Grounding and Ground Testing

1
 GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
“An electrical connection intentionally made
between an electrical body or system and a
metallic body in the earth.”

Source: NBS Technical Paper 108; June, 1918

2
 Low resistance Connection to Earth to
Drain Away Energy and Engage Protective
Devices

3
 GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
“A conducting connection, between an electrical
circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some
conducting body that serves in place of the
earth.”

Source: NFPA 70-1981; National Electrical Code

4
Ability to Drain Away Energy in Sufficient
Manner is also Important. Not Simply
Making a Ground Connection

5
 GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

What is a ground?
“A ground is a conducting connection by which
an electrical circuit or equipment is connected
to the earth or some conducting body.”

Source: IEEE Standard 81

6
7
 Ground Standards
There is not one standard ground resistance threshold
that is recognized by all agencies.

NFPA and IEEE have recommended a ground resistance

value of 5.0 ohms or less.

The NEC has stated to "Make sure that system impedance

to ground is less than 25 ohms” specified in NEC 250.56.

The Telecommunications industry has often used 5.0 ohms

or less as their value for grounding and bonding.
Communication requires lower signal level
with higher frequency characteristics than
60 Hz Utility requirements

8
9
Loose Neutral Effect on other Phases

10
 What defines a good ground?

 A conductor with resistance low enough to

dissipate fault currents, lightning strikes, etc. into
the earth.

 Does a good ground ensure good power

quality??

11
 3 Phase System, Zero Sequence

Balanced load,
no neutral current
required N=0

Voltage imbalance variation is in

amplitude (peak – rms).

12
 60 Hz, balanced with no zero sequence
current

Ground Plane
Net Current Flow

13
5th Harmonic (300 Hz), no neutral current

14
 Switch Mode Power Supply – Square Wave Generation

 Example of 140% TDD

 Percents of Fundamental
• 3rd = 91%
• 5th = 74%
• 7th = 56%
• 9th = 35%
 Fundamental RMS Current
• 0.13A
 Fundamental RMS Current
Plus RMS of Harmonics
• 0.23A

15
3rd Harmonic – Neutral Current is 3 Times
Phase Current – When Load is Balanced

Neutral Current

16
Neutral Phases have become working
Phases

For example - a
90% electronic load
will require the
neutral to carry 1.6
times the respective
phase current –
even when all three
phases are balanced

17
Neutrals have become working phases;

Not simply connections for emergency

situations.

“McMinnville”
Analogy of Water usage. Large pipe for human
service usage. < Quality is Acceptable

Human Consumption Pipe. Quality Necessary

18
 GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

 Consider Ohm’s Law:

V=RxI
Where:
- V is Volts
- R is the resistance in Ohms
- I is the current in Amperes

Is Determining a Ground
Quality simply sticking a
DMM in the Dirt?

19
 Components of System Ground
How far do we need to run the DMM leads?

1) Electrical properties of Grid up to ground rod

2) Ground Rod Sphere of Electrical Influence

3) Infinite Earth plane

20
1) Facility Ground Plane
(copper is assembled)

A facility can spend a large amount of resources to

establish a good “ground” in a substation location -

21
 Metal to Metal grid is constructed

Low resistance ohm meter used to

quantify grid resistance and
construction quality

22
 2) MEASURING GROUND to EARTH
RESISTANCE

Bottle Neck of all Grounds

R=rL
a
Where:
 r is the resistivity of the earth in ohm-cm
 L is the Depth of the conducting path
 a is the cross-sectional area of the path

23
 System Resistance

 Effective electrical conductivity area is minimal at

connection point where ground rod contacts soil.
Facility Ground Plane Ground Rod

Flow At some point

the area is so
great, R adds
little

Earth
Resistance

24
 Earth Shells

Move from a
very good ∆R = ρ ∆ L
conductor, to ∆A
a poor
conductor
with a small
conduction
area

25
 Earth Resistance Lowers by Increasing
Shell Areas
Next layer
of ground
has
increased
surface
area

26
Where metal meets the dirt (rod interface)

1‟ Deep; 1”
Diameter
Ground Rod
Surface Area at
Ground Rod
Interface (G) is
0.27 SQ FT

27
Electrons Move from Metal bus work to
Dirt (Bottle Neck Begins)

28
First Layer of Soil, 1” in Thickness

Area at Ground (1”) of

soil shell thickness is
0.90 SQ FT

R = 5.13 Ω

Add 5.13 Ω to all

prior bus work
for 1” of soil

29
Ground Resistance at 2” of Soil Thickness

Area at Ground Rod (4) 2” of soil shell is

1.66 SQ FT; Ground Rod was 0.27 SQ FT
6 Fold increase in surface area for 2”
distance.

R = 3.37 Ω additional (2” – 1” shell)

