was significantly

TABLE 1. Anthropometric and Demographic lower than the minimum recommended intake of 5 g/kg/day
Characteristics of the Female Athletes ( p < .001), whereas protein intake did not differ significantly
from the minimum protein recommendations of 1.2 g/kg/day
Totala
( p = .38). Frequency analyses showed that 74% and 50%
Characteristics n % M SD Range of the participants failed to meet the carbohydrate and pro-
tein recommendation. The majority of the participants (76%)
Race consumed ≤ 35% of total energy from dietary fat. No sig-
Caucasian 33 73 nificant differences in energy or macronutrient intakes were
African American 10 22
Hispanic 1 2 observed between the types of sports that were represented
Other 1 2 in the sample.
Age (years) 20.0 1.5 18.0–23.0
Body mass (kg) 66.4 11.0 47.4–99.4
Height (cm) 170.4 8.7 152.7–189.1
Body fat 19.5 3.7 11.9–27.8 Eating Habits
aResults based on n = 45 (participants with complete dietary data). The participants consumed 5.0 ± 1.3 meals/snacks per
day (2.80 ± 0.7 and 2.2 ± 1.2, respectively). More than
one-third of the athletes (36%) reported consuming fewer
cross-country runners, and track and field athletes (16%). than 5 meals/snacks a day, 29% of athletes ate less than 3
The majority of the participants were Caucasians (73%), fol- meals a day, and 27% had fewer than 2 snacks a day. There
lowed by African Americans (22%), Hispanics (3%), and was a significant positive correlation between the number of
others (2%). At the time of the study, all participants were in meals/snacks and the intake of carbohydrates relative to body
late preseason and/or early season, they were weight stable weight (r = .47, p < .001), protein (r = .53, p < .001), and fat
and trained 6 days per week, ranging from 1.5 to 2.5 hours (r = .36, p < .05). Regular breakfast was reported by 27% of
per day. the sample, with participants consuming breakfast cereal and
sausage and biscuits most frequently. The mean frequency
Energy and Macronutrient Intakes of dining out was 5.4 times per week, with the most frequent
dining places being sandwich shops (eg, Panera, Quiznos)
The nutritional analyses of the dietary data indicated that
(31%), Mexican restaurants (29%), and fast food restaurants
the energy intake of the participants was 1,939 ± 604 kcal
(eg, McDonald’s, Taco Bell) (20%). There was a significant
(Table 2). The mean proportion of total energy coming from
negative correlation between the frequency of dining out and
carbohydrates, protein, and fat was 53%, 16%, and 31%, re-
carbohydrate intake, regardless of how carbohydrate intake
spectively. The mean intake of energy and macronutrients in
was expressed (r = .46, p < .001 for % of total energy; r =
relation to body size are presented in Table 2. The partic-
−.27, p < .05 for total carbohydrate intake; and r = −.33,
ipants’ reported energy intake was significantly lower than
p < .05 for g/kg of carbohydrates). The frequency of dining
their estimated energy needs ( p < .001), with 91% (n =
out was also significantly associated with the proportion of
41) of the sample not meeting the energy needs. One-sample
energy coming from dietary fat (r = .48, p < .001).
Only 16% of the participants reported monitoring hydra-
tion status on a regular basis. Before a workout, 60% of the
TABLE 2. Reported Energy and Macronutrient participants reported consuming 1 to 2 cups of fluids, with
Intakes of the Female Athletes in the Sample 31% consuming more than 3 cups of fluids. During exercise,
58% reported consuming less than 2 cups of fluids, with 3
Dietary measure M a,b SD Range
athletes consuming no fluids. Forty-four percent of the par-
Energy (kcal) 1,939 604 835–3,322 ticipants reported consuming 3 to 5 cups of fluids and 16%
Energy (kcal/kg) 30 10 16–52 reported consuming more than 5 cups of fluids after their
Carbohydrates (% kcal) 54 6 38–67 training sessions. Nearly none of the participants reported
Carbohydrates (g) 257 77 103–460 following a drinking schedule during a competition (95%).
Carbohydrates (g/kg) 4.0∗∗∗ 1.0 1.8–6.5
Protein (% energy) 16 3 12–24 Forty-four percent of the participants (n = 20) evaluated
Protein (g) 77 22 47–133 their diet as “good,” with 56% stating their diet was “fair” or
Protein (g/kg) 1.2 0.4 0.6–1.9 “poor.” Some of the participants found it difficult to follow a
Fat (% energy) 31 6 18–48 training diet when traveling (22%). The majority of the par-
Fat (g) 69 29 25–143 ticipants evaluated their weight as “healthy” and reported no
Fat (g/kg) 1.1 0.5 0.4–2.4
dieting in the previous 12 months (91%). However, 33% of
aResults based on n = 45 (participants with complete dietary data). the participants expressed a desire to lose weight. Although
bOne-sample t test using the group means and the minimum recom-
most participants found the maintenance of their weight dur-
mendations for carbohydrate (≥ 5 g/kg) and protein (≥ 1.2 g/kg).3
∗∗∗ p
< .001.
ing the season to be “somewhat or very easy,” 29% found the
weight maintenance to be difficult.

