Prussian Crusade

The Prussian Crusade was a series of 13th-century campaigns

Prussian Crusade
of Roman Catholic crusaders, primarily led by the Teutonic
Knights, to Christianize the pagan Old Prussians. Invited after Part of the Northern Crusades
earlier unsuccessful expeditions against the Prussians by Polish
princes, the Teutonic Knights began campaigning against the
Balts in 1230. By the end of the century, having quelled several
Prussian Uprisings, the Knights had established control over
Prussia and administered the Prussians through their monastic
state.

Contents
Early missions and conflicts
Crusade of 1222/23
Invitation of the Teutonic Knights
Initial Teutonic campaigns
First Prussian Uprising
Samland Baltic tribes and Prussian clans c. 1200
Great Prussian Uprising (1260–1274)
Date 1217–1274
Later campaigns
Location Modern-day Kaliningrad Oblast and
Footnotes
northwestern Poland
References
Result Crusader victory
See also
Territorial Teutonic Knights gain control of
changes Prussia
Early missions and conflicts Belligerents
Wulfstan of Hedeby, an agent of Alfred of Wessex, recorded the Crusaders Pagans
seafaring and cattle-herding Prussians as a strong and
independent nation.[1] Mieszko I of the Polans tried to extend his Teutonic Order Prussians
realm from land he had just conquered around the mouth of the Order of Dobrin
Bartians
Oder as far as Prussia.[2] Boleslaw I of Poland, son of Mieszko I, Duchy of Masovia
Galindians
greatly expanded his land conquests and used Adalbert of Prague
Kingdom of Poland
for his aim of conquering the Prussians in 997, but the Natangians
Holy Roman
missionary was killed by the pagans. After some initial success Nadruvians
Empire
among the Prussians, Adalbert's successor, Bruno of Querfurt, Pomesanians
was also killed in 1009.[3] Boleslaw I continued his conquests of Kingdom of Pogesanians
surrounding lands and in 1015 he devastated large parts of Bohemia
Sambians
Prussia.
Duchy of
Warmians
The Poles waged war with the neighboring Prussians, Sudovians, Brunswick-
Lüneburg Sudovians
and Wends over the following two centuries.[4][5][6] While the
Principality of Skalvians
Poles sought the conversion of the Prussians and control of their
land, the Prussians engaged in lucrative raids for slaves in the Brunswick- Prussian allies:
bordering territories of Chełmno Land and Masovia.[7] Many Wolfenbüttel Grand Duchy of
Prussians nominally accepted baptism only to revert to pagan Margraviate of Lithuania
beliefs after hostilities ended. Henry of Sandomierz was killed Brandenburg Duchy of
fighting the Prussians in 1166.[8] Boleslaw IV and Casimir II Pomerania
Margraviate of
each led large armies into Prussia; while Boleslaw's forces were
Meissen
defeated in guerilla warfare, Casimir imposed peace until his
Margraviate of
death in 1194.[9] King Valdemar II of Denmark supported Danish
Lusatia
expeditions against Samland until his capture by Henry, Count of
Schwerin, in 1223. Landgraviate
of Thuringia
In 1206, the Cistercian bishop Christian of Oliva, with the
Duchy of
support of the King of Denmark and Polish dukes, found a better
Austria
reception than expected upon his arrival in the war-torn Chełmno
Principality of
Land. Inspired, he travelled to Rome to prepare for a larger
Anhalt
mission. When he returned to Chełmno in 1215, however,
Christian found the Prussians hostile, possibly out of outrage at County of Mark
the actions of the Sword-Brothers in Livonia[10] or fear of Polish County of
expansion.[11] The pagan Prussians invaded Chełmno Land, Jülich
Masovia, and Pomerellia,[12] besieged Chełmno and Lubawa, Burgraviate of
and forced converts to return to the old beliefs.[13] Magdeburg
County of
Because of the growing intensity of attacks,[14] Pope Honorius
Regenstein
III sent a papal bull to Christian in March 1217 allowing him to
begin preaching a crusade against the militant Prussians. The County of
following year the pagans attacked Chełmno Land and Masovia Schwarzburg
again, plundering 300 cathedrals and churches.[15] Duke Conrad County of
of Masovia succeeded in expelling the Prussians by paying a Habsburg
.[15]
huge tribute, which only encouraged the Prussians, however Duchy of
Pomerania (turned)
Crusade of 1222/23 Kingdom of
Galicia–Volhynia
Order of Calatrava