3

4
8.50 Ω Total resistance (5.13 Ω + 3.37 Ω )

2”

30
Resistance at 5” of Ground Soil Thickness

Area at Ground Rod (G5) 5”

of soil shell is 4.74 SQ FT;

R = 1.53 Ω additional (5” @

4” shell);

G5 5” from ground rod edge

31
Ground resistance at 5” of Soil

13.28 Ω Total resistance

through first 5” of soil

2" 5.13
3" 3.37
4" 1.85
5" 1.54
6" 1.40

13.28 Ω

32
Shell Resistance per 1” Increments

RΩ SQ FT
Area at Ground Rod (7) 7” of 1" 5.13 0.90
soil shell is 10.3 SQ FT; 2" 3.37 1.66
3" 1.85 2.56
R = 1.17 Ω additional (7” – 6” 4" 1.54 3.58
shell); 3.75 Ω 5" 1.40 4.74
6" 1.28 6.03
7" 1.18 7.44

15.75 Ω

7” of Thickness

33
Total Resistance through first foot of soil
SQ FT
1" 5.13 Ω 0.90
2" 3.37 1.66
3" 1.85 2.56
4" 1.54 3.58
5" 1.28
4.74
6" 1.18
6.03
7" 1.09
7.44
8" 1.01
9.00
9" 0.94
10.70
10" 0.87
12.50
11" 0.81
14.42
Total 19.07 Ω

34
Measured Ground Value – 33 

Resistance Verses Distance

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

35
Combination of all three Ground components

35

30

25
Example: 300 feet from ground,
shell area is 128,800 SQ FT or 9
20
football fields of area
R= 26 µΩ; Resistance contributes
15 to overall ground resistance (1”
shell)
10
R = 33.07 Ω + 0.0000266 Ω
5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

36
3) Infinite Earth Ground Potential

 Once the electron fights its way through the Ground

Rod Sphere of Influence. Infinite Earth potential
exists. Once an electron leaves the zone of
influence of a ground, there is no effective
resistance of that electron to move across the
Earth.

 For testing purposes, need to measure ground rod

up to the infinite Earth barrier. The distance after
that does not matter, why??.

37
 Infinite Earth Potential

How can an electron moving 50„ - have a

net resistance of 50 Ohm, yet have zero
resistance from one side of the planet to
the other, once in the Earth Potential

38
 Deep Space Asteroid

Gravitational force is equal to mass, Inverse

Distance Squared
An object never truly leaves the sun‟s field of
influence, but its effects are dampened by distance

39
Diminished Field or Free Space
An electron will behave like the
asteroid. Once the distance is so
far from the sun, other bodies have
an equivalent gravitational effect –
close neighbor asteroids, near
planets such as Pluto, even other
stars and galaxies.

Our electron never leaves the ground sphere of influence,

it is just the influence is dampened to the point where
other influences are just as prominent (the ground
becomes noise).

40
 TESTING METHODS
 Most Popular Testing
Methods:
 Fall of Potential Method
(Wenner)
- Full
- Simplified
 Slope Method

 And others

41
4-Terminal Earth Test

(2 Terminals of 4 – Current)

42
4-Terminal Earth Test

Circuit is complete, Current

Flows, Voltage is known –
therefore can read a resistance
value – RIGHT?

43
 4-Terminal Earth Test

Δ V= I * (GEuT + C2)

Using Ohms Law; Δ V and I are known.

Variables –ground sphere of influence
(Ground of interest) & Test rod C2
Two variables, one equation
C2 Needs to be eliminated somehow

44
 4 WIRE TEST
Additional 2 wires (Potential Wires)

45
 Physical Outline of Test Procedure

GEuT

Equipotential
Circles 46
 Should You Accept This Result

 A location has been known to have an infinite Earth

distance of about 60 Feet. A crew comes back
after testing with the following set up & results;
 Ground value 72 Ohms, Measurement distance of
65 Feet. Do you accept the result?

Temporary Test
Rod
Ground
Under Test

47
The Problem of Limited Distance/Space
Ground
Electrode
Under Potential Current
Test (X) Probe (P) Probe (C)

Do not want
Resistance in Ohms

to be in
Current
Probes Zone
of Influence
Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)

48
Theoretical Background - Fall of Potential
Ground Potential
Electrode Probe (P)
Under Positions
Current
Test (X) Probe (C)
Resistance in Ohms

Want to
determine this
point
X Distance of Potential Probe from X (dp)
C
Ground Current
Electrode Probe
49
Position Position
Fall of Potential Method - Advantages

 Extremely reliable:
- Results can be checked by testing at different probe spacings.
 Conforms to IEEE 81; only approved method.
 Operator has complete control of the test set-up.
 Can be used to test any size system.
 Highly accurate:
- 4-wire configuration/no additional loop resistances included.
- Significant for low resistance (1-2) grounds.
 Tester uses a unique source frequency, non 60 Hz, so active
power fields will not interfere with testing.

