Ground

Improvement

The soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for supporting structures
such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams. In such a case, the soil needs to be densified
to increase its unit weight and thus its shear strength.
.
Where a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternative solutions
are:

1. Avoid the particular site. Relocate a planned highway or development site.
2. Design the planned structure accordingly. Some of the many possible approaches are
to:
• Use a raft foundation supported by piles,
• Design a very stiff structure which is not damaged by settlement,
• Or choose a very flexible construction which accommodates differential
movement or allows for compensation.
3. Remove and replace unsuitable soils. Removing organic topsoil, which is soft,
compressible, and volumetrically unstable. This is a standard precaution in road or
foundation construction.
4. Attempt to modify existing ground
5. Enable cost effective foundation design
6. Reduce the effects of contaminated soils
7. Ensure sustainability in construction projects using ground improvement techniques

Site with poor soil condition and requires ground improvement are as follows:

• Mechanical properties are not adequate
• Swelling and shrinkage
• Collapsible soils
• Soft soils Concerns
• Organic soils and peaty soils
• Sands and gravelly deposits, karst deposits with sinkhole formations
• Foundations on dumps and sanitary landfills
• Handling dredged materials
• Handling hazardous materials in contact with soils
• Use of old mine pit

Objectives of Ground Improvement
1. Reduce distortion under stress (Increases stress-strain modulus)
2. Reduce compressibility (volume decreases due to a reduction in air voids or water
content under loads)
3. Reduce the settlement of structures
4. Improve the shear strength of soil and thus increase the bearing capacity of shallow
foundations
5. Increase the factor of safety against possible slope failure of embankments
and earth dams
6. Reduce the shrinkage and swelling of soils
Factors affecting the selection of ground improvement technique

1. Type and degree of improvement required
• Bearing capacity improvement, settlement reduction, permeability
enhancement/decrease, long term/short term, liquefaction resistance.
2. Type of soil, geological structure, seepage conditions
• Type of clay/sand and foundation, role of pore pressure and seepage, presence
of difficult geological condition.
3. Costs, equipment, specifications
• Size of the project, availability of equipment, transportation costs, experienced
contractors, Specification of work, guidance documents.
4. Construction time
• Construction time available, use of accelerated construction techniques
5. Possible damage to adjacent structure or pollution of ground water resources
• Tolerable levels of loading and deformation, pore water contamination
6. Durability of the materials involved
• Short term and long term, corrosion, aggressive soil condition.
7. Toxicity and corrosivity of any chemical additives
• Government regulations may restrict the choice of additives
• Using Vitrification of soils to limit radio active or hazardous wastes,
• Ex: Remediation of chromium-contaminated soil through ex situ vitrification
(ASCE journal paper)
8. Reversibility or irreversibility of the process
• Ex: Lime added to expensive soil reacts in presence of sulphate

Ground Improvement Techniques

Ground improvement can be done through various mechanisms:

1. COMPACTION
• The state of soil is improved in this technique due to high densification.
• This is a long term improvement technique.
• There is a change in soil state after adopting it.
• This technique can be adopted for silty, sandy and gravely soils.

2. DEWATERING
• This is a technique similar to compaction.
• It is mostly adopted to clayey soils.

3. REINFORCEMENT
• This method improves the soil response by interaction between soil and
inclusion.
• The improving period depends on the life of inclusion.
• In this technique there is no change in the state of soil.
• It is a widely used technique as it can be done for many types of soils.

4. ADMIXTURES OR GROUTING
• Cementation plays a major role in improving the soil response.
• Short term/long term improvement techniques are possible.
• There is a change in soil state after adopting it.

Classification of Ground Improvements

1. Mechanical modification
2. Hydraulic modification
3. Physical and chemical modification
4. Modification by inclusion and confinement
5. Combination of the above

Common Methods for Ground Improvement
Ground Reinforcement Ground Improvement Ground Treatment
• Stone Columns • Surface Compaction • Soil Cement
• Soil Nails • Vibroflotation • Lime Admixtures
• Micropiles • Drainage • Flyash
• Jet Grouting o Sand Drains • Dewatering
• Ground Anchors o Vertical • Heating/Freezing
• Geosynthetics Drains • Vitrification
• Fibers • Electro-osmosis
• Lime Columns • Compaction grouting
• Vibro-Concrete • Blasting
• Column • Dynamic Compaction
• Mechanically • Precompression
Stabilized Earth


Ground Reinforcement
• Stone Columns
A method now being used to increase the load-bearing
capacity of shallow foundations on soft clay layers is the
construction of stone columns. This generally consists of
water-jetting a vibroflot into the soft clay layer to make
a circular hole that extends through the clay to firmer
soil. The hole is then filled with an imported gravel. The
gravel in the hole is gradually compacted as the vibrator
is withdrawn. The gravel used for the stone column has
a size range of 6 to 40 mm. Stone columns usually have
diameters of 0.5 to 0.75 m and are spaced at about 1.5
to 3 m center to center.