Commanders and leaders

Hermann von Herkus Monte
Salza Skomantas of
Hermann Balk Sudovia
Konrad von Diwanus of Bartia
Thuringen Glande of Sambia
Gerhard von Glappo of Warmia
Malberg Auctume of
Map of the Prussian clans in the 13th century
. Hartmann von Pogesania
Heldrungen Prussian allies:
Master Brunon
Honorius III called for a crusade under the leadership of
Konrad I Mindaugas
Christian of Oliva and chose as papal legate the Archbishop of
Ottokar II Swietopelk II
Gniezno, Wincenty I Niałek.[15] German and Polish crusaders
Henry II the Pious
began gathering in Masovia in 1219, but serious planning only
Leszek II the
began in 1222 upon the arrival of nobles such as Duke Henry of
Black
Silesia, Archbishop Laurentius of Wrocław, and Laurentius of
Otto I
Lebus. Numerous Polish nobles began endowing Christian's Albert I
Bishopric of Prussia with estates and castles in Chełmno Land Otto III
during the meantime. The lords agreed that the primary focus Henry III
was to rebuild the defenses of Chełmno Land, especially Engelbert I
Chełmno itself, whose fortress was almost completely rebuilt.[16] William IV
By 1223, however, most of the crusaders had left the region, and Friedrich I
the Prussians devastated Chełmno Land and Masovia yet again, Burchard of
forcing Duke Conrad to seek refuge in the castle of Płock. The Magdeburg
Balts even reached Gdańsk (Danzig) in Pomerellia.[17] Henry of
Schwarzburg
In 1225[18] or 1228,[19] fourteen north German knights were
Rudolf of
recruited by Conrad and Christian to form a military order. First
Habsburg
granted the estate of Cedlitz in Kuyavia until the completion of a
Swietopelk II
castle at Dobrzyń, the group became known as the Order of
(turned)
Dobrzyń (or Dobrin).[20] The Knights of Dobrzyń initially had
Daniel of Galicia
success driving the Prussians from Chełmno Land, but a pagan
counterattack against them and Conrad killed most of the Order. The survivors were granted asylum in Pomerania by Duke
Swantopelk II. The Order of Calatrava, granted a base near Gdańsk, was also ineffective.[12]

Invitation of the Teutonic Knights

While in Rome, Christian of Oliva had made the acquaintance of Hermann von Salza, the
Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights from 1209-39. With the permission of Duke Conrad of
Masovia and the Masovian nobility, Christian requested aid from the Teutonic Knights against
the pagan Prussians in 1226. Stability with the Prussians would then allow Conrad to pursue
becoming High Duke of Poland.[21] While Hermann was interested in the Polish offer, his
focus was on assisting Emperor Frederick II with the Fifth Crusade. Because the Teutonic
Order had recently been expelled from the Burzenland in the Kingdom of Hungary, Hermann
also desired greater autonomy for his forces in future endeavors.