. 50
Fall of Potential Method – Disadvantages

 Extremely time consuming and labor intensive.

- Temporary probes must be placed.
- Cables must be run to make connections.
 Space constraints can make it hard to place
remote probes.
 Must disconnect individual ground electrodes to
measure them (only return must be ground)
 Must “know” of other Grounds in system.
 Substation Testing requiring low resistance values
can run 4000‟ or greater test lengths.

51
 Field Tricks

 A customer complaint about grounding quality

occurs. In order to test the ground, must throw
service cutout, terminate power, disconnect utility
feed ground from service ground.

 Alternate – Place a new ground rod 6‟ from service

rod. Test the rod only to determine 3 or 4 wire
grounding value. When measured, attach new
ground to old in service ground. Ground is at least
that value (or better). No need to interrupt service.

52
Abbreviated 4 Wire – 3 Wire Test

V Potential
Probe
carries
current, so
it will have
its own
voltage
drop

53
 MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
(testing methods)
61.8% Rule/Method:
 Based on the theory behind the full Fall of
Potential method.
 Take measurement at only one point.
 Quality check – “First Down Rule”

54
 MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
(testing methods)

61.8% Rule/Method:
 Advantage: Extremely quick and easy.
 Disadvantage: Assumes that conditions are
perfect (adequate probe spacing and soil
homogeneity). The ground behavior needs to
be known before testing begins.
 “Kansas Test”

55
 MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
(testing methods)

Slope Method:

 Based on the theory behind the Fall of

Potential method;
- for complex grounding systems and/or
- situations where lead lengths prohibitive
 Use three measurements in calculation; can
take more; 40%, 50%, 60%

56
 MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
(testing methods)

Slope Method:
 Advantage: Provides an approach for dealing
with complex systems.
 Disadvantage: Makes assumptions about soil
resistance in region not tested

57
58
Ground Test Clamp on Method

59
 Clamp-On/Stakeless Methodology
 Based on Ohm‟s Law (R=V/I):
- Apply known voltage to a complete circuit. Measure resulting current
- Calculate resistance of the entire circuit.
 Apply signal and measure current without direct electrical
connection:
- Grounds do not need to be lifted for testing
- Power does not need to be disconnected for testing.
 Clamp includes transmit coil (applies voltage) and receive
coil (measures the current).
 Measurement Loop is Directional.
 It will first give continuity, to determine if a ground
exits to being with

60
61
Clamp-On/Stakeless Methodology

 For accuracy, more return paths, the better results

 For 1 return electrode = average of the two.

 For 6 similar electrodes with a resistance of 10:

- Rloop = 10 + 2 = 12

 For 60 similar electrodes with a resistance of 10:

- Rloop = 10 + 0.17 = 10.17

62
Governing Equation – Parallel Circuits

 Rloop = RTest + (1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + 1/R5))

 Note: The resistance of the ground under test will

always be higher than the actual ground resistance
value. Worst case approach leaves a safety margin
of error (if infinite Earth potential is reached)*
 If Rtest is greater than acceptable, prove value with
4 wire test unit.

63
 10  Transmission Tower Under Test

20
18
16
14 20 Tower Value 10.5 
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

64
Clamp-On Method - Disadvantages

 No basis for the test in standards – no objective

reference for the test results
 Less effective for very “low” grounds:
- Extraneous elements in reading become comparatively large.
 There is no built-in proof for the method - results must
be accepted on “faith”.
 The returns must be well clear of the Infinite Earth
Potential zone. This is the greatest cause of
testing result failure.
 Must be aware of other grounds tied to the system,
that are in close proximity.

65
Clamp-On Method - Strategy

 Recommendation. On a tower ground, 3 or 4 wire test

to determine distance to Infinite Earth Distance (note
the resistance verses distance measured value)
 Assure that tower distance is at least 2X this distance.
 Note that measured tower ground point values will
always be higher than actual.
 If a tower is out of spec, 3 or 4 wire test to confirm if
rework is required.

66
Analogy – The length of a wire spool is to
be tested to determine length

A four wire test is analogous

to stretching the wire out, and
measuring. Know resistance
per foot, measure the
resistance.