Stone columns work more effectively when they are

used to stabilize a large area where the undrained shear
strength of the subsoil is in the range of 10 to 50 kN/m2
than to improve the bearing capacity of structural foundations (Bachus and Barksdale,
1989).Subsoils weaker than that may not provide sufficient lateral support for the columns.
For large-site improvement, stone columns are most effective to a depth of 6 to 10 m.
However, they have been constructed to a depth of 31 m.

• Soil Nails
Soil nails are a cost effective method for long or short term stabilization of steep existing or
proposed slopes. The stability of the slope is increased with the installation of steel or glass
fiber threaded soil nails placed into pre-bored holes or simultaneous drilling and installation
techniques. The end results along with the correct drainage significantly reduce the chances
of a landslide or other ground movements. Whether it’s for roadway cut excavations, slope
stabilization or retaining wall support, soil nails are a versatile and practical form of earth
retention used to prevent horizontal movement.

• Micropiles
A micropile is a small diameter (< 300mm), drilled and grouted pile that is typically
reinforced. Micropiles are often used to underpin the existing structure where need of
minimal vibration or noise is of prime importance. It can be easily laid where low head room
is a constraint. Micropiles can be easily installed at any angle below the horizontal using the
same equipment used for ground anchors and grouting projects.

• Geosynthetics
Geosynthetics are man-made materials used to improve soil conditions. Geosynthetics are
typically made from petrochemical-based polymers (“plastics”) that are biologically inert and
will not decompose from bacterial or fungal action. While most are essentially chemical inert,
some may be damaged by petrochemicals and most have some degree of susceptibility to
ultraviolet light (sunlight). In all, geosynthetics, perform five major functions: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, drainage and moisture barrier.

• Mechanically Stabilized Earth
Some retaining walls have their backfills stabilized mechanically by including reinforcing
elements such as metal strips, bars, welded wire mats, geotextiles, and geogrids. These walls
are relatively flexible and can sustain large horizontal and vertical displacements without
much damage.
Ground Improvement
• Surface Compaction
Ordinary compaction in the field is done by rollers. In general, compaction in the field
depends on several factors, such as the type of compactor, type of soil, moisture content,
lift thickness, towing speed of the compactor, and number of passes the roller makes. Of the
several types of roller used, the most common are
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Vibratory rollers
Hand-held vibrating plates can be used for effective compaction of granular soils over a
limited area. Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted on machines. These can be used in less
restricted areas.

• Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation is a technique developed in Germany in the 1930s for in situ densification of
thick layers of loose granular soil deposits. Vibroflotation was first used in the United States
about 10 years later. The
process involves the use of a
vibroflot (called the vibrating
unit). The device is about 2 m
in length. This vibrating unit
has an eccentric weight
inside it and can develop a
centrifugal force. The weight
enables the unit to vibrate
horizontally. Openings at the
bottom and top of the unit
are for water jets. The
vibrating unit is attached to a
follow-up pipe.
• Drainage
o Sand Drains
The use of sand drains is another way to accelerate the consolidation settlement of soft,
normally consolidated clay layers and achieve precompression before the construction
of a desired foundation. Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes through the clay
layer(s) in the field at regular intervals. The holes are then backfilled with sand. This can
be achieved by several means, such as (a) rotary drilling and then backfilling with sand;
(b) drilling by continuous-flight auger with a hollow stem and backfilling with sand
(through the hollow steam); and (c) driving hollow steel piles. The soil inside the pile is
then jetted out, after which backfilling with sand is done. After backfilling the drill holes
with sand, a surcharge is applied at the ground surface. The surcharge will increase the
pore water pressure in the clay. The excess pore water pressure in the clay will be
dissipated by drainage—both vertically and radially to the sand drains—thereby
accelerating settlement of the clay layer.

o Vertical Drains
Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), also referred to as wick or strip drains, were originally
developed as a substitute for the commonly used sand drain. With the advent of materials
science, these drains began to be manufactured from synthetic polymers such as
polypropylene and high-density polyethylene. PVDs are normally manufactured with a
corrugated or channeled synthetic core enclosed by a geotextile filter. Installation rates
reported in the literature are on the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s, excluding equipment
mobilization and setup time. PVDs have been used extensively in the past for expedient
consolidation of low-permeability soils under surface surcharge. The main advantage of
PVDs over sand drains is that they do not require drilling; thus, installation is much faster.

 • Electro-osmosis
Electro-osmosis occurs when a direct current is applied to saturated soil. When electro-
osmosis occurs, water in the soil will flow from anode to cathode, inducing a negative pore
pressure which will result in faster consolidation and increase in the shear strength of the soil
(Micic et al., 2001). The phenomenon is developed for the fact that clay particles have
negative surfaces which attracts the cations that are surrounded by water molecules. Once a
current applied to the system, the cations start moving towards the cathode with the
surrounded water molecules

• Compaction grouting
Compaction grouting is typically performed in loose or weak soils
to mitigate settlements and is also used for sinkhole
remediation. Compaction grouting involves the injection of a very
stiff, mortar like, cementitious grout into soil to densify or compact
the soil under high pressure.

When injected, the grout will not permeate the surrounding soils,
but instead form “grout bulbs” that laterally displace the soil. By
repeating the process in adjacent holes the soil between the holes
is densified through the lateral displacement.