Hermann met with Frederick II at Rimini and suggested that the subjugation of the Prussians
would make the Holy Roman Empire's borders easier to defend against invaders.[22] The Holy
Roman Emperor gave his approval of the enterprise in the Golden Bull of Rimini of 1226,
granting them Chełmno Land, or Culmerland, and any future conquests. The mission to
Hermann von Salza, Grand [23]
convert the Prussians remained under the command of Bishop Christian of Oliva.
Master of the Teutonic
Knights. Before beginning the campaign against the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights allegedly signed
the Treaty of Kruszwica with the Poles on June 16, 1230, by which the Order was to receive
Culmerland and any future conquests, similar to the terms of the Golden Bull of Rimini. The
agreement has been disputed by historians; the document has been lost and many Polish historians have doubted its authenticity and
the Teutonic Order's territorial claims. However, recent studies by Polish historians have established the treaty's legitimacy.[24] From
the viewpoint of Duke Conrad, Chełmno was only to be used as a temporary base against the Prussians and future conquests were to
be under the authority of the Duke of Masovia. Hermann von Salza saw the document as granting the Order autonomy in all
territorial acquisitions, aside from allegiance to the Holy See and the Holy Roman Emperor.[25] The Golden Bull of Rieti issued by
Pope Gregory IX in 1234 reaffirmed the Order's control of conquered lands, placing them only under the authority of theHoly See.

The 14th century chronicler Peter von Dusburg mentioned eleven tribal districts in Prussia: Bartia, Culmerland (formerly under
Polish control), Galindia, Nadrovia, Natangia, Pogesania, Pomesania, Samland, Scalovia, Sudovia, and Ermland. Peter estimated that
while most tribes could muster about 2,000 cavalry, Samland could raise 4,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, while Sudovia had 6,000
cavalry and "an almost innumerable multitude of other warriors".[26] In contrast, the Prussians of ravaged Culmerland could raise
fewer troops than the other tribes. Galindia, a forested wilderness of lakes and rivers, also had a small population to raise troops from.
g.[26]
Modern estimates indicate a total Prussian population of 170,000, smaller than that suggested by Peter von Dusbur

Initial Teutonic campaigns

After receiving or forging the claim to Culmerland in 1230,[27] Hermann dispatched Conrad von Landsberg[28] as his envoy[29] with
a small force of seven Teutonic Knights and 70-100 squires and sergeants[30] to Masovia as a vanguard. They took possession of
Vogelsang (German for "bird song"), a castle being built by Conrad opposite the future Thorn (Toruń);[30] other sources indicate that
two knights constructed Vogelsang in 1229, but were killed by Prussians soon after.[31] This region south of the Vistula River was
relatively safe with a mixed Christian and pagan population, and Conrad von Landsberg ordered a small raid against pagans across
the Vistula.[30] Led by Hermann Balk, reinforcements numbering twenty knights and 200 ser
geants arrived at Vogelsang in 1230 after
the castle's completion.[31] Hermann von Salza could not spare any more, as the Order's primary bases of operation were in Outremer
and Armenia.

While the earlier Polish expeditions had usually marched eastward into the Prussian wilderness, the Order focused in the west to
establish fortresses along the Vistula River. They campaigned annually whenever crusading knights from the west arrived. The early
campaigns were primarily composed of Polish, German, and Pomeranian crusaders, as well as some Prussian militiamen auxiliaries.
The Polish and Pomerellian dukes proved essential through their providing of troops and bases. Most of the secular crusaders would
return to their homes after the end of the campaigns, leaving the monastic Teutonic Knights the task of consolidating the gains and
garrisoning the newly built forts, most of which were small and made of timber.[32] Some secular Polish knights were granted vacant
territories, especially in Culmerland, although most of the conquered territory was retained by the Teutonic Order. Colonists from the
Holy Roman Empire began to immigrate eastward, allowing the foundation of a new town each year, many of which were granted
Kulm law.[33]

The crusaders began campaigning against the neighboring Pomesanians and their leader Pepin. Advancing from Nessau (Nieszawa)
with the aid of Conrad of Masovia, Balk took control of ruins at modern Toruń and advanced toward the pagan-occupied Rogów. A
local Prussian captain defected and handed that castle to the crusaders, who then destroyed the Prussian fort of Quercz or Gurske.
The defecting captain then tricked Pipin into being captured by the Knights, ending Prussian resistance in the Culmerland.[34] By
1232, the Knights had established or rebuilt fortresses at Culm (Chełmno) and Thorn. Pope Gregory IX called for reinforcements,
which included 5,000 veterans under the leadership of theBurgrave of Magdeburg.[35]