67
The short cut measurement
method

 Know – 1  per Foot.

 Measurement is 40 ; therefore 40‟ correct?

 Only item knows from test results is there is at least

40‟ of wire, that is my minimum spool wire length.
There maybe more.

68
 Outcomes from the Clamp on
Tester
Measure 15  at a meter entrance. Spec calls for
25 . The service is 15  or greater – known.

Measure 45  at a service. We know the ground

is 45  or greater. Remedial action required

Measure 250  at a pole mount. Know there is

continuity, along with potential rework.

69
70
Applications & Limitations – Service
Entrance/Meter

71
Incorrect Reading

72
Applications – Pole Grounds

Grounding
Conductor
Utility
Pole

Ground
Butt
Rod
Plate

73
Applications & Limitations – Pad Mount
Transformer
Facility with Multiple Ground Points

Ground
Rods
Underground buried concentric
Neutral

74
 MEASURING SOIL RESISTIVITY

* 3 Meter rod, 33 Ω; 3‟ foot rod ~ 109 Ω

75
 PISA style helix
Super Ground
with extensions

76
 Variables in Grounding Quality

 Temperature
 Moisture
 Ionification (Salt Adders)
 Ground Rod Diameter
 Ground Rod Depth
 Number of Ground Rods

77
 Ground Resistance of Farming Clay Loom
ρ = 100 Ω – M
3’ Ground Rod

106 Ohms

78
Variation of Soil
Resistivity with 40,000
Temperature
35,000

Variation of Soil Resistivity

30,000 with Temperature
Soil Contained 18.6% Moisture
25,000

Resistivity of Soil
20,000

15,000

Liquid Water
10,000

5,000

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
79
Temperature - Degrees F
 SOIL MOISTURE VERSES CONDUCTIVITY

400,000
Variation of Soil
Resistivity with 300,000

Moisture Content Variation of Soil Resistivity

with Moisture Content
200,000
Red Clay Soil

100,000

Resistivity of Soil
80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65

Per cent Moisture in Soil

80
 MEASURING SOIL RESISTIVITY

Effect of salt content on soil resistivity:

81
IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING SYSTEM
Chemical treatment reduces seasonal variations
130
120
110
100
90
80
RESISTANCE, OHMS

70
60
5/8 x 8’ ROD
50 (SOIL UNTREATED)

40

30
20 5/8 x 8’ ROD
(SOIL TREATED)
10
0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
MONTHS OF YEAR
82
Solution of Proposed Items to this Point

Warm Soil
Moist Soil
Salted Soil

Great for ground electron conduction, not so

great for metallic existence

Ground Rod Diameter Effects

Ground Rod Length Effects
Number of Ground Rods Effects

83
 IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING
SYSTEM
100
Doubling Rod diameter, decreases
resistance by only 10%

90
10% increase for four times the
material usage. Increase diameter
used for mechanical strength & rod
80 survivability (time)

0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.00

84
 IMPROVING YOUR GROUNDING SYSTEM

160

140

120

100

80
RESISTANCE, ohms

60

40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
DEPTH OF ROD, FEET

85
What steps can be taken if there is a problem
in the grounding system

 Use longer ground rods.

 Chemically treat the soil
 Use multiple ground rods.

86
Effects of Multiple Ground Rods

87
Effects of Multiple Ground Rods

88
 What causes a ground system to deteriorate
(and become ineffective)?
 Corrosion and weather influences exert mechanical
strain on ground rods and cause metallic corrosion
over time (as a ground rod corrodes, its resistance
rises and it loses its effectiveness) - TILLAMOOK

 soil resistivity can vary considerably with changes

in climate and temperature

 Water Tables

89
Last Variable – The Macro Environment
Results depend on time of year of test; Worst
Case or not

90
MEASURING GROUND RESISTANCE
(testing methods)
61.8% Rule Method Probe Placement:
•Determine depth of ground electrode to be tested
•Distance of C > 4 x Depth of electrode to be tested
•Place P probe at 61.8% of the distance of C
•Take the measurement

91
Maximum Ground Resistance Targets

 Typical values for a power company:

- Generating station: 1  maximum
- Large sub-station: 1  maximum
- Small sub-station: 5  maximum
 Water pipe ground should be less than 3  and
frequently less than 1 .

92
 An electron really doesn‟t move to China from Ohio,
with zero resistance. It is deposited in a infinite pool
of available electrons, while an electron is picked
from the pool for service in China. There is a net
movement of free space electrons but it is <<
negligble.

93
94
95
96
 Anchoring
Lazy Spikes
Unique Test Frequency (105 to 160 Hz)

97