• Blasting
. Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell, 1970) for
the densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by
blasting are the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation. The process involves the
detonation of explosive charges such as 60% dynamite at a certain depth below the ground
surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the charges varies from about 3 to 9 m. Three
to five successful detonations are usually necessary to achieve the desired compaction.
Compaction (up to a relative density of about 80%) up to a depth of about 18 m over a large
area can easily be achieved by using this process. Usually, the explosive charges are placed at
a depth of about two- thirds of the thickness of the soil layer desired to be compacted. 


• Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction is a technique that is beginning to gain popularity in the United States
for densification of granular soil deposits. The process primarily involves dropping a heavy
weight repeatedly on the ground at regular
intervals. The weight of the hammer used
varies from 8 to 35 metric tons, and the
height of the hammer drop varies between
7.5 and 30.5 m. The stress waves
generated by the hammer drops help in
the densification. The degree of
compaction achieved depends on
• The weight of the hammer
• The height of the drop
• The spacing of the locations at
which the hammer is dropped
 • Precompression
When highly compressible, normally consolidated
clayey soil layers lie at a limited depth and large
consolidation settlements are expected as the
result of the construction of large buildings,
highway embankments, or earth dams,
precompression of soil may be used to minimize
post construction settlement.

Ground Treatment
• Soil Cement
Cement is being increasingly used as a stabilizing material for soil, particularly in the
construction of highways and earth dams. The first controlled soil–cement construction in the
United States was carried out near Johnsonville, South Carolina, in 1935. Cement can be used
to stabilize sandy and clayey soils. As in the case of lime, cement helps decrease the liquid
limit and increase the plasticity index and workability of clayey soils. Cement stabilization is
effective for clayey soils when the liquid limit is less than 45 to 50 and the plasticity index is
less than about 25.

Cement helps increase the strength of soils, and strength increases with curing time. Granular
soils and clayey soils with low plasticity obviously are most suitable for cement stabilization.
Calcium clays are more easily stabilized by the addition of cement, whereas sodium and
hydrogen clays, which are expansive in nature, respond better to lime stabilization. For these
reasons, proper care should be given in the selection of the stabilizing material.

For field compaction, the proper amount of cement can be mixed with soil either at the site
or at a mixing plant. If the latter approach is adopted, the mixture can then be carried to the
site. The soil is compacted to the required unit weight with a predetermined amount of water.

• Lime Admixtures
Admixtures are occasionally used to stabilize soils in the field— particularly fine-grained soils.
The most common admixtures are lime, cement, and lime–fly ash. The main purposes of
stabilizing the soil are to (a) modify the soil, (b) expedite construction, and (c) improve the
strength and durability of the soil. Pozzolanic reaction between soil and lime involves a
reaction between lime and the silica and alumina of the soil to form cementing material.

The types of lime commonly used to stabilize fine-grained soils are hydrated high-calcium
lime, calcitic quicklime (CaO), monohydrated dolomitic lime, and dolomitic quicklime. The
quantity of lime used to stabilize most soils usually is in the range from 5 to 10%. When lime
is added to clayey soils, two pozzolanic chemical reactions occur: cation exchange and
flocculation–agglomeration.

• Flyash
Fly ash is a by-product of the pulverized coal combustion process usually associated with
electric power-generating plants. It is a fine-grained dust and is composed primarily of silica,
alumina, and various oxides and alkalies. Fly ash is pozzolanic in nature and can react with
hydrated lime to produce cementitious products. For that reason, lime–fly-ash mixtures can
be used to stabilize highway bases and subbases. Effective mixes can be prepared with 10 to
35% fly ash and 2 to 10% lime. Soil–lime–fly-ash mixes are compacted under controlled
conditions, with proper amounts of moisture to obtain stabilized soil layers.

A certain type of fly ash, referred to as “Type C” fly ash, is obtained from the burning of coal
primarily from the western United States. This type of fly ash contains a fairly large proportion
(up to about 25%) of free lime that, with the addition of water, will react with other fly-ash
compounds to form cementitious products. Its use may eliminate the need to add
manufactured lime.

• Dewatering
Dewatering or construction dewatering are terms used to describe the action of removing
groundwater or surface water from a construction site. Normally dewatering process is
done by pumping or evaporation and is usually done before excavation for footings or to
lower water table that might be causing problems during excavations. Dewatering can also
be known as the process of removing water from soil by wet classification.

• Heating/Freezing
Soil stabilization by heating the ground and by freezing the ground are thermal methods of
modification.

• Heating evaporates water and causes permanent changes in the mineral structure
of
soils.
• Freezing solidifies part or all of the water and bonds individual particles together.

• Vitrification
Vitrification originated in the 1950s when researchers began studying ways of locking
radioactive waste in glass. Studies with vitrified waste show that glass can be ten thousand
times more durable than other waste forms. The process of vitrification originated from
rapidly solidified magma. Because of the rapid cooling rate and high liquid viscosity of oxide
and silicate, molecules cannot move sufficiently to form a crystalline structure. Hence the
amorphous structure is formed.