In summer 1233, the Knights led a crusading army of 10,000[36] and established a fortress atMarienwerder (Kwidzyn)in Pomesania.
The Pomerellian dukesSwantopelk and Sambor supported a smaller army for an invasion of Pogesania during the winter of 1233-34.
After a close battle, the pagan Pogesanians were routed on the frozen Sirgune River by the arrival of the ducal cavalry,[36] and the
battlefield was subsequently known as the "Field of the Dead".[37] The building of a fortress at Rehden (Radzyń Chełmiński)
stabilized the eastern Culmerland in 1234.[38]

The bishop of Prussia, Christian of Oliva, claimed two-thirds of conquered territory, granting one-third to the Teutonic Order. The
papal legate William of Modena mediated between the two sides, granting the Knights two-thirds but reserving extra rights for the
bishop. The Teutonic Knights also sought the incorporation of the small Order of Dobrzyń into the larger Teutonic Order. Conrad of
Masovia was furious with this proposal and demanded the return of the Dobrzyń Land, which the Knights were reluctant to do; Duke
Conrad subsequently refused to aid the crusaders any further.[39] With the approval of the pope and the bishop of Płock, the Teutonic
Knights assimilated the Order of Dobrzyń in a bull on April 19, 1235; the displeased Conrad of Masovia had the castle of Dobrzyń
returned to him.[18] In 1237 the Teutonic Knights assimilated the Sword-Brothers or Livonian Order, a military order active in
Livonia, after they were nearly wiped out byLithuanians in the Battle of Saule.

With the support of Henry III, Margrave of Meissen, in 1236, the crusaders advanced north along both banks of the Vistula and
forced the submission of most Pomesanians. Although Henry did not participate in the 1237 campaign against the Pogesanians, the
margrave supplied the Order with two large river-boats which defeated the smaller craft used by the Prussian tribes. Near the Prussian
settlement of Truso, Elbing (Elbląg) was founded with colonists from Lübeck, while Christburg (Dzierzgoń) protected the land east
of Marienwerder.

From 1238-40, the Teutonic Knights campaigned against the Bartians, Natangians, and Warmians. A small force of crusading knights
were slaughtered besieging the Warmian fort of Honeida,[40] leading Marshal Dietrich von Berheim to return with a larger army.
When the Warmian commander Kodrune advised that the pagans should surrender and convert, Honeida's own garrison killed him,
[41] The fort on the Vistula Lagoon was renamed Balga and rebuilt in 1239 to
leading Dietrich to order a successful capture of the fort.
protect the Order's territory in Ermeland. A Prussian counterattack to reclaim the fort failed, and the local Prussian leader Piopso was
killed.[42] Seasonal reinforcements led by Otto I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg,[42] consolidated Teutonic control over Natangia and
Bartia.[32]

In a bull of October 1, 1243, Pope Innocent IV and William of Modena divided Prussia into the Dioceses of Culm, Pomesania,
Ermeland, and Samland, although the territory of the last had not yet been conquered.

First Prussian Uprising

The Teutonic Knights' further advance into Prussia was slowed by the outbreak of the First
Prussian Uprising in 1242. Alarmed by the crusaders' rapid expansion into territory bordering
his lands, the Christian Duke Swantopelk of Pomerellia allied with the conquered Prussians
and supported an armed rebellion against the crusaders. The eTutonic Order's capacity to resist
was weakened, as there were fewer German crusaders arriving and the Polish princes were
feuding amongst themselves.