VOL 61, JANUARY 2013 13

Shriver, Betts, & Wollenberg
COMMENT
The main purpose of this study was to examine dietary in-
takes and eating habits in a sample of female college athletes
and compare them with the current sports nutrition guide-
lines.4 Nearly all athletes in the sample failed to match their
energy intakes with their estimated energy needs. The major-
ity of them also failed to meet their carbohydrates needs, even
though only the minimum carbohydrate recommendations
for athletes were used in the study.10 Our findings indicate
that greater efforts should be focused on increasing sports
nutrition knowledge and improving eating habits among fe-
male college athletes in order to optimize their nutritional
status, ensure proper recovery from daily training sessions,
and help them reach their performance potential.
The proportion of energy from carbohydrates, protein and
fat reported in our study fell within the AMDRs for general
population. Although these findings are consistent with the
very few previous studies that were conducted with female
athletes,2,16,23 these results do not offer helpful information
about their dietary intakes. For instance, 53% of total en-
ergy from carbohydrates reported by our female athletes falls
within the AMDR and may represent an adequate carbohy-
drate intake for healthy recreationally active women. How-
ever, female athletes in our study consumed only 4.0 g/kg
of carbohydrates, which is not an adequate amount for re-
plenishing liver and muscle glycogen for daily training at
any point of the year.5,13 The low carbohydrate intake in our
sample is further illustrated by the fact that 35 out of 45 ath-
letes consumed less than 5 g/kg of carbohydrates. A similar
trend has been reported in 2 previous studies with elite fe-
male athletes.6,10 The proportion of energy from dietary fat
was within the AMDR of 20%–35% in our sample. Some
experts also suggest that athletes should keep their dietary
fat intakes under 30% of total energy in order to ensure ade-
quate carbohydrate and protein intakes.13 In our study, 24%
of the female athletes reported dietary fat intakes above 35%
of total energy. Thus, it is possible that the relatively high
dietary fat intake compromised the amount of carbohydrates
consumed by the athletes. It is also important to note that
the proportion of energy from dietary fat was positively cor-
related with the frequency of dining out, which could be
explained by the frequent dining in Mexican restaurants and
fast food restaurants that was reported in our study.
The mean protein intake of the female athletes in our study
was not significantly below the minimum recommended level
of 1.2 g/kg. However, a further analysis revealed that more
than half of the female athletes consumed less protein than
recommended. This finding illustrates a common problem
with interpreting dietary assessment data using group mean
intakes. In a study by Hinton and Beck,25 a sample of female
athletes, including individuals categorized as having restric-
tive eating patterns, reported mean protein intakes of 1.3 to
1.7 g/kg. However, it is likely that a significant number of the
athletes failed to meet the minimum protein needs of 1.2 g/kg.
Similarly, a study by Heaney et al10 showed that elite female
athletes consumed an average of 1.6g/kg of protein; however,
14
30% of the athletes in the sample failed to consume at least
1.2 g/kg.
Low energy intakes have been reported in studies with fig-
ure skaters, aquatic athletes, and athletes in other aesthetic
sports.6,11,16 Endurance and aesthetic athletes are thus espe-
cially vulnerable to a variety of health problems, including
impaired poor bone density, poor reproductive function, and
stress fractures.24 Nearly all athletes in our sample failed to
meet their estimated energy needs. Our findings are alarming
because half of the athletes in our sample reported intakes
of less than 2,000 kcal/day, which represents the amount of
energy that is required for a young woman who is at a low
to moderate activity level.9 Energy consumption of less than
2,000 kcal/day has been identified as “low energy intake,” and
it cannot support the high physical and nutritional demands
of female athletes.30 Thus, it is possible that the nutritional
status and athletic performance of the female athletes in our
sample could be significantly improved by optimizing their
energy intakes.
The female college athletes in our sample consumed the
largest proportion of their calories in the evening hours, thus
spending most of the day in energy deficit. However, frequent
snacking is encouraged among athletes during the day be-
cause it is positively associated with higher energy intakes.31
Previous research has indicated that elite male and female
athletes typically eat 5 to 6 meals/snacks a day.6,27 Although
the mean eating frequency was 5 times/day, a large proportion
of our athletes reported eating less than 3 times a day. In ad-
dition, most athletes reported not having a regular breakfast.