The crusaders' cavalry and crossbow artillery proved overwhelming in level terrain, but the
Prussians were more experienced and maneuverable in smaller skirmishes in wooded terrain. Teutonic state ca. 1260
While the Prussian and Pomerellian troops captured the majority of the Order's castles and
defeated the Knights atRensen in 1244, they lacked the siege capabilities to finish the Knights
off. The Germans used their politics and diplomacy to divide Swantopelk from the Prussians. The Poles sought the Pomerellian
prince's territory along the Vistula, while the papal legate, the future Pope Urban IV, wanted the Christians to direct their energies
against pagans instead of each other. Swantopelk ceased aiding the Prussians in 1248, while most of the latter agreed to peace in the
Treaty of Christburg in February 1249. The treaty granted civil liberties and considerable autonomy to native converts to Christianity.
While the majority of tribes followed the terms of the treaty, intermittent fighting continued until 1253, with the Natangians even
defeating the Order atKrücken in November 1249.

Samland
After the western Prussians were pacified by the early 1250s, the Teutonic Knights continued their advance north and east, next
facing the Sambians of thickly-populated Samland. Komtur Heinrich Stango of Christburg led an army across the Vistula Lagoon in
1252, with the intention of attacking Romuve. The Sambians defeated the crusaders in battle, however, killing Stango in the
process.[43] To replace the fallen soldiers, the pope andPoppo von Osterna, the new Grand Master, began preaching a crusade against
the Sambians. In 1253 Poppo and the Provincial Master, Dietrich von Grüningen, as well as the Margrave of Meissen, reduced the
rebellious Galindians, but did not severely punish them; the Order was concerned that the Prussians would seek to join Poland if they
were pressed too greatly.[44] With the rebellious tribes pacified, Pope Innocent IV directed Dominican friars to preach the crusade,
and the Order sent embassies to the Kings of Hungary, Bohemia, and the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. While the Order waited
for the crusaders to arrive in Prussia, the Livonian branch founded Memel (Klaipėda) along the Curonian Lagoon to prevent the
Samogitians from assisting the Sambians.

The 60,000-strong crusading army which gathered for the campaign included Bohemians and Austrians under the command of King
Ottokar II of Bohemia, Moravians under Bishop Bruno of Olmütz, Saxons under Margrave Otto III of Brandenburg, and a contingent
brought by Rudolph of Habsburg.[45] The Sambians were crushed at the Battle of Rudau, and the fort's garrison surrendered quickly
and underwent baptism. The crusaders then advanced against Quedenau, Waldau, Caimen, and Tapiau (Gvardeysk); the Sambians
who accepted baptism were treated considerately, but those who resisted received no mercy from the crusaders. Samland was
conquered in January 1255 in a campaign lasting less than a month.[46] Near the pagan settlement of Tvangste, the Teutonic Knights
founded Königsberg ("King's Mountain"), named in honor of the Bohemian king. Braunsberg (Braniewo), possibly named in honor
of Bruno of Olmütz or Bruno of Querfurt, was also founded nearby. The Knights built the castle Wehlau (Znamensk) at the junction
of the Alle and Pregel Rivers to guard against paganSudovian, Nadrovian, and Scalovian attacks on Christian Prussians and Germans
in Samland. Thirsko, a Christian Sambian chief, and his son Maidelo were entrusted with Wehlau.[47] With the assistance of Sambian
levies, the Teutonic Order advanced further into Natangia, capturing the fortresses of Capostete and Ocktolite near Wohnsdorf. The
[47]
Natangian leader Godecko and his two sons were killed resisting the advance.

Great Prussian Uprising (1260–1274)

The Livonian Order had been campaigning into Samogitia, which was northeast of the Prussians. The pagan Samogitians received a
two-year truce in 1259, with the Christians expecting the pagans to accept Christianity. In 1259 the Samogitians decided to retain
their pagan independence, however.[48] They defeated the Livonian Order at the Battle of Skuodas in 1259, and then inflicted a
crushing defeat on the crusaders in the Battle of Durbe in 1260. The pagan victory inspired the Prussians to rebel again, starting the
Great Prussian Uprisingthe same year. In the minds of the indigenous peoples, the pagan victories reinforced the validity of their pre-
Christian beliefs.[49]

Despite their territorial gains in Prussia, the primary emphasis of the Teutonic Knights was still the Holy Land, and few
reinforcements could be spared for the Baltic. The German princes of the Holy Roman Empire were distracted by the imperial
succession, and few seasonal crusaders came to the assistance of the Prussian Brothers; the first reinforcements were defeated at
Pokarwis in 1261. The Order had most of its Prussian castles destroyed during the early 1260s. Besides Prussia, the pagans also
raided Livonia, Poland, andVolhynia.

The crusaders began to stem the uprising with the assistance of Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and Henry III, Landgrave of
Thuringia, in 1265. In the following year German crusading reinforcements were provided by Margraves Otto III and John I of
Brandenburg, and the castle of Brandenburg (Ushakovo) was founded in their honor. King Ottokar II of Bohemia briefly returned to
Prussia in 1267-68, but was deterred by poor weather, while Margrave Dietrich II of Meissen also campaigned with the Order in
1272.[50] The crusaders gradually killed or forced the surrender of each Prussian tribes' war leader
.

As a result of the uprising, many native Prussians lost some of the rights they had received in the Treaty of Christburg and were
subsequently reduced to serfdom. Numerous Prussians fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania or to Sudovia, while others were
resettled by the crusaders. The tribal chiefs who remained in Prussia became vassals of the Teutonic Knights, who began rebuilding
their castles in stone or brick.

Later campaigns
Although the Teutonic Knights' offensive capability was greatly weakened during the Great Pagan Uprising, they did engage in some
campaigns against the pagan on their eastern flank. The Bartians, Natangians, and Warmians had converted to Christianity, but the
Sudovians and Lithuanians to their east remained pagan and continued their border warfare with the Teutonic Knights. Led by
Skalmantas during the Great Uprising, the Sudovians sacked Bartenstein (Bartoszyce) in Bartia, which was to be the focal point of
their borders. Defenseless against the Sudovians, the Natangians and Bartians allied with the Teutonic Knights for protection,
although little assistance could be provided initially. The Christian Natangians clans gathered in 1274 and killed 2,000 of the
Sudovian raiders; Grand Master Anno von Sangerhausen recruited Thuringians and Meisseners to complete the Teutonic recovery of
Natangia.[51]

Anno's successor as Grand Master, Hartmann von Heldrungen, directed the Provincial Master of Prussia, Conrad von Thierberg the
Elder, to attack eastward from Königsberg along the Pregel River to separate the Sudovians from the Nadrovians. Vogt Theodoric of
Samland and his militia sacked two river forts and plundered a large amount of treasure and goods. Theodoric led another crusading
force, including Teutonic Knights, 150 sergeants, and Prussian infantry, against another Nadrovian fort. Although the natives
attempted to surrender after siege ladders were placed, most of the warriors were slaughtered by the crusaders, with only a few
natives surviving to be resettled. Conrad then led the Knights past the destroyed border forts to assault the Nadrovians main redoubt
of Kaminiswike, defended by 200 warriors. Most of the natives were killed after the Knights stormed the fortress, and the Nadrovian
[52]
clans surrendered soon afterward to become auxiliaries of the crusaders.

The Teutonic Knights then usedNadrovia and Memel as bases againstScalovia on the lower Memel River. Scalovia would then serve
as a base against pagan Samogitia, which separated Teutonic Prussia from Teutonic Livonia. Because of this threat, the Lithuanians
provided assistance to the pagan Scalovians, and the crusaders and pagans each engaged in border raids to distract enemy forces.
Because the pagans were strongly defended in the wilderness, the Teutonic Knights focused on travelling up the Memel River toward
the strong pagan fort Ragnit. Theodoric of Samland led 1,000 men in the assault. Artillery fire forced the defenders from the
ramparts, allowing the crusaders to storm the walls with ladders and slaughter most of the pagans. Theodoric also captured Romige
on the other bank of the Memel. The Scalovians retaliated by sacking Labiau near Königsberg. Conrad von Thierberg escalated the
conflict by sending a large raid against Scalovia.Nicholas von Jeroschindocumented the crusaders as killing and capturing numerous
pagans. When the Scalovian warriors went in pursuit of the captured pagans, Conrad shattered the would-be rescuers in an ambush
ts in the battle's aftermath.[53]
which killed the pagan leader, Steinegele. Most Scalovian nobles quickly surrendered to the Knigh