Heavy training schedules, gastrointestinal discomfort during
workouts, and poor availability of foods and beverages have
been identified as common reasons for not consuming break-
fast among athletes.6,13 However, a combination of breakfast
skipping and infrequent fueling during the day by the female
college athletes in our sample may significantly diminish the
training potential.6,21,31
It is important to note that a relatively large proportion of
our sample evaluated their diets as fair/poor and expressed
difficulties with maintaining weight during the season and
while traveling, which is a common problem among college
athletes.32 In addition, nearly one-third of the athletes wanted
to lose weight, although the majority of the athletes evalu-
ated their weight as healthy. This finding suggests that further
evaluation of female college athletes is warranted in order
to identify individuals with potential body image issues and
eating disorders, either clinical or subclinical, which may en-
danger the nutritional status and performance of the athlete.22
Although it is well known that dehydration can signif-
icantly impair athletic performance even at 1%–2%,18 the
female college athletes in our sample did not follow basic
guidelines for adequate hydration.14 Only a few female ath-
letes in our sample monitored their hydration status, which is
currently recommended as a routine procedure using simple
tools such as urine volume and color, to maintain euhydra-
tion (normal body water content).18 Many athletes consumed
very little or no fluids during workouts, most preferred water
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

over the recommended beverages containing carbohydrates
and electrolytes,18 and virtually none of the athletes followed
a drinking schedule during a competition. Previous research
has indicated that even elite athletes consume inadequate
amount of fluids during training and competition.6 Given our
findings, it is apparent that effective strategies for improving
hydration practices and drinking schedules of competitive
athletes are needed at all levels of competition, including
female collegiate athletes.
Limitations
Through detailed dietary assessment, the current study
identified important dietary and eating behavior trends in a
sample of female college athletes. However, there are several
limitations that should be noted. First, our study is limited
by the utilization of a relatively small sample of athletes.
The time commitment and effort required for the dietary as-
sessment did not allow many female athletes to participate
in the study due their hectic class schedules, multiple train-
ing sessions, and other commitments. Although statistically
significant, the small correlations found between individ-
ual nutrient intakes and other variables, such as meal/snack
frequency and dining out, could have been influenced by
a variety of factors in athlete’s lives, such as the opportu-
nities to dine at a training table during the week, cooking
skills, or specific living arrangements of the athletes in the
sample. Thus, further research utilizing a large sample of
college female athletes is warranted to explore these correla-
tions in depth and to expand our findings on dietary intakes
and eating habits within this population. Second, given the
convenience nature of our sample, it is possible that the fe-
male athletes who volunteered to participate in the study had
a greater interest in nutrition and/or health than other ath-
letes or were perhaps experiencing nutrition-related issues
that encouraged them to participate in the study. Thus, our
findings may not represent dietary intakes and eating habits
of others and cannot be generalized to all female college ath-
letes. Third, the dietary assessment in the current study was
limited to 3 days of reported food intake from food records
and 1 day of dietary intake from 24-hour recalls. Although a
7-day food record could provide a more accurate estimate of
usual dietary intake of the athletes in the study, it has been as-
sociated with higher attrition rates in previous studies. Thus,
our study utilized 3-day food records, in combination with a
24-hour recall, that have been validated for the assessment of
energy and macronutrients intakes and have been used with
a variety of populations, including athletes.10,33
Conclusions
The results of our study show the importance of evaluating
dietary intakes and eating habits of female college athletes
and using the established sports nutrition recommendations
to do so. The female athletes in our study failed to meet their
minimum energy and carbohydrate needs and they also failed
to follow basic sports nutrition guidelines. Sports physicians,
nutritionists, as well as athletic trainers should be aware of
VOL 61, JANUARY 2013
Dietary Habits of Female College Athletes
these nutrition-related problems because inadequate dietary
intakes and eating behaviors can negatively impact not only
the quality of training and recovery, but also the nutritional
status and overall health of female college athletes. Although
further studies with representative samples of the target pop-
ulation are warranted, our findings indicate that effective
nutrition interventions to improve nutrition knowledge, opti-
mize dietary intakes, and increase awareness of basic sports
nutrition recommendations are currently needed among fe-
male college athletes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the university’s athletic
trainers for assisting with the recruitment of the athletes for
this study and the female athletes who participated in the
study. The authors also want to express sincere thank you
to the researchers working with the USA Track & Field,
especially Jackie Maurer Abbott, who gave us permission to
utilize the CAED Nutrition Questionnaire for our study.
NOTE
For comments and further information, address correspon-
dence to Lenka H. Shriver, Department of Nutritional Sci-
ences, Oklahoma State University, 311 Human Sciences,
College of Human Sciences, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
(e-mail: lenka.humenikova@okstate.edu).
REFERENCES
1. National Collegiate Athletic Association. NCAA partici-
pation rates going up. Available at: http://www.ncaa.com/news/
ncaa/article/2011-11-02/ncaa-participation-rates-going. Accessed
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Received: 8 February 2012
Revised: 19 August 2012
Accepted: 5 November 2012
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH
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