The Teutonic Knights planned to advance against Samogitia after conquering Scalovia, but the outbreak of a new rebellion
engineered by Skalmantas of the Sudovians delayed the campaign. In 1276-77 the Sudovians and Lithuanians raided Culmerland and
burned settlements near the castles of Rehden, Marienwerder, Zantir, and Christburg. Theodoric of Samland was able to convince the
Sambians not to rebel, and the Natangians and Warmians followed suit.[54] Conrad von Thierberg the Elder led 1,500 men into
Kimenau in summer 1277, and crushed a Sudovian army of 3,000 near the Winse forest.[55] Many Pogesanians fled to the
Lithuanians and were resettled at Gardinas, while the ones who remained in Prussia were resettled by the crusaders, probably near
Marienburg (Malbork). This new brick castle, built to replace Zantir, guarded against further rebellions with Elbing and Christburg.
[50]
The central Prussian tribes surrendered to the crusaders by 1277.

The crusaders and Sudovians engaged in guerilla warfare, which the Sudovians were particularly adept at. However, they lacked the
sheer numbers to deal with their German, Polish, and Volhynian adversaries, and the Sudovian nobility began gradually surrendering
one by one. Marshal Conrad von Thierberg the Younger raided Pokima, capturing large amounts of cattle, horses, and prisoners. They
then successfully ambushed the 3,000-strong force of pursuing Sudovians, losing only six Christians in the process.[56] In 1280 the
Sudovians and Lithuanian invaded Samland, but the alerted Order had fortified their castles and deprived the raiders of provisions.
While the pagans were in Samland, Komtur Ulrich Bayer of Tapiau led a devastating counter-raid into Sudovia.[57] The Polish prince
Leszek the Black achieved two significant victories over the pagans, securing the Polish border, and Skalmantas fled Sudovia to
Lithuania.

In summer 1283, Conrad von Thierberg the Younger was named Provincial Master of Prussia and led a large army into Sudovia,
finding little resistance. The Knight Ludwig von Liebenzell, who had once been a captive of the Sudovians, negotiated the surrender
of 1,600 Sudovians and their leader Katingerde, who were subsequently resettled in Samland. Most of the remaining Sudovians were
redistributed to Pogesania and Samland; Skalmantas was pardoned and allowed to settle at Balga. Sudovia was left unpopulated,
becoming a border wilderness that protected Prussia, Masovia, and Volhynia from the Lithuanians.[58] The Prussians rebelled in
short-lived uprisings in 1286 and 1295, but the crusaders firmly controlled the Prussian tribes by the end of the 13th century
.

The Prussian populace retained many of their traditions and way of life, especially after the Treaty of Christburg protected the rights
of converts. The Prussian uprisings led to the crusaders only applying these rights to the most powerful converts, however, and the
pace of conversion slowed. After the Prussians were militarily defeated in the second half of the 13th century, they were gradually
subjected to Christianization and cultural assimilation during the following centuries as part of the monastic state of the Teutonic
Knights. With the fall of Acre and Outremer and the securing of Prussia, the Order then turned its focus against Christian Pomerellia,
which separated Prussia fromimperial Pomerania, and against pagan Lithuania.

Footnotes
1. Christiansen, p. 38
2. Gieysztor, p. 50
 3. Wyatt, pp. 22-23
4. Wyatt, p. 24
5. Gieysztor, p. 77
6. Recent Issues in Polish Historiography of the Crusades(http://eprints.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00001942/01/U
pload_Recent_Issues_in_Polish_Historiography_of_the_Crusades.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071
128125327/http://eprints.infodiv.unimelb.edu.au/archive/00001942/01/Upload_Recent_Issues_in_Polish_Historiogra
phy_of_the_Crusades.pdf)2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine Darius von Güttner Sporzyński. 2005
7. Urban, p. 50
8. Gieysztor, p. 69
9. Wyatt, p. 29
10. Wyatt, p. 47
11. Urban, p. 51
12. Gieysztor, p. 94
13. Wyatt, p. 32
14. Gieysztor, p. 93
15. Wyatt, p. 33
16. Wyatt, p. 34
17. Wyatt, p. 39
18. McClintock, p. 720
19. Perlbach, p. 61
20. Wyatt, p. 36
21. Christiansen, p. 82
22. Wyatt, p. 81
23. Christiansen, p. 83
24. Dariusz Sikorski, 'Neue Erkenntnisse ueber das Kruschwitzer Privileg' in
Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung,
51 (2002), p. 317-350
25. Halecki, p. 35
26. Urban, p. 43
27. Due to a clerical mistake byPeter von Dusburg, the arrival of the Teutonic Knights has sometimes been given as
1226; see Töppen, pp. 276-79. Töppen states von Landsberg arrived in Masovia in 1230, while Fahne states von
Landsberg arrived ca. 1228; see Fahne, p. 50
28. Fahne, p. 50
29. Töppen, p. 276
30. Urban, p. 52
31. Seward, p. 101
32. Christiansen, p. 106
33. Urban, p. 57
34. Wyatt, pp. 92-93
35. Wyatt, p. 95
36. Urban, p. 56
37. Wyatt, p. 99
38. Christiansen, p. 105
39. Wyatt, p. 101
40. Wyatt, p. 143
41. Wyatt, p. 151
42. Wyatt, p. 152
43. Wyatt, pp. 203-204
44. Wyatt, pp. 209-210
45. Wyatt, pp. 212-213
46. Wyatt, pp. 214-216
47. Wyatt, pp. 216-217
48. Urban, p. 59
49. Urban p.59
50. Christiansen, p. 108
51. Urban, p. 63
52. Urban, pp. 64-65
53. Urban, p. 67
54. Urban, p. 70
55. Wyatt, p. 259
56. Urban, p. 71
57. Wyatt, p. 262
58. Urban, p. 78

References
Christiansen, Erik (1997).The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 287.ISBN 0-14-026653-4.
Fahne, Anton (1875). Livland: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchen- und Sitten-Geschichte(in German). Düsseldorf: Schaub'sche
Buchhandlung. p. 240.
Gieysztor, Aleksander; Stefan Kieniewicz; Emanuel Rostworowski; Janusz aTzbir; Henryk Wereszycki (1979).
History of Poland. Warsaw: PWN. p. 668. ISBN 83-01-00392-8.
Halecki, Oskar (1970). A History of Poland. New York: Roy Publishers. p. 366.ISBN 0-679-51087-7.
McClintock, John; James Strong (1883).Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature: ol.
V VIII:
PET-RE. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 1086.
Perlbach, Max (1886).Preussisch-Polnische Studien zur Geschichte des Mittelalters(in German). Halle: Max
Niemeyer. p. 128.
Seward, Desmond (1995).The Monks of War: The Military Religious Orders. London: Penguin Books. p. 416.
ISBN 0-14-019501-7.
Töppen, Max (1853). Geschichte der Preussischen Historiographie von .Pv. Dusburg bis aus auf K. Schütz(in
German). Berlin: Verlag von Wilhelm Hertz. p. 290.
Urban, William (2003).The Teutonic Knights: A Military History. London: Greenhill Books. p. 290.ISBN 1-85367-
535-0.
Wyatt, Walter James (1876). The History of Prussia, Volume 1. London: Longmans, Green and Co. p. 506.

See also
Livonian Crusade
Wendish Crusade
Prussian Uprisings

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